ANTH FINAL

Modes of Exchange: Reciprocity

1-RECIPROCITY · This form of exchange is characteristic of the vast majority of foraging cultures (and among many horticulturalists and pastoralists) and ahs therefore been the most common form of exchange among Homo Sapiens over the 200,000-year history of our species · Reciprocity refers to the exchange of goods and services of roughly equal value; in societies that are based on reciprocity there is not a strong motive to collect a lot of resources for yourself that are kept from others, contrarily a lot of societal pressures that force you in the opposite direction = sharing any excess and anything you have o our society is encouraged by personal wealth / disconnect between our economic activities and our economic sort of expectations and goals versus on the other hand some of the general sorts of ethical and moral considerations that we typically have as members of a society; our own kind of economic imperatives are not universal · Reciprocity often involves gift exchange rather than the types of economic exchanges common in the world today; main difference between this system and our own = exchange tends to take form of gift exchange rather than the kinds of economic exchanges that are common in the world today ; selling, bartering, borrowing with interest à no place in a system of reciprocity o Reciprocity occurs in a world where every family is self-sufficient, every family is essentially a productive economic unit, sharing and widespread sharing of big game (foraging) = success is widely scattered amongst a particular community; we have access to what we need based on our own effort · Reciprocity is primarily (when exchange things) about relationships, social obligations, and sometimes creating prestige for individuals and families rather than about getting what we need like going to the store; everyone has access to what they need to survive; not about gaining access to the necessities of life THREE TYPES OF RECIPROCITY · 1) Generalized Reciprocity à value is not calculated and repayment time is unspecified; most common; like gift exchange but value is NOT calculated (foraging society); symbolize relationship you have with that person, to show that you are friendly and are a potential source of help in times of need, nothing to do with gifts themselves o (XR row exchange example bottom second column page 131 à some exchange customs are designed solely to preserve a relationship, Kuhn have a system called Axaro in which little attention is paid to whether the items exchanged are equivalent; we won't trade with things, we trade with people, exchange à relationship the goodwi;; between the two individual people · 2) Balanced Reciprocity à equal value exchange that occurs within known (often prompt) time frames o page 132 in the first column the Kooley exchange where certain items are exchanged at known times (prestige) à shell necklaces and the armed bands vary in quality and value and so people can gain prestige and fame by having their names associated with particularly noteworthy necklaces or arm bands; not just friendly exchange but an attempt to gain something; strategic gift-giving à not gain monetary value but rather gain social prestige by being associated with particularly good gifts · 3) Negative Reciprocity à aim is to get something for as little as possible (includes hard bargaining, manipulation, and cheating) o Aim is to get something for as little as possible, for you to exchange something that you do not value particularly highly and to receive something that you value in a higher way back ; manipulate, cheat; ONLY OCCURS with people from different cultures NOT from same culture o Never is the idea to gain something material for yourself, a lot like bartering like getting something for less than it is worth

Modes of Exchange: Redistribution

2-REDISTRIBUTION · This form of exchange is common among agriculturalists (and some horticulturalists & pastoralists which are normally reciprocity) = food producers o so these people are expected to produce more than they need as a household and they give some or all of this access into a central location à often take form of a GIFT (have a system in which there is not anything compelling people necessarily to give to the center except that it is the quote/normal reaction under the circumstance for the people to be generous and to send a gift towards the center); also take form of a TRIBUTE (similar to taxes, not measured as exactly, different than gift in the sense that every single family would be expected to pay tribute to achieve to the center and they are expected to essentially be honest and to give what they can, like passing the plate at church -> you are expected to give money BUT no one is saying your family has X income so you need to make sure to pay X amount of moneyà not measured exactly; taxes are measured exactly, so TRIBUTE is expected, you have to pay it, but you get to decide how much you pay/sometimes spoils of war) · Redistribution refers to economic systems in which goods flow to a central place where they are sorted, counted, and reallocated · These goods take the form of gifts, tribute (similar to taxes but not measured as exactly), and/or the spoils of war · Services are sometimes required in these systems in addition to or instead of goods, for instance labor for public works projects or military service o Redistribution societies are typically not large enough to have a specialized group of military people that do not grow any food and do nothing except military activity; army = temporary thing à army = all farmers and the society or whatever who have put down their plows for a minute and picked up their swords to fight when needed = give temporary military service when necessary HOW DOES REDITRIBUTION WORK? · Goods and services are controlled by a leader known to anthropologists as a Chief (a leader in a society that has a redistribution from the economy) · The anthropological definition of a Chief refers to a leader with coercive rather than just persuasive power. Coercive power includes the sanctioned use of force (set of written laws and if we break certain laws (felony) then the state has the authority / coercive power to come to your home or wherever you are and to physically force you away from that place and to confine you in a cage until you have been proven guilty or not), while persuasive power relies solely on a leader's ability to convince people to act in certain ways (leader can Not force you to do anything, people have to consent to whatever it is that is going on) o Chiefs have coercive power = the ability to force people to act in particular ways, if people do not do so this set the use of force is sanctioned à leader has right to discipline them · Chiefs use the goods and services that are moved to the center they control to maintain a higher standard of living than their subjects, support craft specialists and soldiers, fund public work projects, etc., than the rest of the people in society o Chiefs higher standard of living = sit in corner and collect stuff; one chief does no work; have a special dress; eat well; live in special home built by members of society as part of the Public Works labor; monumental architecture o Chiefs support craft specialists = support those who make nice pottery or smelt metal,; use some of the excess food/goods to support military/army · These systems generally include "leveling mechanisms" that compel chiefs to demonstrate Generosity § Chief has a lifestyle that is raised above the level of the average citizen o Leveling mechanisms keep chiefs from getting out of hand with their power WHY WOULD PEOPLE PARTICIPATE IN REDISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS? · Although the system seems to favor chiefs and their kin, common people do receive benefits for providing some of their production and labor to the chief; chiefs are hereditary passed down in family lineages o 1) Insurance against hard times à people can expect to be helped by the chief when they find themselves in need § Foragers = non redistribution economic system group à have no security, no insurance, safety net = family ; redistribution system = safety net is extended beyond your kinship ties by paying into the systemàyou may not get that money back though like insurance if never hurt or sick then do not get anything back in return o 2) Military protection à people can expect the chief to provide military aid when needed against outside enemies; societies like horticulturalists or pastoralists or agriculturalists = producing food which can be stored either as stored grain or as animals on the hoof = that stuff can be taken; increase in level of violence in society because you have targets (stored goods) for violence AND expanding populations à more land § If there is military pressure from an outside society = much larger safety net than your own à have entire society to draw on their resource, can expect people who are not related to me to help me defend my stuff § We are buying into a larger system of protection with the caveat that we may have to risk our personal safety more often in order to get that bigger military safety net o Spiritual Intervention à people can expect the chief, who is seen as a religious figure, to seek aid for the society from supernatural beings, powers, and/or forces; chief is viewed to have a direct connection to the deity r deities and the chief has the ability to petition those powers to help us to prosper and stay safe § Chief is thought to have direct access to be able to petition the deities, to intervene on behalf of the people & this is the person who wields all the political power as well as makes all the political decisions § People are less likely to defy a religious leader than they are to defy a political leader

types of religious study

3 basic types · Devotional à when people are taught to practice a particular religion. This is the kind of thing that happens in churches, mosques, and temples o When another person starts talking about another religion à Devotional people think they are trying to get you to follow that religion = FALSE · Academic à studying a religion in order to understand it, not necessarily to practice it. For example, a college course on world religions o College = not trying to get you to practice other religion BUT teaching you what and how practitioners of those religions believe, what their sacred books are, what the history of their religions is, if there is profit involved = learn about profits in their lives o Understand what these other religious groups think and how they approach religion NOT about you converting to that religion · Theological à this is a combination of the first two types of study. An example is studying Christianity at seminary o Seminary = that person has an encyclopedic knowledge of Christian philosophy/Christian history; you learn academically all about Christianity at seminary not just about how to practice or a devotional study BUT it includes a very serious academic study of religions

Modes of Exchange: Market Exchange

3-MARKET EXCHANGE · This form of exchange is characteristic of industrial agriculturalists and is common throughout the world today; state level societies o The world market system as we know it was born when Europe invaded the New World à we could essentially integrate all the different market systems around the world into one large international global market system = because of all the gold and silver that was stolen from the New World at that time · Market Exchange refers to the buying and selling of goods and services with prices set primarily by the rules of supply and demand (plus lots of outside interventions/influences from government and non-government forces) (NO FREE MARKET SYSTEM) o Market exchange is set by the rules of supply and demand = FALSE à there is outside interventions and influences from both government and non-government forces that change the dynamics of supply and demand · Exchanges occur at market places, which are specific and contained, do not exist in other societies · Exchanges do not necessarily involve money (some markets work on the concept of barterà associated only with market exchange economies where money is scarce)

Great Leap Forward

70,000 to 40,000 years ago • The so-called Great Leap Forward is associated with the emergence of Upper Paleolithic tool technology and art. This took place in different places at different times (and there is debate over the dates) • This is the period during which the nature and pace of innovation accelerated to a level typically described as "modern" • Scholars debate what led to these developments, but many believe it marks the beginning of fully articulate speech as we understand it (in other words, a genetic mutation that then resulted in cultural evolution) • Technological innovations included: spear-throwers (atlatl), hot-rock boiling, lamps with wicks, compound tools like harpoons, and eyed needles capable of producing tailored clothes • Artistic innovations included: personal ornamentation, fired clay & carved figurines (ex: Venus Figurines), musical instruments, and cave paintings • Fairly substantial living structures with differential use of space became ubiquitous, and special purpose sites first appear (for example short-term fishing camps and stone tool workshops) • Variations in size of living spaces suggests variation in the kinds and sizes of social groups • Social networks were Not merely local - high quality stone and non-utilitarian material (amber and jade) are found hundreds of miles from their sources, implying rudimentary trade • Burial of the dead with grave goods become ubiquitous and was sometimes incredibly elaborate

Homo Neanderthalensis

Homo Neanderthalensis was the first specimen to be recognized as an early human fossil when it was discovered in Germany in 1856 (three years before Darwin published On the Origin of Species) • Neanderthals (as we commonly refer to them) have a bad reputation as stupid "cave men", and the word is still sometimes used as an insult • This reputation is FALSE, as we will see, and can be attributed to the 1908 discovery at La Chapelle-aux-Saints in France of the first nearly complete neanderthal skeleton • The skeleton, known as the "Old man of La Chapelle", was very stooped in posture, but it was later discovered that he suffered from a degenerative bone disease • Neanderthals lived from 200,000 to as late as 25,000 years ago, although the species was greatly reduced in population and range after about 40,000 years ago • They were the first known species to evolve outside the African continent, and are found in Europe, the Middle East, and western Asia. We have since discovered other species that evolved outside Africa, such as the Denisovans - eastern cousins of the Neanderthals - and H. Floresiensis • They were originally thought to be our direct ancestors, but they were actually our cousins -- "kissing cousins" as it turns out • Like ourselves, neanderthals exploited a wide range of food sources, including big game animals, plants, and marine resources when available Neanderthal Characteristics • Neanderthals had larger average brain sizes than Sapiens (1,450 cc compared to 1,350 cc) • Like Heidelbergensis, the bodies of Neanderthal appear to have been adapted to cold climates • Neanderthal bones have a high frequency of fractures which, along with their distribution, are similar to injuries among professional rodeo riders. This is likely the result of regular, close contact with large animals, which they killed with thrusting rather than throwing spears • There is some evidence that a few populations of Neanderthals made symbolic/ornamental objects and buried their dead, but such evidence is not widespread or well understood Mousterian tool technology • Neanderthals (and other so-called archaic sapiens) are associated with a new tool technology that first appeared about 300,000 years ago and is known as Mousterian (or Middle Paleolithic) • One of the main innovations of this technology was the application of the "prepared core technique" • Mousterian Technology also includes the first evidence of hafted tools and weapons • Mousterian tool kits included not only knives, axes, and spear points, but also hide scrapers and awls What happened to Neanderthals? • 1) Climate Change - This is possible, but neanderthals had survived fairly major changes in the climate in the past • 2) Disease - This is unlikely, since epidemic diseases are "crowd" illnesses, all of which developed after the development of food production • 3) Interbred with Sapiens - While it is clear that neanderthals and sapiens occasionally "swapped" DNA, all indications are that these exchanged were not widespread • 4) Genocide - Although evidence of violence exists, this is extremely unlikely since genocide requires the cooperation of a large, politically-integrated population • 5) Outcompeted by Sapiens - This is the Most likely scenario

domestication (plants and animals)

How did wild plants become domesticated? • Garbage dumps and latrines were the first laboratories of food production. The seeds that ended up there were those we preferred to eat from one reason or another - size and tastiness, the fleshiest fruits, the oiliest seeds, and the longest fibers (for raw material, not food) • There were several changes that were not the result of humans making conscious choices o Mutations that kept seed pods from shattering o Mutations to seed coats that bypassed initial seed dormancy o Mutations that allowed plants to reproduce themselves • Some plants yielded to the selection pressures of domestication much easier than others We can think of Domestication as a set of stages: • 1) Domestication of species that are Not much different from their wild ancestors, such as wheat, barley, and peas. They already had high yields in the wild, could be grown easily by sowing or planting, and could be harvested within a few months • 2) Domestication of fruit and nut trees, such as olives, figs, dates, grapes, and pomegranates. They could be grown simply by planting cuttings or even seeds. They did Not yield food until at least three years after planting and did not reach full production for at least a decade. Growing these crops could only be done by folks already fully committed to sedentary life • 3) Domestication of fruit trees that were harder to cultivate, such as apples, plums, pears, and cherries. They could Not be grown from cuttings or seeds and instead had to be grown by the difficult technique of Grafting. • 4) Another group of late domesticates arose with less effort as wild plants that established themselves initially as weeds in fields. These included rye, oats, turnips, radishes, beets, leeks, and lettuce o We have experimented fairly fully with plant domestication, and modern knowledge has Not really allowed us to introduce new species. By Roman times, almost all of today's crops were being cultivated somewhere in the world • 1) Intensified use of nuts and seeds. Evidence for this comes in the form of milling equipment and storage pits • 2) Intensified use of fish and shellfish, both freshwater and marine. Evidence for this comes in the form of shell mounds, specialized fishing equipment, and seasonal fishing camps • 3) Artificial stimulation of game populations. This was accomplished primarily through periodic burns that increased the availability of browse • 4) Forest management. Sparing nut and fruit trees when selecting wood for fuel and raw material • 5) Invention of the bow and arrow. More efficient of hunting weapon than the spear thrower; allowed individuals to hunt successfully • 6) Domestication of the dog. This occurred thousands of years before other animals and plants were domesticated. Vastly increased the efficiency of hunting, particularly big game • 7) Extinction of mega-fauna at the end of the last ice age (at least partially as a result of human hunting pressure). Removed an important, concentrated source of Calories o The first 6 things discussed above made Larger, more sedentary foraging populations possible. The last (7) reduced the resources available to these communities o At least in some places, food production emerged during periods of climatic downturns and/or environmental degradation in areas where population density was too high to revert to less efficient foraging strategies. In other words, rather than being a great innovation, food production was a survival strategy in overpopulated regions Of the 200,000 or so wild plants, only a few thousand are edible to humans and only a few hundred have been domesticated. Currently, only 12 crops provide 80% of the weight of the world's crops • On the second hand, food production is Not a matter of domesticating a single species. The move of food production can only happen when a set of potential domesticates occur in the Same area • In other words, so many convergent factors were necessary to get an independent development of agriculture off the ground that the odds were heavily stacked in favor of the first areas where food production originated - it was a matter of geography, not race or culture • Further, only a few places in the world developed food production independently and this occurred at varying times up to several thousand years apart • In other places food production was the result of importing crops and animals or of conquering populations bringing them

stone tools (date of the earliest stone tools and the three stone tool traditions and their characteristics)

The earliest modified tools · The first recognizable (I.e., modified) stone tools appear in the archaeological record 2.5 mya · These tools were found in Olduvai Gorge in the east African rift valley and are referred to as Oldowan tools · Oldowan tools come in two types: o Flakes - These are essentially knives and could be used to dismember and butcher animals, cut animal hides, sharpen stick, etc. o Chopper - These are essentially crude axes and could be used to cut small limbs and saplings, smash open bones, etc · None of these stone tools can be thought of as a weapon but, as we have seen, unmodified stones could be used to deter predators and chase animals away from kills in order to facilitate scavenging · We mark the beginning of the genus Homo with the appearance of three trends that are likely tied to the manufacture of stone tools o 1) Expansion of brain size - The earliest members assigned to the genus Homo had an average brain size of 640 cc, which is a significant increase from the range of australopiths (380 to 530 cc) o 2) Reduction in the size of the face, jaws, and teeth - These changes seem to be related to the use of stone tools to pre-process foods, that is to cut and pulverize food before it is chewed and swallowed o 3) Modification of the pelvis to accommodate big-headed babies - as brain size increased, the babies had to be born early in their development and were thus dependent longer

human language (productivity and displacement)

o Productivity: the infinite capacity to create new messages and convey information in greater and greater detail o Displacement: the ability to convey information about something with which you have no direct sensory contact; the ability to talk about the past and the future as well as the present

genetic drift

one of the Two Processes through which Variation is Transferred across populations • 1) Genetic Drift — refers to various processes that effect gene frequencies in small, relatively isolated populations. The most notable example is the "Founder Effect" — if by chance a gene is absent in most of the members of a migrating group, their descents are not likely to have it either (and vice versa)

gene flow

one of the Two Processes through which Variation is Transferred across populations • 2) Gene Flow — the process through which genes pass from one population to another through interbreeding. Gene flow works in the opposite direction of genetic drift , it tends to decrease difference between populations (gene flow); (genetic drift) tends to increase differences between populations "There is grandeur in this view of life, with its several posters having been originally breathed by the Creator into a few forms or into one; and that, whilst thus planet has gone cycling on according to the fixed law of gravity, from so simple a beginning endless forms most beautiful and most wonderful have been, and are being, evolved." Charles Darwin, On the Origin of Species

modes of exchange

three basic modes of exchange: · 1) reciprocity · 2) redistribution · 3) market exchange

incest taboo

· (WHOM CAN'T ONE MARRY) While the Incest Taboo is found in all known human cultures, the definition of what constitutes incest varies widely rom society to society · Typically, the definition of incest includes close family members, but in some societies exceptions are made for relatives as closely related as brother and sister · Exceptions such as these occur almost exclusively among elite, aristocratic lineages. Examples can be seen among the royal families of Europe, ancient Egypt, the Incan empire of South America, and the chiefly lineages of pre-contact Hawaii. · On the other hand, in many societies, there are whole categories of people with whom a relationship would be considered incestuous · Clans for example, kinship practices, prohibit sexual relationships and marriages between members of the same clan, considering it incest o Traditional Cherokee society provides an example · In the U.S., the definition of incest is limited in the extreme (very few people whom a person cannot marry because of incest restrictions) o U.S. à first cousins can legally marry in about half of the states and second cousins can legally marry in every state

sexual dimorphism

· Australopithecus (gracile) • Post-cranilly, habilines are similar to Australopiths, that is, sexually dimorphic and partially arboreal • Post-cranially, erectus was very much like modern humans, only more robust (I.e., exceptionally strong), and were no more sexually dimorphic than us • Kids were born early in their development, something that in combination with decreased sexual dimorphism probably signaled pair-bonding

bipedalism (when and why it may have developed and its "costs")

· Bipedal locomotion, habitual upright walking in two legs, is one of the primary defining features of hominids (for the purpose of this class, hominid is defined as all bipedal primates, whether or not they are directly related do Homo Sapiens) · We have clear, indisputable evidence of bipedalism from at least four million years ago and some evidence as far as seven million years ago · Many of the other important features of hominid evolution developed after bipedalism · It is clear that at some point in the distant past, natural selection was responsible for the development of bipedal primates. As we shall see, it was clearly a trait that favored reproductive success (i.e., it was not simply the result of sexual selection) · Natural selection cannot make something out of nothing. That is to say, bipedalism must have first developed in a species that stood on its hind legs habitually — probably in order to feed · All evolutionary developments come with "costs." The primary "cost" of bipedalism is that upright walkers are quite slow compared to other mammals · Other "costs" include the fact that an upright posture means more energy is required to supply the brain with sufficient blood (must work against gravity) & greater stress is placed on the lower back, hips, knees, and ankles. These "costs" are minor and do not impede reproductive success · There are several theories concerning what factors favored the selection of bipedal locomotion. We will examine a few. Keep in mind that whatever factor(s) were involved, they had to result in a significant reproductive advantage o 1) Bipedalism may have been an adaptation to living in the tall grasses of the Savannah environment § Related to environmental changes associated with the ice ages — as the forested habitat of primates was reduced in favor of Savannah's, overall primate populations would have to shrink, or groups of primates would have to adapt to new habitats § An upright posture makes it easier to spot both predators and sources of food and water o 2) Bipedalism may have been an adaptation for more efficient long distance travel § Related to primate biology and environmental changes. Some creatures can go long periods without water, but primates are not among them. As Savannah environments expanded, water sources became fewer and farther between § Water sources were unlikely to be found in the same areas as secure places to sleep for the night, requiring Savannah dwelling primates to move back and forth between them on a daily basis § Although bipedal hominids were slower, it is possible they were capable of moving for much longer periods of time than quadrupedal mammals. This is certainly the case among Homo Sapiens, one of the few terrestrial species capable of running an ultra-marathon § If so, bipedalism would have allowed hominids to exploit widely separated food, water, and shelter resources over the course of a day o 3) Bipedalism may have been a way of regulating body temperature § Hominids evolved in the equatorial regions of the African continent, where the sun remains fairly high in the sky throughout the year § A creature with a vertical orientation (biped) would be subjected to less direct ultraviolet rays than a creature with a horizontal orientation (quadruped) § At the same time, more of a bipedal creature's body would be exposed to potentially cooling wind than that of a quadrupedal creature. We do not, however, know when hominids developed the ability to help cool their body temperature through the evaporation of sweat § Most animals in the equatorial zone cannot move about much during the day without risking the possibility of becoming dangerously overheated. If hominids were better able to regulate their body temperature, then they would be able to travel during the heat of the day when encounters with predators and deadly snakes would have been unlikely o 4) Bipedalism may have been a way of freeing the hands. This may have been important for a number of reasons, including: § Carrying food — Free hands may have facilitated taking foos to a place safe from predators before consuming it. However, surprisingly little can be arrived without the aid of some kind of carrying device § More efficient foraging of a wider range of foods. This is a twofold idea. First, hominids could gather and eat food as they walked (other primates must stop to gather food and eat it) Second, depending on when hominids developed their precision grip, they would have been able to exploit small seeds unavailable to primates with only a power grip § To make and carry tools — Simple tools could be used to expand the number. Of food sources available to hominids, process certain food sources that would otherwise be unavailable, and aid in the process of scavenging for food

multiculturalism

· Cultural pluralism or diversity within a society, organization, or educational institution. The view that cultural diversity within a country is both good and desirable · The term also serves as shorthand for a host of different cultural and educational issues, including issues related to race, ethnicity, gender, and sexual orientation, etc. · The term was first used in 1957 and is related to globalization · Multicultural: individuals who have been socialized not only into the dominant culture, but also into one or more ethnic cultures · Multiculturalism is associated with the large-scale migrations that have come about as a result of the increasing scale of globalization following World War II

culture

· Culture as anthropologists use the term refers to perspectives and actions that a group of people consider natural and self-evident. These perspectives and actions are rooted in shared meanings · Cultural anthropologists study the patterns of thought and behavior in living human communities, as well as how those patterns develop and change · Edward B. Tyler, one of the founding figures of cultural anthropology defined culture as "that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, laws, customs, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society." · Culture has been defined by anthropologists in many ways, but most understandings of the term share a number of basic elements: · 1) Culture is learned o Culture is not biologically transmitted o The process of learning culture begins at birth and is referred to as enculturation o Enculturation happens both explicitly and implicitly (and is partly responsible for why our beliefs and conduct seem so natural). In other words, part of culture is consciously chosen beliefs and actions, but much of culture arises from unconscious assumptions that are the result of enculturation · 2) Culture is symbolic o Culture is essentially a system of symbols through which people make sense of the world. Symbols are both verbal and non-verbal o The meanings of things (and the symbols that stand for these meanings) differ from culture to culture à which is why people do things and organize themselves differently around the world · 3) Culture is dynamic (always adapting and changing) o Social groups are not uniform and homogenous, because not everybody interprets the events of everyday life in the same way o Cultural processes are emergent, fluid, and marked by creativity, uncertainty, differing individual meaning, and social conflict · 4) Culture is integrated with daily experience o Culture is comprised of a set of interrelated social, economic, and belief structures that lead to expectations that are specific to a given social group o Because of this interrelated nature, if one aspect of culture changes, then other aspects are likely to be effected (for example, think of all the aspects of society that were effected by women entering the work force) o This aspect of culture demonstrates that activities you might think of as "natural" - that is, biologically based (such as sleeping, going to the bathroom, having sex) and therefore universally the same for all humans are actually culturally patterned · 5) Culture is shared o Culture is not a product of individual psychology or biology o An individual's comprehension of anything is always filtered through what his or her group defines collectively as proper and improper o The term "cultural constructions" refers to the fact that people collectively create meanings through common experience and negotiation o As a result, anthropologists do not generally accept purely psychological or biological explanations of human experience as adequate · 6) Culture understanding involves overcoming ethnocentrism o Develop some objectivity in viewing your own and other cultures. This requires a working understating of both ethnocentrism and cultural relativism o This perspective does not necessarily require you to reject your own cultural beliefs; and understanding another culture on its own terms does not necessarily mean you must accept and defend all the things that other people do · Although culture itself is not biological, it is dependent on human biology. Culture is made possibly by the combination of abstract thoughts and articulate speech; and human adaptation involves the interplay between cultures and biology · Culture is what sets us apart from other animals (who after all learn form experience and each other). We share many things with animals, including tool use, reasoning, emotion, and social bonds · All animals must attend to basic needs: food, shelter, sex, etc., but only humans can enjoy philosophy, religion, and art.

Sapir-Whorf hypothesis

· Edward Sapir and Benjamin Lee Whorf hypothesize that different languages produce different ways of thinking, that is, different languages construct reality differently and determine how people perceive the world · Most anthropologists today accept only a non-deterministic version of this argument. That is to say, they believe that language influences our experience of reality (more so in some instances than others) but dies not fully determine how we think about the world

marriage

· In the U.S., marriage is an economic and sexual partnership licensed by the state that can be entered into by any two adult persons (specific age requirements vary from state to state) · Any religious over or under tones to marriage are strictly a matter of personal choice. Religious organizations have no legal right to sanction marriages. · With a few interesting exceptions, marriage is a universal human practice. The particulars in each culture, however, can vary quite widely · "Universal" definition of marriage: A socially approved sexual and economic union (a social contract), with some idea of permanence and a set of reciprocal rights and obligations

human language (productivity and displacement)

· Language is a set of structured relationships between a person's meaning and their expression · Language is abstract = there is seldom any connection between the linguistic symbols we use and the events and properties to which they refer (water and agua) · Chomsky argued that the human brain contains a genetically transmitted blueprint for building language, a kind of universal grammar · in other words, despite the vast number of human languages, the brain contains a limited set of rules for organizing languages o Syntactic Structure (Noam Chomsky, 1957)

sexual dimorphism

· Men and women differ genetically and are sexually dimorphic (differences in average height, weight, and strength) · Gender à the behaviors and attitudes that a culture or society considers proper for its males and females (as well as third genders, if they are recognized); masculinity or femininity · Gender roles and gender stratification vary with environment, economy, adaptive strategy, and type of political organization

religious ritual

· Oftentimes rituals are associated with rites of passage, that is, customs associated with the transition from one stage of life to another. For example, Jewish bar mitzvah and bat mitzvah o BIRTH = non existence to existence = rites of passage o Childhood into adulthood = rites of passage o Marriage = rites of passage o Death = rites of passage o Puberty = rites of passage § Not universal

levirate

· One of the common marriage customs à when a man is obliged to marry his brother's widow · Emphasizes the fact that in most culture marriage is seen as a relationship between families and not just between individuals o There are rules about whom one should not marry and there are rules about whom one should marry

sororate

· One of the common marriage customs à when a woman is obliged to marry her deceased sister's husband · Emphasizes the fact that in most culture marriage is seen as a relationship between families and not just between individuals o There are rules about whom one should not marry and there are rules about whom one should marry

natural selection

· Operates according to the three basic principles: o 1) Variation — Every species is composed of individuals who exhibit great variety (exfingerprints, etc) o 2) Heritability — Offspring inherit traits from their parents o 3) Differential Reproductive Success — Better adapted individuals generally produce more viable offspring than more poorly adapted individuals

hypodescent

· Placing the offspring of members of two racial groups into the minority group o Operates on sexual selection o Bisexuals are grouped with gays and lesbians, not heterosexuals

race and ethnicity

· RACE: a concept that organizes people into groups based on specific physical traits that are portrayed as reflecting fundamental and innate differences o There is not gene that codes race or is unique to any group of people conventionally thought of as race = racial classification are typically made based in biological traits, specifically phenotypic (visible) traits o Race is a culturally-constructed category = not enough to say that race is culturally constructed because it might give the impression that race is not "real" o Race is a social force that becomes biology by shaping people's biological outcomes due to disparities in access to certain kinds of healthcare and diets, exposure to certain kinds of diseases, and other factors that effect people's well-being o There are other procedures that could be used for defining races, and those different procedures yield very different classifications · HOW DOES THE VARIABILITY OF TRAITS WHICH WE MIGHT CLASSIFY RACE COME ABOUT IN THE FIRST PLACE? o 1) Natural Selection = the process through which certain inheritable traits are passed along to offspring because they are better suited to the environment o 2) Sexual Selection = the process through which certain inheritable traits are passed along to offspring because they are considered attractive to potential mates and/or intimidating to potential rivals o 3) Random Selection = the process through which certain inheritable traits are passed along to offspring that have no known effect on survival and are invisible to rivals and to prospective sex partners · The trats we traditionally use to determine race are ones subject to sexual selection. These traits are also visibly at a distance and highly variable, so perhaps it is not surprising they are the ones used throughout recorded history to make quick judgments about people · Such judgements did not threaten our existence in the very distant past when all of us were similarly armed and generally surrounded only by folks who looked mostly like ourselves · In the modern world those conditions have changed dramatically and continuing to codify our differences into an arbitrary system of racial classification has undeniably disastrous effects · In America, racial identity is an ascribed status (it is given to one at birth) but it is not based on much biology or even simple ancestry. American culture ignores considerable diversity in biology, language, and geographic origin as it socially constructs race · ETHNICITY: a group classification based on common cultural background. Often includes a national, tribal, or racial component o Feelings of ethnic identity may arise from shred language, religion, kinship, historical experience, geographic isolation, or other factors o Members of an ethnic group share beliefs, habits, values, customs, etc. o Feelings of ethnic identity vary in intensity across space and time due to political, social, and cultural factors § Differences between race and ethnicity: · Not based solely on physical traits · More nuanced = lots of varying factors can determine ethnicity · It is easier for a person to claim multiple ethnic identities than multiple racial identities (particularly in the U.S. where people can have only one "official" racial classification) · Feelings of ethnic identity can change over time § Similarities between race and ethnicity: · Defined primarily as minorities · Regularly subjected to prejudice and discrimination · Typically face ethnic disparities analogous to racial disparities

stone tools

· Recognizable stone tools appear in the archaeological record 2.5 million years ago, but "unmodified" tools are invisible in the archaeological record and were almost certainly used for many tens of millennia (perhaps millions of years) before "modified" tools were developed · We do not know for sure which hominid species were habitual users of unmodified tools, but all were at least capable of doing so if chimpanzees are any indication · What is meant by the term unmodified tools? Essentially, sticks and stones 1) Sticks — A digging stick is simply a two-to-three-foot long stick with a beveled edge. One can be made as easily as breaking a longer stick over one's knee a. A digging stick can be used to retrieve roots and tubers from under the soil. Except in very loose soil, primates (whose fingers have nails, not claws) are incapable of doing this without a tool b. Hominids with the ability to make and use a digging stick would thus have access to highly nutritious foods that they would not have to compete with other primates to obtain (except other hominids) c. Digging sticks could potentially be used for other food-getting activities, as well— for instance, hurling them into un-climable trees in order to knock down nuts and/or fruits (as swineherds often do) or using them to club small animals 2) Stones — Rocks could be utilized in a number of important ways a. Some foods must be processed before they can be eaten. Stones can be used to chop and/or crush —for instance, opening nuts that cannot be crushed by hand or "pre-chewing" particularly tough or fibrous foods b. Rocks could also be used to scavenge more efficiently. For example, a stone could be used to assess the marrow found in the long bones of mammals. Among the animals of Africa, only the Hyena has jaws powerful enough to break open the long bones of large ungulates (hooves animals) c. Round stones could also be used to gain access to meat — a rare but coveted source of food among chimpanzees, who hunt monkeys. How would this work? Hominid biology makes us very capable rock throwers. Large cats tend to avoid confrontations, particularly with a full belly during the heat of the day. If, for example, hominids cam across lions during the day resting near a partially eaten kill, it would not be too difficult to drive them away with thrown stones long enough to scavenge some of the remaining meat

religious ritual

· Religious rituals are used to translate and reinforce values and beliefs; make these ideas manifest, to give them some flesh on their bone. For example, Catholic communion is a way to emphasize the sacrifice that Jesus made and make that sacrifice real for each individual à drinking wine = Jesus' blood, eating wafer = Jesus' body; translate and reinforce values and beliefs · Rituals are repeated on a regular basis. That repetition may be several times a day, once a day, once a week, once a month, once a year, etc.; rituals are Not one time things à they occur over and over again in order to reinforce and translate these values and beliefs; rituals are not just religious acts but they are social acts · Most rituals include groups of people, social acts. Therefore rituals are social as well as religious acts o Social acts in sense that You are declaring to the rest of your community your willingness to live in this particular way and be judged on the rules of this particular way of living

multiculturalism

· The United States is struggling to embrace multiculturalism because : tale of two cities : New York and Los Angeles : o Early 20th century = New York = center of immigration in U.S. and most immigrants came from European countries à ideal = "melting pot" = folks were expected to give up their language and most of their unique cultural practices (immigrants from each country were met with prejudice and discrimination at first) o Early 21st century = Los Angeles = center of immigration in U.S. and "melting pot" ideal had been replaced with "multiculturalism" (native English and Spanish speakers were equal) o Many Americans = supportive of efforts to develop cultural pluralism in the country; America = country of immigration; recognizing the many contributions ethnic and racial minorities have made to this country thought its history is long overdue (good) o Some American = feel threatened bi the potential implications of cultural pluralism à though many voice their concerns in economic, legal, or political terms; many = White, although very few would characterize is this way (as mostly White) = they fear becoming a minority themselves with no ethnicity to celebrate

cultural relativism

· The argument that the beliefs and behaviors of a particular culture should not be judged by the standards of another · Unlike ethnocentrism, which comes "naturally" to everyone no matter where they are from, cultural relativism must be cultivated and remains difficult to achieve in many circumstances

ethnocentrism

· The tendency to view one's own culture as superior · Applying one's cultural values when judging the beliefs and behaviors of people raised in other cultures · Ethnocentrism is one of the few true cultural universals that exists comes "naturally" to everyone no matter where they are from

functions of religion

· To explain, particularly the "unexplainable" In other words, questions of first cause, questions science can Not really answer, such as: Why are we here? Where did we come from? What is our purpose? What happens to us when we die? à faith based questions that resist scientific observation · Religion = To outline a moral/ethical code o Does not mean if you do not have a religious faith that you do not have any morals or ethics · Religion = To reduce anxiety and fear, particularly as regards the "unexplainable" mentioned above à people may have some anxiety and fear about what happens to them when they die and religion helps to reduce that anxiety and fear = to give you an answer o Reduce anxiety and fear = Understand how the world works · To reinforce the social order o Religion reminds you to be charitable à that you should think about people that are less fortunate than you and lend them a helping hand o Religion = reinforce negative social things = induce anxiety and fear · To provide a sense of community

ethnosphere

· Together, all of the world's cultures make up the ethnosphere = the sum total of all cultural knowledge and understanding · Ethnosphere is the cultural equivalent of the term biosphere = the sum total of the earth's various ecosystems. Although we all know that parts of the biosphere are being degraded by human activities (pollution, habitat loss, species' extinction, etc.), few of us are aware that the ethnosphere is being eroded at a far greater rate

natural selection

· one of the three ways (natural selection, sexual selection, random selection) the variability of traits by which we might classify race came about in the first place · Darwin's evolution was by natural selection · the mechanism that explained biological exchange over time (Darwin and Wallace) • New species may evolve as the environment changes or when members of the species move into new environments—must adapt • Natural Selection does not account for all variation, only variables directly relate to reproductive success. We have already learned that sexual selection and the random selection of invisible traits accounts for much of the variation we see in nature • It is clear that at some point in the distant past, natural selection was responsible for the development of bipedal primates. As we shall see, it was clearly a trait that favored reproductive success (i.e., it was not simply the result of sexual selection) • Natural selection cannot make something out of nothing. That is to say, bipedalism must have first developed in a species that stood on its hind legs habitually — probably in order to feed

Great Leap Forward

• The Great Leap Forward was preceded by the near extinction of our species. Genetic evidence suggests the population of Homo Sapiens dropped to fewer than 10,000 individuals just before the "leap" • One of the results of the Great Leap Forward was the "rapid" expansion of Homo Sapiens across the globe: o Southeast Asia & Australia - by 50,000 years ago o Central Asia - by 45,000 years ago o Europe - by 40,000 years ago o East Asian artic (including Siberia) -- by 20,000 years ago o The Americas - by 15,000 years ago

Homo Sapiens

• The earliest unambiguous fossil evidence of anatomically modern humans dates to 195,000 years ago and was found at the Omo-Kibish site in Ethiopia • Homo Sapien Characteristics: o Average brain size - 1,350 cc o High skull vault (big forehead) with slight to no brow ridges o Smaller faces, jaws, and teeth o Chins are present for the first time o Thinner bones and lighter skeletal frame o First evidence of people regularly living into their 60s and beyond • Homo Sapiens used Mousterian tool technology and co-existed with other hominid forms for tens of thousands of years before evidence of modern behavior appeared (extensive symbol use and ornamentation, extremely sophisticated tool technology, etc) Expansion of Homo Sapiens out of Africa • The Great Leap Forward was preceded by the near extinction of our species. Genetic evidence suggests the population of Homo Sapiens dropped to fewer than 10,000 individuals just before the "leap" • One of the results of the Great Leap Forward was the "rapid" expansion of Homo Sapiens across the globe: o Southeast Asia & Australia - by 50,000 years ago o Central Asia - by 45,000 years ago o Europe - by 40,000 years ago o East Asian artic (including Siberia) -- by 20,000 years ago o The Americas - by 15,000 years ago

Sapiens and Neanderthals

• The population(s) of Homo Sapiens that entered Europe around 40,000 years ago and encountered (and quickly displaced) neanderthals carried with them fully developed Upper Paleolithic technology (and possibly dogs) • Genetic evidence proves there was some interbreeding between them. All Homo Sapiens who immediate ancestors are not all from Africa have some percentage of Neanderthal DNA (an average of 2%) • The extinction of neanderthal was unlikely to have been purposely caused by Sapiens. Instead, they simply outcompeted them for the same resources as a result of their more sophisticated technology and social organization • Neanderthals likely retreated (and their populations dwindled) in a way analogous to other apex predators like wolves and bears Domestic plants & animals · Homo Sapiens have developed a number of diverse ways to create and maintain social order (political organization) o Societies that are smaller in population and live in less dense, less populated groups, require less extreme forms of political organization o The more complex, the larger population, the denser the population of any given society = the more complex the political apparatus has to be o Foraging Societies do not need the same kind of political organization as Nation States

mutation

• There were several changes that were not the result of humans making conscious choices o Mutations that kept seed pods from shattering o Mutations to seed coats that bypassed initial seed dormancy o Mutations that allowed plants to reproduce themselves

genetic recombination

• one of the 2 genetic sources of New Variation · (people making babies) Each reproductive cell carries a random assortment of chromosomes and their respective genes, half of which come from a mother and half of which come from a father. That is why each child is unique

mutation

• one of the 2 genetic sources of New Variation (genetic recombination, mutation) · A change in the DNA sequence, (like a zipper) the majority of which occur as the result of mismatched chemical bases during the duplication process. Some mutations have more drastic effects than others and the advantages and disadvantages can only be judges in context. Adaptive mutations, like sickle-cell and the ability to produce lactase into adulthood, should multiply rapidly in a population