anther exam 2
Early Villages
- 7000-3500 BC -Neolithic Bronze Age - Build on top of which removes earliest neolithic period
Neolithic Revolution
- benefits of farming life and its detractors - changes on how we feed ourself -development of agriculture
Animals in the Ice Age
- bison antiqus: 1/3 larger than bison today - Shasta Ground sloth: migrated from south america 3 million years ago - harlan's ground sloth: 3500 lbs - glyptodont: giant armadillo: small car 1000 lbs -camel: evolved into north america 45 million years ago and migrated to africa 2-3 million years ago
James Mallard
- catal huyuk - 1960's - says the site are going to be at the bottom of tells - said layers of the houses there accumulate over time -romans ruined these neolithic sites when they built over them
Why give up mobility?--Before farming
- climate change and focus on plants: younger dryas=cold Pleistocene period step 1: climate is good and people settle after 13,000 BP, Early Natifian-wet and warm climate step 2: cold, younger dryas-people tried different strategies (11,000-10,000 BP) step 3: success in agriculture--one way to transition into Neolithic, increase yield domesticated plants and low mobility
Summary of Ice Age Extinction
- climate change was the most likely theory - need more taxa specific studies - humans are not involved in the extinctions-some might have but not too much - hunting overkill hypothesis - natural (climate)
Overall Hypothesis of Ice Age
- clovis - extinct taxa in archaeological sites - african fauna are used to dealing with people - least impacted was Africa -there were good cases for island species extinctions in recent past
Early Neolithic Farmers mortality
- dangerous for females 15-20 - spike in female mortality-childbirth is dangerous
Domestic definition
- does not mean taming of an animal -human selection that alters a plant or animal to require human assistance for living/breeding
Catal Huyuk
- earliest documented village in Turkey - had no difference in grave goods except for infants - no communal cemetery, all family plots were underneath houses - had evidence for long-distance trade -studied by ian holder and james mallard
centers for domestication
- fertile crescent: started domestication
Monte Verde, Chile
- first Americas - 14,600 BP - other Clovis sites-11,000-12,000 BP - people went back and also found pre-clovis sites - low population density plus destructive geological processes mean very earliest sites will be 10-15 times less common than those at 15,000 BP=taphonomy again - people were here before we see them in archaeological record - oldest site is not the same as first site ever
domestication of dogs
- first to be domesticated -only large carnivore to be domesticated -domesticated by hunter-gatherers-self domestication - 18-20,000 years ago
Summary of the colonization of the people of Americas
- foragers from Asia started arriving before in Australia before 40,000 years ago--in America before 15,000 years ago - by the end of the last ice age we are a global force--occupied by a single terrestrial mammal
Near East to first farmers
- foraging lead up to first hints of agriculturtal production
Why domestication?
- fundamental change to human subsistence (maintaining or supporting oneself) - artificial symbiosis (mutual relationship between different groups) - alters own selective pressures - people get dental issues from processed foods: cavities can kill you, access and systematic infection can spread to bone
Archeobotany and Maize
- high land versus low land 8,700 BP
When and How did people occupy Australia and the Americas?
- in Java 1.7 million years ago - geography impacts movement-taphonomy (how things get preserved) - colonization of Australia and New Guinea - earliest in Sinda and Sahul 49k years ago-New Guinea, Ivare Valley 46k years ago-sunia, Australia, Lake Mungo 35k years ago-Timor most sites date to after 40k years ago
Geography of the spreading of farming
- in areas of domestication, they were either homeland or starbust zones - fast movement: spread zones were 8-2.5 km per year slow movement: friction zones that were less than 1km per year - where farmers move in but give up farming on overshoot zones *California and Australia resisted agriculture-mostly foragers were here
Ubaid Temple
- large, dense population - after 6000 BP: Uruk
Environmental zones of Natufians
- lived in coastal plans (woodlands) - foothills: open savannah and grassland with wild cereals that contains wheat, barley, peas and lentils -mountains were valley grasslands with rangers with wild foreigners of goats and sheep
Mesopotamia
- located up/down the Tigres and Euphrates river - food surplus: located along river - irrigation (planting in all places) - production beyond need=surplus -feedback loop: increases capacity and population size 6300 BP-Ubaid period (prehistoric period of mesopotamia) - creates an economy: feeds people who aren't just family - more food more fertility, more people
Natufian Burials
- more than 400 burials from cemeteries discovered - had a wide variation in position and orientation -strict separation of living and bural grounds - had human and animal burials
Farming and Language Dispersal Hypothesis
- most people speak one of a few major languages - genetics follow different patterns for male and female lineages -sex bias on how farming is spreading - indo european language family spread out and descendants evolved other languages within
Loss of biodiversity during Pleistocene
- north america lost 35 species - south america lost 45 species - Australia lost 29 species -Europe lost 15 species -Africa lost 7 species -African evolutionary origin: 50 million years ago--crossed land bridge 1.8 million years ago
in order for animals to be able to domesticate...
- not picky eaters -reach maturity quickly -breed in captivity - cannot panic or flee from humans - conformity to social hierarchy
how did large groups stay together?
- ornamentation: as a way to segregate groups while retaining a sense of belonging to a larger group - may reflect on new ethnic groups -there was success as an increase of population, gives rise to Neolithic people
Fauna (animals of a particular region) in Natufian culture
- owl pellets: occupied for the last half of the year - migratory birds suggest 10-month occupation -gazelles indicate year round
Flint artifacts
- previous people's were wasteful in raw material - Natufians were more conservative, which indicates less access to raw material - the graduation from high density of cores found on more permanent sites as compared with temporary desert sites
Evidence of rebuilding architecture
- rebuilding= consistent knowledge of locations
Natufian Stone tools
- sickens show invention of harif point - had more specialized hunting through evidence - instead of broad hunting and gathering
Uruk
- the world's first city and state society located in Mesopotamia population: - ubaid period: 3 toll villages, no more than 25 acres - early uruk period: 18 villages, uruk city: 170 acres - late urul: 108 villages, uruk city: 250 acres
Pleistocene Megafauna
- these were the large set of animals that lived on earth during the Pleistocene epoch and megafauna is used to describe animals that were over 44kg -44kg at adult weight (97 lbs)
Counter Evidence to overkill method of Ice Age
- too many taxa, not all megafauna -tree extinction (spruce) - range for caribou and muskoxen shrink - not a lot of archaelogical record for big game, only 1 horse hunting - if truly big game hunting happened then there needs to be more evidence - not overkilling -timing issue: some extinctions are too early and too late-extinct before human arrival, 16 out of 35 genera in North America survived until 10-12k years ago, last mammoths only 3600 years ago, australia extinctions way before humans arrived
Clovis
- very thin, long stone points found in 1932-1936 -chert, obsidian flint -found with extinct animals
The State
- was a new type of society
Natufians
- were part of the late pleistocene period - near eastern "mesolithic" or "epipaleolithic" foragers - early natifuan period= 12,500-11,000 BP -Late natufian period= 11,000-10,200 BP -this culture preceded the Kebaran Culture (20,000-12,000BP)---practiced a broad spectrum of hunter-gathering - first identified by archaeologists in 1930's -they were an epipaleolithic culture that lasted from 12,500-9500 BC in Levant, an area near Eastern Mediterranean - used unique chipped stone industry - founds of durable architectural remains - had an abundance of bone implements, tool, harpoons, fish hooks - had wealth from limestone and basalt artifacts - 1st of art objects, - no pottery was found
Golbeki Tepe
- world's first temple - located on a mountain ridge in a region in Turkey - 9600 BC -pre pottery Neolothic (PPN) - t- shaped carved pillars - no houses or domestic rubbish - difference in society to contribute to make this monument -site pre dates: all other monumental architecture, good evidence of village life (by 26000 years), domesticated wheat (by 1000 years) and animals (by 1500 years) -used for ritual but house rather than a temple
Jose de Acosta
-1539-1600 -spent time in Americas and Asia - he said if animals and species can move then so can people
George Beadle
-1932: corn from Teosnite -said transitional plants bearing only some associated features are absents -he discovered the role of genes in regulating biochemical events within cells *one gene enzyme hypothesis
John Doebly
-2004: changes in 5-6 separate regions of the genome -said it was hard to randomly select species to breed - his main interest was to see how genes drive plant development and evolution he examined differences between teosnite and maize
Lake Mungo
-3 individuals were found here from 40,000 years ago -lake located in Australia - skulls represented multiple colonization -46k-50k, deposits with artifacts but without remains - sites are patchy-hard to determine
Increasing populations have 2 options
-Stay: increase the amount of food that people are producing -Leave: spread lifestyle to somewhere else and repeat farming else where
Neolithic Demographic Transition
-Unprecedented upswing in population growth (7000 BC) that occurred between the old stone age and the new stone age - fundamental change where humans began to be more fertile and have more children so the population was booming and more people were on the landscape
Animal domestication
-behavioral changes: reduced aggression - selected morphological changes: juvenilization, size reduction, shrinking brain size
Ian Hodder
-catal Huyuk - found small walls that correspond to the plan of the village - 26 acres, no streets +2000 rooms - population size (8,000) -standardize house layout-people would hang on roofs - 2mm^2
The New Normal of neolithic life
-diet -harris lines -dental health - crowd diseases - malaria - lactose tolerance - NR increases population, impacts migration , famines, disease - transition from foragers to farmers
Domestication
-dogs exist became of humans - to tame and convert -cultivation vs. husbandy -location and process: geography, physical effects
the Theories of domestication
-farming then domestication or vice versa? -david looks at farming as selective, intensive foraging practices domesticated plants first then farmed them
domestication of sheep
-fertile crescent from mouflon - meat - milk 8-9,000 years ago: needed reside to identify lipids wool
Kennewick Man
-first human skeleton to be found near the riverbank of the town of Kennewick -one of the earliest human skeletons found in the New World -unique because of his unusual nature of the remains -9500 BP
agriculture
-forages as original affluent society - some bad consequences
body types of pleistocene megafauna species
-large body size, good for warmth-warm bodies - became extinct after the end of the ice age -were tall and skinny-warm environment, loose body heat -short snd stocky=cold environment=shorter limbs retain heat
Domestication process of plants
-larger fitting bodies - less seed dispersal (seed coats that maintain dormancy) - increase in environmental tolerance -self pollination: increase in pollen grain size -wheat= first plant domesticate 10,000 years ago -Levant, Fertile crescent
Beringia
-part of the theory to explain the colonization of the New World -the last great habitable landmass to be occupied by humans - "bridge" that connected Siberia and Alaska during the last ice age
Clovis Culture
-pre historic paleo indian culture that was named for its distinct tools that were found - bone and ivory tools - clovis, mexico during the last glacial period are known as the indigenous ancestors of the Americas - clovis points are best known during this period - clovis people were mobile groups of big-game hunters that spread across most north america - clovis was a result of new technology -short lasted and lasted approximately 200 years
War and Peace
-probably more competition and conflicts for the same land - hunters and gatherers vs. neighboring farmers
other theories on ice age extinction
-super bug: unlikely disease, too much biovariability - asteroid impact: no evidence - plants: DNA taxa show forbs are dying, no food for megafauna-thus food web collapses and they go extinct
The Kelp Highway
-this theory concerns the colonization of the American continents - theory builds on the Pacific Coast Migration model which proposes that the first Americas reached the New World by following the coastline along Beringia into the American continents - coastal foraging - the problem was that the coastline is further out than where it is today - ice barrier is not free until 12,600 BP-people must have used the coast to move down to the Americas - it was pre-clovis (patchy but convincing evidence)--clovis was the first wide spread recognizable
Pleistocene Epoch
-this was a time period that began about 1.8 million years ago and lasted roughly 11,700 years -the most recent Ice Age occurred then and large glaciers covered land during this period -homo sapiens evolved during this period -large animals occurred during this period
Pesky Glaciers
-two massive sheets - variation towards the end of the ice age - cut off land route until 15,000 BP
specialization hunting
-use of an arrow - greater mobility between hunters and experimenting with cultivation
History research of the people of the Americas
1. Jose de Acosta 2. Clovis 3. Monte Verde, Chile
The People of the Americas
1. ancestors of native americans are from asia 2. the route people took included over-land through Bering and the Pacific coast a. ice free corridor, people moved between 2 glaciers to occupy the Americas b. Land Bridge=Beringia 3. the date of the first people arrived is before 15,000 years ago-unclear of the precise time
Kristen Gremillion and Delores Piperno
2009 - Cryptic variation: epigenetics-selective pressure, altering gene expression - can be rapid change - changes in teosnite vary where its being grown
What if the first Americans came from Europe?
NO they did not because modern and ancient DNA=mtDNA haplogroups that lin to Asia
Neolithic Foragers mortality
Natufian: dangerous for males 20-40 there was a spike in male death rate
Ice Age Extinctions
Pleistone: last ice age, 12000 years BP - major extinctions at the end of the Pleistocene 25% of marine families, 60% of marine genera 50% of genera 95% of all species-250 million years ago volcano/global warming-34% of marine genera asteroid in gulf of Mexico-dinosaurs 65 million years ago
Monte Verde Site
archaeological site in the new world that contains evidence of human presence and reliable radiocarbon dates 1300 year old residential site in the forested region of northern chile preservation resulted in recovery of plant remains, numerous wooden objects along with stone flakes and broken animal bones lots of wood was found there such as digging sticks, tool handles, spears, basin plant remains document extensive gathering of local vegetation info found here at monte verde has made us reconsider the interpretation of the earliest inhabitants of the new world because its in direct contrast to what has been observed at most sites with bad preservation
cultivation
caring/raising plant
husbandry
core of cultivation of crops and animals-- *cultivation and husbandry both don't require domestication but domestication requires cultivation/husbandry
harris lines
growth was stunned during periods of dietary stress
Seasonal Permanence (staying, lasting)
high mobility= Kebaran Semi mobile= natufian sedentary= after natufians
first commensal animals
house rat, mouse, sparrow - when humans stay in one place these animals then come
Archaeobotany
is the study of plant remains from archaeological sites to understand the environment context of past societies and how the environment was modified
formal cemeteries
markers of link to a specific location
Teosnite
mexican grass that is known as fodder and is one of the parent plants of modern corn
Malaria
mosquito born, infects humans and other animals human blood response of sickle cell anemia - mutation in hemoglobin gene-alters shape of red blood cells and parasite cannot complete life cycle
lactose tolerant
most humans become intolerant to milk after weaning off breast milk
genes summary
mutualistic relationship genetic fitness and reproductive success not everything is domesticable-certain characteristics an animal must possess in order to be domesticated
diet
narrow, loss of calories, prone to shortfall evidence= osteological(study of bone structure) and bone isotopes
Maize
originates in highland hybrid plant evidence came from microfossils of corn cobs 6200 BP first domesticated by indigenous people of mexico about 10.000 years ago
crowd disease
pandemics(global disease outbreak) are impossible at mesolothic population sizes
dental health
poor, anemia, small structure poor dental health was a result of new diseases, enamel is thin with ridges
Early Neolithic Villages
power and status: - family as a basic unit of society - no signs of specialization (people who make specific goods) - no signs of wealth/power, or inequality
Theories of domestication
relationship with agriculture, epigenetic influence
Pleistocene Extinction
remains of very large animals once roamed North America-many large carnivores and herbivores 2 theories are developed for their short existence: climatic change (natural case) and hunting overkill (human cause) climatic change led to the shift of in the distribution of species and plants and led to extinction of large animals since it required more food and space to live.
Xihuatoxla
rock shelter formed beneath a large boulder site in the Balsas River Valley in Mexico noteworthy for starch grain and phytolith evidence that indicated early dates for domesticated maize and squash
human selection
selective breeding that alters an organisms biology to better suit human needs
phytoliths
silica bodies that form when water covers plants fossilized particle of plant tissue
settlements of Natifuan culture
small= 15-100 m^2 medium-= 400-500m^2 large= greater than 1,000m^2
Blunt evidence (mesopotamia)
social stratification - large elaborate temple (sometime at the center of town) - neighborhood of larger houses -more and higher quality of goods
Harif Point
specialized regional cultural development of the epipaleolithic stage and corresponds to the late state of the Natifuan culture - first time arrowheads were found in the stone set harif point is a new blade tool
correlation
spreading genes all over the earth
Natufian subsistence
subsistence= economy that depends on natural resources - relied on hunting and gathering in accordance with the environment - had an initial agriculture system where they cultivated wild plants and no domesticates
Modern analogy (Nunamiut)
the Nunamiut (Alaksan indigenous people) became settled and food became heavily domesticated based and there was an increase of women fertility increase of calories in diet
How sedentary (sitting, housebound, inactive) were the Natufians?
this depends on the evidence found. they were semi-sedentary
Early Towns, villages and Cities
time line: villages---towns---city states
How do we known there was a change in population during neolithic?
we know because we compared mesolithic to neolithic cemeteries: were in the same environment, age of death increased, there was a shift in sex specific mortality(death rate)
where did crops come from?
wheat= fertile crescent (first domesticate) corn=mesoamerica rice=china potato=andes coffee=ethiopia tomato=andes/mesoamerica banana=new guinea citrus fruits=china
