Anthro 2AC

context

- Use-related primary: artifacts recovered from the place they were acquired, made or used; Ex: if you find a phone on a table, you would assume that you use the phone with the table - Transposed Primary: deposition of artifacts/ecofacts deposited outside places where they were acquired, made or used (middens, etc) Ex: you don't use candy wrappers with the garbage can - Secondary Context: where provenience, association and matrix have been altered by human or natural processes; were not used by the people in that context when found

Glenn Farris

- looked at 2 oral narratives of the Kashaya Pomo at Fort Ross translated by Robert Oswalt; saw that they discussed strangers on horseback ("the undersea people") -used historical documents to compare them to these stories: found that it was the Hudson Bay Company coming in 1833 (Native Canadians part French part Indian) to hunt--tried to triangulate these stories to prove this

Thad Van Buren (CA-AMA-364/H)

-Amador County Farm -CRM work done on farm before for building of roads -Van Buren found ledger from farm (Chinese cook's grocery list for the farm, saw what foods were being processed there -lots of Chinese men came to work, so created relationships with Native American women -Native CA lithic tools there, Chinese rice bowls--associations -did geophysical work: magnometer, radiometer, mechanical grading, brought in backhoes, very finely removed topsoil, looking at soil stains to see if there were any features buried underground, laid out grid system over soil stains, point provenience artifacts, found 2 features

native landscape management

-Amah Mutsun, Ano Nuevo State Reserve, CA State parks collab, Anthropogenic burning to enhance biodiversity

reflexive methodology

-Ian Hodder argues we need to use reflexive methodology with interpretation in the archaeological process, thinking as we go -interpreting at trowel's edge -argues against linear approch to archaeology and dichotimizing data descripitions (recovery of material in field) and interpretation -says we need to be interpreting at all steps in the process of research

Ozette Site

-Makah Cultural Center there -Makah and whale hunting -bringing back whale hunting-huge part of culture, done for 1000s of years, animal protection people angry, Makah use archaeology to prove that it is a part of their lives -mudslide covered village (previous section of anthro2ac) -great preservation

Kashaya Pomo

-Native tribe at Fort Ross that Lightfoot worked with--collab archaeology, elders narratives, kella rules -Glenn Farris used their stories of the men on horseback (that Robert Oswalt translated) with historical documents to show that they were talking about the Hudson Bay Company visit of 1833

Makah Cultural Resource Center

-Patricia Erikson article -on the Olympic Peninsula, built around Ozette site -teaches about Ozette site, providing archaeological remains of Ozette site -Controversy with it--Whaling: The Makah Indians have hunted whales for a long time -stopped in 1990s, but after working out treaty with Federal government, they started again -bringing it back-key part of their life, religious, cultural, past foods; disciplines their kids -late 1990s, female whale hunted, animal rights people angry, do not take it lightly esp on Pac Coast -Makah use archaeology (ecofacts, whale remains, harpoons, spiritual) to show that whaling is a key part of their life, they've been doing it for several thousands of years -archaeology incorporated into tribal centers more, looking at the future of musuems, lots of casinos hire archaeologists

native narratives (oral history / oral tradition)

-Roger Echohawk: discusses strengths of oral narratives, that they are underutilized and undervalued, can possibly go back far in time -Glenn Farris: used with Kashaya Pomo Robert Oswalt Stories, Hudson Bay Company visit 1833

native narratives (oral history / oral tradition)

-Roger Echohawks discusses the strenghts of these; how they are underutilized in comparison to historical documents--talks about how they could possibly go far back in time (creation stories) -Glenn Farris looked at 2 oral narratives of the Kashaya Pomo at Fort Ross translated by Robert Oswalt and compared them to the historical documents that showed that it was the Hudson Bay Company arrival in 1833 of Native Canadians coming to hunt -strengths of oral narratives: *gives us indigenous perspectives, not white guy perspective we get all the time from historical documents *we get to see the entanglements from the native side -weaknesses of oral narratives: *dependent on memory and verbal transmission of teller *great debate of how far back in time we can take them *is it true or is it just a product of contemporary culture and phenomena (since it's told by people TODAY) *some sacred stories are kept secret, so we often don't get full portion of story

orphan collection

-an example is remains from Market street Chinatown San Jose -collections of artifacts that have been recovered but not analyzed and studied yet

pyrodiversity techniques

-anthropogenic burning to enhance biodiversity, especially in overgrown areas -promotes new species of plants, economic plants and provided rich feed for economic animals -able to turn scrubland into coastal grassland

culture history approach

-basically study of historical particularism: idea that all cultures are unique and need to be understood in their own cultural terms -each culture has prescribed set of rules that govern social behavior -historical continuity: culture transcends generations criticisms of culture history approach by processual: -too much emphasis on artifact classification, not enough emphasis on people behind artifacts -data description vs. explanation: always explained change through diffusion, not asking "why did this people change and who are they?"

Obsidian Hydration

-best as relative dating method, sometimes used as absolute dating method -looking at obsidian, thick, natural glass -can be sourced, geochemical sourcing, looking at the type of obsidian and comparing to those across the US (ones that have already been sourced) to find out where it's from -Obsidian hydration: when pieces of obsidian break off, the edges absorb water, creates hydration layer -best as relative dating method: thicker layer older than thinner layer -sometimes used as absolute dating method: trying to tell how long a layer takes to be made, more difficult though

ethnographic analogy (specific vs. general)

-employing present situations to understand the past -Specific analogy: directly comparing a contemporary culture to its descendants (comparing hunter gatherers in australia today to their direct descendants) -General analogy: using broader, more general characteristics present across various cultures to compare various cultures--Using similar "environmental" conditions of current cultures to compare them to cultures with similar environmental conditions in the past. Also, using similar cultural "forms" to compare. PROBLEMS: assumes cultural conservatism--assumes that characteristics over time across cultures are fairly constant, past cultures are relatively conservative and constant, but this is not true. Change does occur. -Best to use to generate hypothesis: comparing and getting idea of linkages from culture to culture can help create hypotheses

Ethnoarchaeology

-ethnoarchaeology: the study of the material culture of living people -many cultural anthropologists do not really do ethnography, many of them go and live with the groups they are studying themselves; get a better idea of the way the live, eat, the materials they use -archaeologists living with hunter gatherer groups in Australia who still practice anthropogenic burning -William Rathje: lots of ethnoarchaeology involves looking at the daily lives of people, what they cook, how they make it, how they dispose of it, how they produce tools; many archaeologists live with these groups and then go back and excavate that site (william rathje living with the people and then excavating their trash in dumps) -a lot of ethnoarchaeology involves looking at taphonomy and looking at remains after they are deposited, have to look at transformation processes (human and natural); studying how they were deposited and what happens to them afterwards

Market Street Chinatown

-example of orphan collection -first Chinatown in San Jose, post gold rush -later on CRM work done at where Fairmont hotel was to be built in San Jose, just wanted to get it done quickly so they could build the hotel -forced into Chinese Archaeology by descendant communities around -there was a fire there before so lots of things left in situ -remains gathered and stored, but never studied and analyzed because not enough funding (until Rebecca Allen and Barb Voss undertook studying them later on)

Robert Oswalt

-linguistic anthropologist that translated a number of Kashaya Pomo stories about men, women, entanglements with Spanish missionaries and Russians and native Alaskans -Glenn Farris used two of the stories he transcribed about men coming on horses (undersea people) and compared to historical documents to show that the story was about the Hudson Bay Company coming in 1833

Steve Shackley

-looked at stylistic attributes of tools -wrote about Ishi, Native Californian Indian who produced stone tools of obsidian and stone glass -looking at Ishi's tools in museums today, Shackley argued by looking at the stylistic attributes that Ishi's tools were not only influenced by his own culture but also other tribe's cultures, argued that Ishi was one of the many that banded with other tribes during times of disease and starvation and learned other tool making techniques from these other tribes

dendrochronology (& fire-scar dendrochronology)

-looking at tree rings, we can get the ages of trees directly (direct age determination) -most precise way of dating, can date the exact year of cutting, death -indicative of climate: patterns of wet-dry years, thicker ring= wet year, thinner ring=dry year -with AV Kidder, could've taken wooden beams and looked at when they were cut, when SW pueblos were built -strengths: can date exact year of when tree was cut or died ^ -weaknesses: some trees are complacent--trees that are tapped into direct water source--do not need rainfall, so they have relatively constant ring sizes; must use trees that depend on rainfall, redwood in CA -Fire-scar dendrochronology: looking at tree rings, if there are any scars on the tree rings, we can see what year the fires were implemented

spatial structure of archaeological record

-macro-scale: looking at regional distribution of sites across landscape -micro-scale: looking at spatial distribution of artifacts, ecofacts, features -with ARF atrium map, plan map -lithic tools, fire pit, bones -we can use multiple lines of evidence and the spatial structure to analyze these -first we can try to determine what kind of context all of these artifacts, ecofacts were in--if it's use-related primary and they could be used together and they just dropped them there when they were done -can look at 2nd stratum. is there any evidence of bioturbation? No, so it's use-related primary -can do radiocarbon dating on charcoal remains and bones to see how old they are--absolute, can do relative dating with lithic tools unless it's obsidian, we can do obsidian hydration (also as relative, or we could try as absolute) -we can look at tools to see if there are use-wear patterns, any debitage from the tools, we can see if they were processing bones or butchering animals with it, they could have just been throwing the bones of the animals they were eating right there -we can also do residue analysis (a little more controversial) to see what kind of animals they were butchering -we could come to the conclusion with all of these methods that these people were using the tools to butcher the animals that they cooked over the fire pit and threw away/processed the bones nearby -using multiple lines of evidence to get a coherent conclusion

duncan village project

-multiphase field strategy -pithouses excavated completely using backhoe to excavate fill from pithouses demonstrating utility and cost of high impact mechanized methods -convicts as workers -lightfoot's first project

postprocessual archaeology

-problem with cross cultural regularities, shift away from cultural revolution- re-emphasis of cultural relativism-looking at people in their contexts -problem with cultural materialism (techno environmental too materialistic -agency in archaeology: people are not faceless, genderless blobs (ruth tringham) -emic perspective -micro-scales of analysis: looking at daily practices, events, emic, people, actions -critical theory: mark leone and biases -feminist approaches

radiocarbon (C14) dating / half-life / AMS

-radiocarbon dating can be done with any organic materials -based on the decay of C-14 (what we ingest when we're living) turning into N-14 -scientists have discovered the time it takes for C-14 to become N-14 and calculated half-life...half the time it takes to become N-14 -based on beta emissions, can measure unstable electrons being released as C-14 decays -statistical average and half life: 5730 years +/-40 years is average half life; we can assume that half of the particle will be decayed in that time (5690-5770 years) -costs about 300-600 dollars for one date limitations: -how far back in time can we take it: hard if its over the given years -AMS: Accelerator Mass Spectrometry, new technology can take things back about 100,000 years, but if its older, than that's pushing it. allows us to not use all the materials we needed before and only use small amounts to date -destructive analysis: back then we needed a lot of organic material to be able to date it, now we only need small amounts for AMS--BUT we still have to ground up all these pieces to study them; can do with human remains and date them, but many tribes do not like this because human remains are sacred

stratigraphy/strata

-relative dating -law of superposition, top strata recent, lower strata older

seriation

-relative dating method -ordering, ranking materials based on stylistic attributes..we can compare and contrast and say that these are around the same age, this one is older than that one

Fort Ross/Metini Village Site

-russian historic colony est 1841 -Lightfoot did collaborative archaeology and excavation -Kashaya Pomo -Kella rules -used historical documents from the white dudes and compared to the elder oral narratives

Nels Nelson

-shellmounds Bay Area -did excavation on Ellis Landing (CA-CCO-295) shellmound -very meticulous -lightfoot looked at it later

datum

-site datum: point in grid system of archaeological site that we relate everything back too, usually in the center of the site, set up tools here and go N, S, E, W -unit datum: a point within a unit (square in grid system) that you relate everything within the unit to

plan drawing/profile drawing

-stratigraphic profiling -plan maps (section exercise)

Barbara Voss and Rebecca Allen

-studied orphan collections of San Jose Market Street Chinatown -housed 3000 Chinese men (some women and children) -fires happened here, pushed Chinese people out, White people would move in? -1980 the CRM work done from building Fairmont hotel -not really interested in Chinese archaeology, just wanted to finish to build hotel, pushed to do Chinese arch by descendant communities -remains recovered but left in boxes and not studied cause not enough funding for it -Rebecca Allen and Barbara Voss in 2002 took on orphan collection -worked with descendant communities of San Jose, scholars, historians, bringing up a whole new set of questions about the Chinese immigrants who lived there -found whiteware plates with peckmarks (identifies ownership), diverse range of non-Chinese material -they were eating non-Chinese foods and drinks and using medicines from San Jose pharmacies -Voss and Allen showing that Chinese had far more complex social network, than people thought, dealing with different cultures not just their own (not self segregating as people thought), trying to deal with questions that descendant communities were in

Albert Spaulding

-used inductive method, looking at discovered types -used attributes to look at ceramic vessels in hypothetical case study with 2 villages, total of 100 vessels per study -looked at attributes: -temper: grit/sand or shell -surface treatment: stamped or smooth -Case study 1: 25 grit and stamped, 25 shell and stamped, 25 grit and smooth, 25 shell and smooth *results: no discernable types, random types -Case study 2: 50 grit and stamped, 50 grit and smoothed *results: there were clearly 2 discernable types of vessels post processual, emic

inductive method (discovered types)

-used when defining types -Albert Spaulding used -used method with discovered types, did case studies with 2 hypothetical villages, using 100 ceramic vessels in each case -looked at 2 attributes: 1) temper: grit/sand or shell 2) surface treatment: smoothed or stamped -Case Study 1: results were that they seemed to be random *25 grit and stamped, 25 grit and smooth, 25 shell and stamped, 25 shell and smooth -Case Study 2: 2 clearly discernable types, too clear to be recording error *50 grit and stamped, 50 shell and smoothed

taphonomy

-used when doing ethnoarcheology and archaeologists and anthropologists living with living groups today and studying them and then excavating their stuff later -taphonomy: study of what happens to animal remains later on after they have been deposited into archaeological record; has to deal with transformation processes

Law of Superposition

-with stratigraphy -the idea that the materials in the upper stratum are most recent, while those in the lower are older

soil vs sediments vs dirt

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multiple lines of evidence (archaeological and non-archaeological)

1. constructions in modern world -think mark leone-critical theory (post-processual) -making interpretations through modern eyes, must be cognizant of the biases we have while making them 2. Multiple Interpretations -depends on theoretical studies and questions we do -culture history, processual, post processual, post post processual--we should look at all of them to get a richer, fuller understanding of the past 3. Not all interpretations are equally valid -finding strong vs. weak: we can't just make up stories, we need concrete ideas -material "constraints" of the archaeological record: we must ground any interpretations we make when recovering materials -ecofacts, artifacts, feature: bread and butter of archeaology, we must create coherent, concrete, logical arguments from the evidence we gather, and weed them together 4. Archaeological Data (multiple lines) -matrix, statigraphy, artifacts, ecofacts, features, associations, spatial organization, macro or micro scale?, spatial distribution across landscape 5. Challenges to constructing interpretations--employing multiple lines of evidence, not just 1 or 2 lines -using multiple is much stronger than just 1 or 2 -lightfoot says this is how we tell a strong interpretation from a weak one-if we employ multiple lines, and those lines point to a specific interpretation that makes sense of the archaeology, that is a strong interpretation

dating techniques (absolute, relative)

1. dendrochronology (absolute) 2. obsidian hydration (best as relative; trying to make it absolute) 3. radiocarbon dating (absolute) 4. seriation (relative)

why we should incorporate archaeology into historical studies

1. people with excluded pasts -kathleen deagan studying African Americans in Florida, huge part of colonial processes 2. biases of historical record -fort ross: spanish missionaires, russian colonizers

profile

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Mark Leone

Critical theory, postprocessual

deductive method (defining multiple types)

Depends on Information you need, research questions being asked, Classification 2013 · some questions could be how tools are used, manufactured

geoarchaeology

Determining age by studying the association of archaeological data with geological formations. Looking at the geology of the site, formation processes, minerals of the site, etc.

Overseas Chinese Archaeology

Great archeology that can be done in the post 1850 period; example of an orphan collection (excavated and never wrote it up); different ethnic groups that come in and think about the archeology of that; market street Chinatown (San Jose) -archaeology in urban areas: most said that Chinese were self segregating, recent archaeology and collab work says that actually there were interactions with other cultures, voss article says that many went home but actually only about 14%went home, many men stayed here, more than half that came stayed -archaeology in rural areas: amador County farm *CRM work, Van Buren *Native women with Asian men working relationships *Found ledger (basically grocery list) that Asian cook kept *Native CA lithic tools and Asian rice bowls

interpretation at trowel's edge

Ian Hodder -arguing that we need to be constantly making interpretations, and constantly thinking throughout entire research project

construction of archaeological interpretations

Ian Hodder; Issue - Data Description vs. Interpretation; Data - "Theory-Laden"; Break Down Boundaries between Field and lab; Interpretation at Trowel's Edge; Catalhoyuk Site, Turkey; Interpretation throughout Project • Ian Hodder- one of leaders of post processual • Argues that construction of arch interpretation is an ongoing dynamic process—takes place in all stages of research design. Archaeologist a few years ago (esp processual and cultural historians) tended to dichotomize data description (the recovery of arch materials from field) from interpretation • Data are "Theory-Laden": how we perceive arch materials are based on our own theoretical orientations and biases o i.e. lots of ethnobotanical remains were thrown away with soil, phytolysts are an example; also when Nels Nelson was excavatingmore than a century-what they considered to be important and recovered is diff than today—didn't pick up debitage, plant remains • Break Down Boundaries between Field and lab o Interpretation takes place in all stages of the research • Interpretation at Trowel's Edge: constantly making interpretations through all stages of your research

constituent analysis (sourcing studies)

Identify Chemical Composition; Geographical Source; X-Ray Fluorescence; Neutron Activation; Obsidian Sourcing -sourcing materials -obsidian has chemical properties that we can look at with geochemistry. we can compare them to the obsidian presence across the states, and doing geochemistry with x-ray flourescence and neuron activation, we can tell where the obsidian came from

Ishi

Ishi - Considered to be the last "wild" Native American in California. He made stone tools (1911-1916) that were stored in the Phoebe Hearts Museum of Anthropology. Steve Shackley used stylistic analysis of these Obsidian and Glass artifacts to show that the design of his tools were influenced by many tribes, not just his own. (4/22, lecture notes on Shackley reading)

Patricia Erickson

Makah Cultural Center -talks about whaling and Makah Indians

Ellis Landing (CA-CCO-295)

Nels Nelson excavation - -1906-1908: Later on, Lightfoot and grad students excavated -growing renaissance of today's archaeologists studying already excavated shellmounds, sites -Nelson was very meticulous, took very detailed notes and so did his team -Excavated this Ellis Landing shellmound, put trench in there -lots of burials and artifacts -did point provenience: 3D shot of every artifact, ecofact, and soil sample that he found in the trench (measured distance off wall, depth down -collected soil samples: still in original containers, had debitage: chipping debris from lithic tools, sea otter bones, deer bones -Lightfoot used what Nelson found to examine the biases that Nelson may have had and what he may have missed; Lightfoot compared what Nelson found to what Lightfoot and crew found -Nelson created a nice, 30 foot stratigraphic profile and plotted the location of every artifact, ecofact, and soil sample *Nelson was using more of a macro-scale, looking at the big picture of the spatial organization; Lightfoot used micro-scale, looking at the details of the spatial organization, how materials are organized, -Lightfoot and crew able to get plot the exact points of all the materials with Nelson's stratigraphic profile and GIS technology (Geographic Information System) -Today, doing radiocarbon dating to find more precise dates of Nelson's recovered materials and Lightfoot's materials too *has long chronology *looking at site in new way *small worked bone, abalone shells, shell beads (some beleive they were being made in SB and shipped up to NorCal), stone tools, back scratchers, obsidian bifaces -biologists working with the shellmound: looking at bay ecology if sea otters were to come back into the bay; using shellmound to look at sea otter bones, and look at bones of shellfish and fish to do isotopic studies and looking at changes, water salinity, season of harvest -human remains: Abalone Malekma? we can use technology from today and isotopic work and looking at DNA to see diets -seeing sciences come together, environmental studies too -we see all these old museum collections with all this knew knowledge being gained from these new studies

analyses of lithics (technological, form, stylistic)

analysis: methods we use to shed info on past people technological analysis of lithics: -flaked or chipped stone: use lithic cores or cobbles to strike these rocks, usually used on rocks with high silica content--obsidian (kryptocrystalline), struck with heavy blow, flakes drop, form sharp edges -ground stone: grinding and polishing to get shape, pestles and charmstones, in CA we don't have ceramic making, usually baskets; can combine groundstone with soapstone to make smooth edges and produces bowls form analysis of lithics: -use-wear studies: experimental archaeology, the edges of tools can be analyzed to see what activities they've done; we replicate the stone tools and do different activities with them and then look at the edges afterwards; we can compare to past tools to see what the tools were used for (wood chipping, skinning, butchering, etc.) -residue analysis: if blood hasn't come off yet, we can see the proteins on the tool and see what animals they've killed or something stylistic analysis: Steve Shackley used stylistic analysis of these Obsidian and Glass artifacts to show that the design of his tools were influenced by many tribes, not just his (ishi's) own. (4/22, lecture notes on Shackley reading) -based on aesthetics

arbitrary/ natural, cultural levels

arbitrary: predetermined levels usually with metric units measuring depth (10 cm down, 20 cm down, 30 cm down, etc) natural, cultural levels: levels are separated by cultures, or even more complex with different matrixes (one layer of soil, one layer of sand, etc)

classification

arranging or grouping materials based on similar attributes

attributes (form, technological, stylistic)

attributes: any observable characteristics of artifacts, can be isolated or defined in two or more states form: most obvious characteristics of artifacts like decorations, alterations, color, texture, that reflect choices of maker stylistic: measurable characteristics, also have to do with 3-dimensional shape of object (weight, height, length) technological: characteristics of the tools used to make the artifacts that show how artifact was made (like clay used to make pottery, or a pottery spinning wheel used to make ceramics)

data processing

clean and conserve materials; create catalogue; spreadsheet; ID number -when we recover materials we conserve them, create an ID number for them, and put them into a general catalogue where all the artifacts are -info included: specimen number, analyses (like radiocarbon dating), size, weight, provenience, association

clearing/penetrating excavation

clearing: uncovers broad horizontal expanses of an archaeological site, expose 3 dimensional structure, usually done after penetrating excavation penetrating excavation: focuses on depth, and exposing temporal dimension of site (subsurface testing phase, judgemental, probablistic sampling), getting idea of subsurface artifacts, stratigraphy

Gordon Willey

conducted regional settlement pattern surveys in Viru Valley, Peru

Walter Taylor

conjunctive approach, looking at spatial associations and spatial structures of sites (processual)

curation crisis

costs of storage in museums are very expensive: -most mainstream museums do not have lots of room left -costs 1000-1500 to get one box stored, you have a lot of boxes to store

processual archaeology

criticisms of culture history approach -recognized change was not just through diffusion, there were cross-cultural regularities (high chiefs in different parts of the world) -emphasized techno-environmental explanation of change: changes with adaptation to the environments -technology, environment, population -emphasize variation through cultures (culture history stressed similarities through diffusion); new definition of culture: Lewis Binford: people are not carbon copies of each other -conjunctive approach- Walter Taylor: looking at associations, spatial distributions -scales of analysis: macro micro -scientific method, positivism -more people getting involved, women -etic perspective: outsiders, behavior

Michael Schiffer (mr. transformational processes)

critiqued James Hill on Broken K Pueblo interpretations: -James Hill said there were time 1 and time 2 houses; t1 houses had more animal remains and t1 houses had more plant remains; argued that the area changed from a hunting gathering society to agricultural -Schiffer said that it was not do to diachronic changes, but that t2 houses were just later people dumping all there bones into older t1 houses -also critiqued lightfoot pithouse villages: lightfoot said pithouses had bigger houses with exotic goods had to do with economic status and smaller houses were poorer -Schiffer said no, smaller houses were just dumping their stuff into the older bigger houses

chronology (direct vs. indirect age determination ; relative vs. absolute dating)

direct age determination: dating materials directly, organic materials (radiocarbon) indirect age determination: when we can't date materials directly (lithics), we can date other materials associated with it (like organic materials) to estimate the original material's date Relative dating: dating materials relative to other dates, saying older or younger than, no calendar years -seriation: we can look at the positioning of materials and the qualities of them and compare them and get relative dates...this one may be older than this one -statigraphy and law of superposition Absolute dating: calendar years, using Christian calendar (AD, BC, BP (before present, before 1950); usually not THAT precise. we need to have: -time span/range: create a plus or minus margin of error -suite of dates: multiple dates so we can get an idea of that range -use multiple different methods: so we can compare results of each method to each other

Roger Echo-Hawks

discusses strengths and weaknesses of oral narratives and oral traditions (also discussed in native narrative flashcard) -says that oral narratives are undervalued and underutilized, especially compared to historical documents -long time-span argument: almost every North American tribe has creation story; some of them from today's natives say a lot about floods and megafauna, echo-hawks argues that these narratives could be indicative of the climate change that happened a LONG time ago, with sea levels rising, megafauna:mammoths, with paleo-indians, they could be descendants of current indians--great debate--how far can oral narratives that are told today go back?

historical particularism

each culture should be regarded on its own terms, within its own historical context

Emic/etic classifications

etic: looking at the "outsider's perspective." mostly looking at BEHAVIOR, behavior patterns of activity areas. not getting into the minds of people. processual archaeology. emic: "insider's perspective." mostly looking at ACTIONS. associated with post processual archaeology. supports cultural relativism, the idea that culture can only be understood in its own context, each culture is unique. understands that you can't read people's minds, so it focuses on their actions. (discovered types)

use-wear analysis

experimental archaeology -can do with lithics -after doing lithic manufacturing (recreating the tools that past people made), using the tools and doing different activities (cooking, butchering, etc.) and seeing what these processes do to the tools, the effects of these processes on the tools -can compare with past tools to see what tools were used for

NAGPRA

forces museums to produce inventory of human remains and associated funerary objects that they had and figure out who were the most likely descendants -associated with one of the reasons why mainstream museums are under fire: are they returning the remains of the tribal people back? -also associated with why we should do museum research: tribal people don't like that museums are black holes, remains go in and never come out, creates orphan collections-they just sit there, undervalued, underutilized; we should study them

metini village

fort ross -collab arch -sacred roundhouses -kella rules -no alcohol -elders

metini village

fort ross -kella rules -elders -round house -pit houses excavated completely using backhoe to excavate fill fro pit houses, ultiility and cost of high-impact mechanizied methods -no alcohol

data as "theory-laden"

ian hodder - how we perceive arch materials are based on our own theoretical orientations and biases

residue analysis

if there are remains of blood or something on tools, we can look at proteins and determine what was being butchered, cut, etc

debitage

lithic scatters; waste made in the production of tools

Soil micromorphology

looking at internal modifications of dirt -when we look at soils to see how they were created in the past -primary culture deposit: direct result from humans -secondary culture deposit: primary deposits have beenmodified

interface

looking at stratigraphic profile and stratigraphic units

matrix

medium that surrounds archaeological data

equifinality

multiple behaviors may lead to the similar archaeological signatures, results (why we use positivism and create multiple hypotheses)

Museums (museums and archaeology, museum research)

museum research-why we should do it 1. wealth of information, arch curation, sites as non-renewable resources -do field work, put in catalogs, we need to preserve them for future generations (most work done on state and federal lands are required to be put in museums) 2. low costs of museum research -way more costly and difficult to get permit for excavating rather than just studying collections already in museums 3. many sites no longer around -all the big spectacular sites have already been excavated -we can look at museum collections 4. high impact excavations, do low impact to complement -with these big spectacular sites from before, archaeologist used high impact, made big openings -now, we can take what those old archaeologists found, look at them, do some low impact archaeology with the sites, get better understanding of site and remains -we can see what the old archaeologists missed, compare their findings to ours 5. ethical issues; NAGPRA; issue of orphan collections -tribal people see museums as black holes, stuff goes in and never comes out -one of the reasons NAGPRA was enacted--repatriating the remains to rightful owners -orphan collections: when remains are found but are not studied, they just sit in original boxes for years and years--tribal people don't like that -these need to be studied ISSUES with museum research: -curation crisis: costs of storing in museums is expenive -challenged of "old" collections, you had no hand in field work: you only have someone else's results of research, you probably would've done it differently, but you are forced to work with what you have mainstream museums under fire: 1. NAGPRA and repatriation 2. little consultation with stakeholders, excluded pasts, emphasize natives in the past tense (like they're dead and gone) 3. museum exhibits and programs: colonial legacy, perspective from dominant culture 4. new developments: working with tribes more, collaborative, more consultation, new jobs for these things

ecofacts

natural materials that were not modified by humans that are significant to the archeological record analysis of ecofacts: -Paleoethnobotany, archaeobotany (looking at past plants; macro or micro: flotation for seeds nuts berries) *palynology: look at pollen and get idea of how plants have changed *starch grain processing, silica phytoliths: can get an idea of which plants were being processed before -zooarchaeology: faunal remains -coprolites: preserved feces issues: -organic remains like ecofacts look way different now than in their original state how we can use ecofacts for our benefit: -are their any evidence of fires from the plants? -looking at climate change (there's funding now to look at these areas) -looking at past environments (diet and menu; what foods process and how butchered) ecofacts are way more stressed now than they were 20 years ago

tribal museums/cultural centers

new developments: many tribes creating these, a lot of them dealing with casino money, casinos make money and use money to fund these centers allows them to: -present their own view of the past: no longer the "dead" tribes in museums, makes them no longer the objects of study but now they are the participants in knowledge-making -have community centers: elders teach language, arts, craft, many have revitilization programs, also for the public, teaches how to make baskets, teaching about religious traditions,etc -Makah Cultural and Research Center Mainstream museums and partnerships with tribal centers (Smithsonian, Hearst) -creating partnerships with tribes and loaning out or giving materials that have been stored for years so people can see them and learn about htem again -tribes can afford with casino money

percussion techniques (direct/indirect)

percussion: knocking flakes off of cores direct percussion: directly hitting a core and knocking flakes off with a hard hammer (hammer harder than core) or soft hammer (hammer softer than core) - hard woods, bone, antler indirect percussion: more precise than direct, using punch as an intermediary tool and hitting that to the core to knock flakes off -antler or bone punch, strike with stone, wood, or antler billet -better control impact of punch

Ian Hodder

post processual archaeologists who argued that interpretation should be in all stages of research -most archaeologists in the past few years (esp culture historians and processual) dichotomize data description (recovery of material) from interpretation (usually done later on) -argues that interpretations are "theory laden": our interpretations are based on our own perceptions, beliefs, biases, theoretical backgrounds -argues that we need to break down the boundary between field and lab: need to interpret at trowel's age: be constantly thinking and making interpretations throughout the entire process--from beginning through end

sampling

random sampling: every unit within data universe has equal chance of being sampled systematic sampling: first sample unit is selected randomly, and then the rest of the units are set by predetermined intervals stratified: DU is broken into types (mountains, valleys, etc), from 2 or more strata, # and % of samples determined from each type probabilistic (quantitative): employ statistical methods to choose units that are representative of entire data universe non-probabilistic (judgement): basing unit selection off of own judgement and knowledge, does not allow evaluation of how representative the sample is with respect to population

holistic approach

relevant when it comes to using multiple lines of evidence to construct archaeological data -when there are other sources available, we should bring them into the archaeological interpretation--holistic approach of historical anthropology -it is the most valuable interpretation of the past -gives people with excluded pasts histories through anthropology -generates a more multi-voice perspective -complex and challenging

deposition

since deposition, transformational processes can occur -natural forces: alluvial deposition, erosion, bioturbation (rodents digging and messing things up) -human intrusion: looting and digging up, development in area

Catalhoyuk Site, Turkey

site where post processual archaeology is being tested; (Ruth Tringham is here) dealing with issue of interpretation throughout research: interpretation at trowel's edge--we are constantly making interpretations throughout entire research process (when we excavate, when we're in the labs, meeting people throughout research, people keeping day-to-day interpretation diaries--looking at people's interpretations from day-to-day)

association

spatial relationship of data

Assemblages and subassemblages

subassemblages: grouping of tools from occupational groups; patterned set; tools within a certain community (like tools of hunters and farmers) assemblages: based on the grouping of subassemblages from entire society; get idea of what the entire society, all the groups in it, were doing

pressure flaking

technique used for manufacturing chipped stone tools in which flakes or blades are produced by applying pressure against a core usually with a punch made of wood or bone -antler or bone point -snap off small flakes directly from core -great control in removing flakes, flakes very small -typically used in final shaping of bifaces and projectile points

groundstone technology

technological analysis of lithics -grinding and polishing to get shape; pestles and charmstones; in CA we don't have ceramics (we use baskets), can combine groundstone with soapstone, usually grinding down to get smooth edges, produce bowls

flaked stone technology (chipped stone)

technological analysis of lithics -using flaked or chipped stone; usually used on obsidian (rocks with high silica content-kryptocrystalline); take lithic core or cobble and strike the stone, flakes fall down, sharpened edges

Amah Mutsun Ohlone (Amah Mutsun Tribal Band)

tribe that did anthropogenic burning

geophysical suvey

type of survey utilized to detect and record buried archaeological evidence by ground-based remote sensing methods

types

types: a class of data defined by a consistent clustering of attributes discovered: Albert Spaulding, classifying artifacts based on what the makers would have done, emic perspective, post processual, statistical analysis arbitrary: classification based on what the classifier outlines, etic perspective, processual

experimental archaeology (lithic manufacture, lithic use-wear analysis, residue analysis)

when archaeologists experiment themselves with tools, reproducing material culture, using it, seeing its effects on the tools -lithic manufacture: physically recreating the tools that past people's used (Mike and Flavio with obsidian arrowheads) -lithic use-wear analysis: using the tools that they recreate and seeing the effects of the activities on them (activities of butchering, cooking, etc) -residue analysis: if there are remnants of things like blood on the tool, we can look at the proteins there and see what animal was being butchered or what was being cut (we can do that to the tools we recreate too and compare to old tools)

Ano Nuevo State Preserve

where native people's were landscape managers, collaboration with CA state parks, Amah Mutsun Tribal Band worked with them, their ancestors lived in the area and used to do anthropogenic burning- purposefully burning area to enhance biodiversity--led to lots of new species of plants (berries, nuts, seeds) which increased productivity of area, provided rich feed for economic animals like deer and rabbits -when Russians and Spanish came in, they prohibited anthropogenic burning cause they didnt want indians burning their infrastructure; 1950 when CA became a state, they prohibited it -1700s- amah mutsun ancestors brought into the missions, lost a lot of knowledge about the burning, working with CA state parks so CA state parks can get more knowledge about it--they are all trying to revive it -landscape managers today interested in using anthropogenic burning, especially small ones, where areas are overgrown, to enhance biodiversity -4 major factures that went in 1. dendrochronology, fire-scar analysis: looking at the rings in trees to date how old the trees are, using the rings and the year that they were from with scars from fires--we can tell when burning when was done 2. Palynology: the study of pollen, studying cores, we can see how the plants changed over time 3. archaeobotany, macroscopic remains, flotation, phytoliths and microscoping: the study of plant remains in archeology, we can use flotation to see what kinds of plants were growing back then (seeds and nuts); phytoliths: microscopic silica bodies found in plants, looking at them with microscopes we date them back with radiocarbon dating 4. transition from scrubland to coastal grassland: the anthropogenic burning enhanced it this way