Anthro exam 2

Genus Homo

-Where did they live? - early hominins = East Africa, The Great Rift Valley open savannah grasslands -Why did they expand? -Homo erectus was the first to leave - chart in book Why did they leave Africa? When? Who?

Subsistence

"Making a Living" = Satisfaction of the most basic material survival needs (food, clothing, and shelter) - Adaptive Strategies are the methods for meeting these needs

virilocality

(living with relatives of the groom) - more common among Iraqi or Jordanian villagers who practice virilocality in a very patrilineal descent group system

Domestication

* involved the alteration of both plants & animals * was more specialized and focused on a smaller # of food sources compared to broad spectrum foraging

Immature Birth

* skulls of newborns are not fully formed, are actually elastic, and continue to grow outside womb - could explain why primate species, especially ape species, have extended period of infant dependency - compromise b/t competing evolutionary trends (bipedalism and big brains)

Royal Incest

* very common for European royalty to marry within its extended family * it's a way of maintaining status, alliances, and power & why some medical conditions are in royalty (increased genetic malady within limited royal incest gene pool) * ex) hemophilia- Charles II

Genus homo types

- Homo habilis (1.9-1.44 mya) - Homo erectus (2.9-500,000 B.P) - Homo heidelbergensis (800,000-200,000 B.P) Homo sapiens 300,000BP to present

Cohen's Typology

Disclaimers: - Not perfect: groups may possess some correlated features but not all - Not an evolutionary schema - Not mutually exclusive; many co-exist within the same society

Primates

Many things that we may consider uniquely human exist amongst our primate cousins 1. Learning 2. Tool Use (termite fishing) -chimps take a branch, remove leaves and put it down in a termite mound to fish out termites and eat them 3. Hunting (some chimps hunt monkeys) 4. Symbolic Communication (a lot of nonhuman apes with the ability to manipulate complex symbol based systems)

Marriage and Groups

Marriage is often a system of alliances b/t families and descent groups - through this lens, incest taboo can be understood as a way of extending alliances b/t kin groups and diff familial units -exogamy -endogamy

Primate tendencies

means they are trends and are exceptions- these primate tendencies constitute an anthropoid heritage that we as humans share with monkeys and apes; however, most are developed in haplogroups (monkey and apes) - this evidence shows strepsirrhines are more distantly related to humans then monkeys and apes 1. grasping ability 2. reliance on sight over smell 3. reliance on hand over nose 4. brain complexity 5. parental investment 6. sociality

Haplorrhines have branched further into

monkeys and apes after that split many many many mya

Did we evolve from contemporary monkey species?

o NO - we share a common ancestor with many monkey and ape species

brow ridge

related to work done by front teeth ripping and tearing

Humans and Apes

redundant b/c we humans are apes

Marriage

refers to the customs, rules, and obligations that establish a special relationship b/t sexually cohabitating adults, typically (but not exclusively) male and female, b/t them and any children they produce (together or singly), and b/t the kin of the spouses ´ Marriage, everywhere, involves the legitimation of sex, procreation, gender, and kinship - ex) Same-sex Unions (Nuer); "Living together"

Animal Domestication

sheep and goats were bred to be smaller, more docile, and to be more efficient producers of wool, hair, milk, fat and meat

homologies

similarities used to assign organisms to the same taxon - mammals share certain traits that set them apart from other taxa like birds, reptiles, amphibians and insects; one thing that separates them from animal kingdom is mammary glands - primates share structural & biochemical homologies that distinguish them from other mammal taxa like carnivores or rodents

fictive kin

there are kin not through marriage or blood that we have very close relationships with; kin we choose

Homo Neadertalensis DNA Evidence

§ 1-4% of Neandertal genome incorporated within the DNA of living Europeans and Asians (but not Africans) - evidence of some interbreeding; if there is more DNA, the percent would be a lot higher if they interbred a lot § DNA suggests that neandertal ancestors split from Archaic Homo sapiens about 660,000 years ago, i.e. their last common ancestor, with AMH's evolving in Africa and spreading out from there - Neandertals going more and more west; last stand= Strait of Gibraltar § Neandertals were gone by 39,000 years ago - probably outcompeted and driven to extinction by archaic and anatomically modern humans

Substantivists

· (more in line w economic anthropologists) rejected this arguing that: 1. There is more than one economic rationality above and beyond capitalism 2. Not everything has a price and is for sale 3. Self-interested materialism not universal 4. Capitalist market not the only mode of exchange

Bronislaw Malinowski

Trobriand Islands -kula ring-reciprocity

Australopith sexual dimorphism

anatomical differences b/t males and females; females are about 66% size of males

ancestral hominids(chimps, gorillas, humans)

appeared abt 8 mya

Formalists

applied neoclassical economics to non-Western societies and portrayed them as "closet capitalists" (they're still trying to maximize their profit and minimize their expenditure built around this marker)

Adaptive Strategies are based on

correlations (associations or co-variations b/t 2 or more variables/ there are certain trends you see across different cultures that would place them in certain adaptive strategies) - factors that are linked and interrelated - typically found together - when change happens to one, the other tends to experience change as well

Kin Types

descent: Collateral (siblings, aunts, uncles, nieces, nephews) vs Lineal (parents, grandparents, children, grandchildren; direct line) relatives 1. blood and marriage 2. parallel vs cross cousins 3. fictive kin

interrelated

diet, dentition, and cranial morphology

phylogeny

many similarities b/t organisms reflect this -their genetic relatedness based on common ancestry - point is that related organisms share features inherited from the same ancestor - not only resemblance but also relatedness

Alternative Ends

spend our scarce money: - Subsistence (food), Replacement, Social (spending time with people), Ceremonial (various important events), Rent Funds

How are Homo sapiens sapiens similar or different from monkeys and apes?

- monkeys are not apes; apes are not monkeys - chimpanzees are apes - monkeys and apes are primates ---these are taxonomical divisions and are not interchangeable labels

Geographical Distribution of Old-World Monkeys

found in Africa or Asia

high plateau

highest region (5000 ft)

Kinship symbols

ego= whose diagram we are looking at (shade yourself)

hominins (ancestors of humans and only humans)

evolved into several species ~last 2.5 million years~ · idea of "missing link" b/t chimps and humans is based on false assumption that humans evolved from chips and maybe gorillas · human ancestors split off from chimp and gorilla ancestors about 6 mya

Reciprocitty

exchange relationships b/t individuals and groups - most common among foragers, cultivators and pastoralists, more egalitarian societies - exist in highly modern industrialized Western nation states 1. Generalized 2. Balanced 3. Negative

balanced reciprocity

exchange w/ anticipation of equal return (e.g. Christmas gifts, bartering, cooperative work- Amish); close but not as close

generalized reciprocity

exchange with no expectation of immediate return (e.g. parent-child giving, most common amongst foragers); social closeness; most common in foraging

zygomatic arches

flaring cheekbones, but usually made room for large chewing muscles related to chewing intensive diet

Geographical Distribution of New World Monkeys

found in forests for the most part of Central and South America

Homo erectus and Stone tools

had larger brains and better tools (Acheulian) - Acheulian hand axes ª This led to an increased reliance on hunting (changed diet) and animal protein (shift from fibrous, gritty chewing to animal protein) ª Less robust cranial morphology and dentition ª Very robust head and body; muscular as a species ª had occipital bomb? on back of their cranium, which is a flat platform on the back of their skull, calcification related to very large neck muscles

Potlaches

most common redistribution ´ Northwest Coast of North America ´ Salish, Kwakiutl, etc. ´ disputes about status were often resolved at these ceremonies, at which rivals competed for honor, prestige of giving away the greatest amounts of property ´ Community members (often chiefs and other leaders) give away food, blankets, copper, and so forth in order to gain prestige - moving from local level to center ´ Through the lens of classical economic theory, in which the profit motive is viewed as a human universal, potlatching is irrational and wasteful - people giving stuff away with nothing in return—considered irrational behavior - this view helped mobilize the US gov to outlaw Potlatch ´ Such a rational mindset is ethnocentric and fails to consider alternative meanings and social functions ´ Esteem is not always quantifiable/ quantitative - not about the money; highly rational - there's social benefits that one can get in return for giving away lots of stuff at the potlatch ´ A substitute for war? ´ It can also be interpreted through an ecological lens (times of plenty vs times of scarcity)

matrilocality

moving to bride's community; children grow up in their mother's village

patrilocality

moving to the husband's community; children grow up in their father's village

piedmont steppes

next to hilly flanks; treeless plain

Sahelanthropus Tchadensis (6-7 MYA)

o "Toumai" - Discovered in Chad in 2001 (central Africa); - Hagopain ish; lived in mixed forest grassland lake river eco-system; 6-7 mya o Blends apelike and human characteristics - chimp sized brain (320-380 cc) & has a brow ridge - had flat human like face and anterior foreman magnum o Lived in mixed environment o Anterior foramen magnum (bipedalism?) o Hominin? Inconclusive - right now there's only cranium remains

Why study non-human primates?

o It provides a standard to assess human uniqueness o It helps us make sense of behaviors that are thought to be distinctly human - many behavioral adaptations are found among non-human primates - helps us make sense of many behaviors that appear to be distinctly human or behaviors that have historically been viewed or thought to be distinctly human o We are closely related - we share over 98 percent of our DNA with chimpanzees and gorillas as homo sapiens o We share an evolutionary history

Old World Monkeys (Catarrhines)

o More terrestrial; some are arboreal; some have tails & they can't grasp with it o Greater degree of sexual dimorphism (Baboons) - this refers to anatomical difference's b/t biological males and females of a given species - sometimes referred to as temperamental differences - male macaques, male baboons are often larger, more fiercer than female counterparts

Changes in North American kinship

o Nuclear families accounted for 19% of American households in 2018 o More women joining workforce, especially after WW2 o Later age of 1st marriage o Higher divorce rate o Increase in single-parent families (tripled b/t 1970 and 2015) o Percentage of married adults decreased o Trend toward smaller families and households

Marital Alliances

o Some customs preserve the relationship b/t 2 groups of a kin in the case of spousal death o Sororate: widower marries on of his deceased wife's sisters (or another woman from her group if a sister is not available) o Levirate: widow marries one of her deceased husband's brothers (Tiv)

Social Organization, Diet, and Fire

o Terra Amata, 300,000-year-old campsite in France - major maybe a homo heidelbergensis campsite discovered - remains of lots of diff animals which shows diet of people here; included: deer, elephant, mountain goat, rhino, wild ox, turtle, bird, oyster, mussels and fish - found huts and controlled fire in form of hearts - earliest evidence of controlled fire in the form of hearts o Dietary Changes o Fire as a tool o Fire enabled our ancestors (and closely related ancestral species) to cook vegetables and meat, feed younger and older members softer foods, and eliminated certain parasites from their diet - newest evidence dated around 1 million years ago from Wunder Work Cave in South Africa- microscopic plant ashes and burned bits of bone (no huts at campsite)

Tool Technologies

o Tool-Making traditions (following Oldowan) o Lower Paleolithic (Acheulian, H. erectus) o Middle Paleolithic (Mousterian, neanderthals) o Upper Paleolithic (Blade tools, Homo sapiens sapiens) - tools got more defined, more developed, more fine-tuned over time - associated exclusively with species

Industrialism

o based on machines and chemical processes(fuel) which make the development of manufacturing, mass production and mechanization possible o produces large, mobile, skilled, specialized and (differently) educated labor forces o These labor forces are controlled by states and employed by firms (multinational corporations- ones that transcend beyond national boundaries)

Early States

o first states developed in the alluvial plains (Tigris and Euphrates/ Mesopotamia) of what is now Iraq (then Sumer) and Iran (then Elam) b/t 6,000 and 5,500 BP o Uruk, capital city of Sumer, had a population of about 50,000 people by 4,800 BP o Middle East, China, Egypt, and India/Pakistan - 4 great early River Valley states of the Old World, where irrigation helped utilize rich soil and support large populations

The Natufians

o first worked out the initial adaptation to this array of climates - harvested wild cereals, hunted gazelles, wild sheep and goats o Built permanent villages in the Hilly Flanks near densest supply of wild wheat; couldn't continue nomadic lifestyle b/c they had to stay close to dense supply of wild wheat o Became sedentary to remain close to wild grain - harvested 2,000 pounds of wheat to feed themselves for a year o Surplus way more food than they can consume in a short period of time so they had to become sedentary

Exogamy

seeking a mate outside one's own group - links people to a wider social network that nurtures, helps and protects them in times of need - marries outside in order to preserve a resource, a state of purity or a sense of difference or a sense of superiority

Endogamy

seeking a mate within one's own group (e.g. Caste System) - people have to marry within their inter caste b/c they're thought to lead to ritual impurity for the higher caste partner - arranged marriages

Economics

study of economy systems

The Chosen Primate

this list is fluid and always changing) * At present, we imagine the following as distinctly human: 1. Share food widely and routinely 2. Cooperate in planning and carrying out complex, multistage tasks- difference of degree! their plans are not as complex as that found among humans or will it have as many stages 3. Use spoken language- difference of kind (many primates have call systems- they are not a spoken language with grammar, etc.) 4. Classify others as kin of various types and interact with them for life (they don't classify others as kin of various types or as many types as humans do) - the way primates evolve has been increasingly subject to inclusive fitness and group selection strategies - this trend has led to the heavy reliance on culture found among humans

Phylogenetic Tree

- We will briefly touch on some species ("Toumai" and Ardipithecus species) whose status is up for debate; early hominids - Our focus is on the species that are commonly understood to be the first hominins (Genus Australopithecus) - Some of these species are direct ancestors while others are extinct "side branches" - evolution isn't clear cut; a lot of species existed alongside one another (some outcompete others)

sagittal crest

- aka bone mohawk; calcification outcropping that goes front to back, back to front & related to a lot of work done by chewing muscles - developed at diff rates

Exchange (not mutually exclusive)

- all exist within our society 1. Reciprocity 2. Redistribution 3. Markets - these principles of exchange are not mutually exclusive. In fact, they all operate within our society

Parental Investment (Orangutan)

- almost all primates give birth to a single offspring rather than to a liter - primate babies also take a longer time to develop compared to almost all other mammals; they require constant attention and supervision, and as a result, infant primates have more learning opportunities than other mammals - learned behavior (learned culture is an important part of primate adaptation)

Sociality (Gorillas and Snow Monkeys)

- as primates, we tend to be social & live with other members of our species - such sociality is selective value as living and social groups helps provide long term and attentive care to offspring - *** LOOK AT CHART

Brains as hard drives

- at birth, they are big and empty--> Darwin and Lamarck working in tandem - language was evolving at this point; we can conceptualize language capacity as part of the formatting on the empty brain & filled with knowledge

tool use (especially stone tools)

- fire (led to dietary changes); able to hunt and create tools to hunt

Brain complexity (Bonobo named Kanzi)

- we have complex brains - the proportion of brain tissue concerned with memory, thought and association has increased in primates - primates are really smart, and apes are among the smartest of all living things

Reliance on Hand over Nose (Macaque)

- we rely on a sense of touch as conveyed by our tactile organs - we rely on these things to provide us with information - cats and dogs have tactile pads on their nose & whiskers to gather sensory data - we rely on our hands for sensory data

Linnaeu's Regnum Animale (1735)

-Grouped all living things according to similarities & differences -he was working within the creationist worldview--> he viewed all these similarities and differences as fixed and unchanged from the point of creation

Incest Taboo

While the specific forms of incest are culturally specific, a taboo against incest is a human universal. There are many theories that attempt to explain why: 1. Inbreeding avoidance, instinctive or otherwise; disgust at the thought of mating with our close relatives 2. Familiarity breeds contempt; the more time we spend with someone, the less we like them 3. Prevention of domestic chaos; idea to keep domains separate away from sexual sphere or different spheres of life separate from one another 4. Marry out or die out; forming coalitions and alliances with other groups - royal incest Israel insists they marry in to not die out

Unilineal

Descent rule only uses one line (so either patrilineal OR matrilineal) - exists in a lot of Pacific Islander cultures

Ambilineal

Descent rule that recognizes either female or male line, which a person can choose

Bride wealth (lobola)

Gifts given by groom's family to bride's family upon marriage - it is more common in patrilineal descent systems - compensation for the loss of the bride's companionship, but also the loss of her labor - compensation for the fact that her children are becoming members of groom's lineage - cattle and domesticated livestock

New World Monkeys (Platyrrhines)

Prehensile Tail (Capuchin) ; all have tails - can grasp with their tail - can do brachiation thru trees - smaller to help them move through trees and brachiation; quick and agile to help them escape predators ª Arboreal (Tree- Dwelling; Woolly Spider monkey) ª Nasal Morphology (Pygmy Marmoset) (Platyrrhines) - all monkeys share locomotion diff to humans and apes - things that older monkeys share w new world monkeys are analogies!! resulting from convergent evolution - assigned to diff order because they were separated from Catarrhines years ago - New World and Old-world monkeys have made similar adaptations to similar environmental pressures - since separation, old world monkeys split from apes and apes have split in diff age species

Bilateral

Kinship systems that don't have descent groups (i.e. relatives on mother's and father's side are considered to be the same kind of relatives) - US

Homogamy

Marrying people who are similar to you - only groups Americans consistently marry out of are gender and our close kin - same sex marriage is far less common in terms of overall numbers than marrying outside of your own sex or gender

Matrilineal

Membership based on relatedness through female ancestors

Patrilineal

Membership based on relatedness through male ancestors - we have the same surname as our father (mother takes surname from husband)

Primate Taxonomy

Taxonomies assign & organize organisms to categories according to their relatedness and resemblance - one thing Linnaeus wasn't paying attention to was relatedness -phylogeny -homologies -analogies

Orangutans (genus Pongo)

´ mostly living in Sumatra but also Borneo ´ sexual dimorphism (males weigh more than twice of females) ´ eat things like fruit, bark, leaves, insects ´ live in jungles and feed in trees- more difficult to study ´ more solitary, less social compared to species like chimps and gorillas ´ Last common ancestor: around 13 million years ago ´ in constant threat as their habitats are essentially old growth forests in Borneo & Sumatra & they are being illegally logged

Geographic Distribution of Apes

· African apes: Gorillas, Chimpanzees, and Bonobos; Asiatic apes: gibbons and orangutans (orangutans are only found in Borneo and Sumatra)

Market Based Exchanges

· All-purpose money on currency (as a "relation" substitute) · Supply and Demand · Leads to greater fluidity, diversity, and diversity of exchange much faster than through generalized or balance reciprocity or redistribution

Homo Habilis

· Homo habilis appears about 2 mya · Coexisted with P. boisei (hyper robust Australopithecine) for roughly half a million years · 650-800 cc - still had many traits more in line with the Australapiths than members of genus Homo · Long arms, small body · Oldowan tools

negative reciprocity

attempt to get something for nothing (e.g. cattle raiders) -Continuum Questions: 1. How closely related are the parties to exchange? Is there social distance or social closeness? 2. How quickly and unselfishly are gifts reciprocated?

Australopith dentition and cranial morphology

¨ (molar size LARGE) - features include adaptations related to diets & phenotypes; coarse, gritty, fibrous vegetation for their diet in grasslands and semi desert env.; their head, jaw, and teeth = designed for heavy chewing Cranial Morphology (sagittal crest, zygomatic arches)

Cosmologies

(view anthropology as a new and improved cosmology) · A system of thought through to make sense of the world around us as well as our place within the world · Theories of evolution attempt to make sense of human origins, just as accounts of divine creation do · This parallel trend in new and old cosmologies continues in our discussion of food production or domestication (how we as human beings have acquired in less than 10,000 years) - old cosmologies reassert themselves in tales of domestication - food of production is in Genesis and more subtle in Kottak (construed as a curse that accompanies knowledge) · Genesis 3: 17-19 - they ate from the tree of KNOWLEDGE; got expelled and here is punishment, domestication toiling the land · Kottak 11:265 - 99% homo has been on earth, there has been NO domestication; however, in this short period of time, it has been accompanied by huge social differences · These texts place humans in original "state of nature" that is preferable in many ways to the kinds of societies we live in now · As societies became more urban, industrial, and stratified, humans have conceptualized these other ways of life as a form of utopia - western society has a long history of idealizing and romanticizing foraging or hunter-gather societies, imaging them as living, idealistic, peaceful lives away from technologies

blood and marriage

* Affine/Affinal (through marriage) vs Consanguine/ Consanguineal (through blood) - all collateral and lineal kin are consanguine

Rift Valley

* East Africa's Rift Valley where the majority of early hominin evolution occurred - bit of an outlier because majority of early hominid evolution occurred in east africa's rift valley region, which is an open savannah grassland ecology * "Toumai" as outlier * open grassland/ savannah ecologies * This geography indicates the separation of chimp and gorilla ancestors from Homo ancestors * Ardipithecus and Australopith species

Non-kinship based Institutions

* Our nuclear families rely on non-kinship based institutions to survive * Hospitals, day cares, kindergarten, nurseries, nursing homes, etc. * Are these institutions kin substitutes? * Are we really married to our jobs?

Plural Marriage & serial monogamy

* What about the US? * Serial Monogamy individuals may have more than one spouse, but never more than one at the same time * Why aren't more Americans advocating, along with some-sex unions, the legalization of polygamy? there's something about monogamy as this human tendency that is winning

Redistribution

* When goods, services, or their equivalent move from the local level to a center * Taxation, Pooling, Tribute, food surplus etc. * Eventually flows in the reverse, from the center back to the people * Think about the food surplus that drives state formation

Economics and the Market Principle

* developed as part of industrial society, as a way of understanding how goods and services are produced, distributed, and consumed in modern, cash-based market economies * The Market Principle (an assumption): Infinite Wants, Scarce Means, Profit Maximization, and Rationality - people have infinite wants but scarce means; their time, labor, money and capital to obtain what they want - rational (get more for less) b/c it will lead eventually to behaviors that maximize profit for individuals

Evolutionary Trends

* growing brains were accompanied by related anatomical changes; infant dependency * Growing Brains, Birth Canals, and Bipedalism - as the brains of our hominin ancestors got larger, their birth canals got wider to accommodate huge craniums - however, birth canals can only physically get wide before compromising one's bipedalism - competing evolutionary trends; evolutionary constraint on brain science; overcame with: ** Immature Birth ** Brains as hard drives

Ardi

- 4.4 mya - Most complete early hominid (potentially hominin) specimen (110 diff pieces of fossilized bone found) - earliest most complete skeleton of an individual - Weighed about 120 pounds, 4 feet tall; gripping toes to help them with arboreal lifestyle - discovered in 1994 only about 45 miles from where Lucy was discovered

Mode of Production

- ways of organizing production; "a set of social relations through which labor is deployed to wrest energy from nature by means of tools, skills, organization and knowledge" (Eric Wolf, anthropologist)

Genus Ardipithecus

- Ardipithecus kadabba (5.5-5.8 mya) - Ardipithecus ramidus (4.4 mya) - Bipedal, but apelike in size, anatomy and habitat - Earlier hominin? - had teeth - arboreal - chimp like in terms of dentition, cranium morphology, etc. relatively small brain - not definitive

Irrigation

- Between 6,000 and 7,000 BP people learned how to bring water into areas that did not have enough water for agriculture - Irrigation enabled people to live in large towns and cities on the alluvial plain, which had rich soils - It also allowed for even larger surpluses & sedentary

Diff modes of production

- Capitalist and industrial modes of production are not the only one humans have created - if there's more than one mode of production, then there's going to be more than one economic rationality - Diff modes of production are structured in ways that alter the character of what individuals want, what they consider scarce or valuable, and how they, as individuals, can get the things they want - diff modes of production create diff ideas of scarcity, diff ideas of what is valued and how you go about obtaining what you desire Þ Among the !Kung- Meat (sharing- general reciprocity) Þ Among the Auburnites- Time/money/status/choice/autonomy

Cave of Forgotten Dreams

- Chauvet Cave, France - up to 32,000 years old - evidence of behavioral modernity

Robust Australopiths

- Genus Paranthropus - Large post canine teeth (hyper robust- P. boisei) - Smaller incisors and canines - Flatter faces - Large chewing muscles - Gracile (A. africanus) vs Robust (P. robustus) Forms; bipedal - gracile forms are slighter less rugged, smaller chewing teeth and smaller faces; less pronounced cranial morphology; FIGURE 6.3

Genus Homo + Neandertal

- Homo erectus on upper left; rapid increase in brain size after Homo habilis, but still a smaller brain than all subsequent species seen here - homo erectus: larger front teeth, brow ridge - Neandertal: largest cranial capacity of any species; larger front teeth more ripping and tearing; animal, heavy diet, prominent brow ridge - anatomically modern human: small teeth, small chewing muscles, no real arches/brow ridges, no slanting foreheads, very smooth & flat

American kinship

- Our American nuclear families also tend to be matrilaterally skewed - Women seem to be doing more of the work of kinship in the nuclear family in contemporary Western societies; very gendered - Why no Grooms? (never seen groom's magazine) - it's a consumer product; if there is a consumer base for groom's magazine, we would have a groom's magazine - instructive that we have a Bride's magazine, but not a Groom's magazine & heteronormative terms

Plural Marriage

- Polygamy: having more than one spouse - Polygyny: one man, several wives - Polyandry: One woman, several husbands

Surplus Production

- Surplus production led to greater organization and oversight of food stores 1. Greater organization of harvest 2. Greater limitation of access 3. Increased routinization of distribution 4. New limits on consumption

Hilly Flanks (new Garden of Eden)

- The Fertile Crescent in the Middle East -Vertical Economy consisting of 4 geographically close, but very different, environmental zones (differ in climate, vegetation and altitude) 1. high plateau 2. hilly flanks: below high plateau & is a subtropical woodland zone flanking those rivers to the north; fertile crescents in middle east 3. piedmont steppes 4. alluvial plain

Expansion and Domestication

- These changes were mostly related to population size; populations were growing in these new sedentary permanent settlements - Once they reached carrying capacity, the population spilled out into new ecological niches and marginal zones - Domestication was the gradual result of attempts to recreate the Hilly Flanks economy in new climates like the Piedmont steps through trial and error over time

Nuclear Family

- Typical members are parents and their (not exclusively) biological children - The typical American family is small and impermanent

Who went where? Who ate what?

- gorillas lived in mountain forests and become vegetation eaters - chimps and bonobos lived in forests/woodlands (still do) and eat fruit - hominins: savannah grassland and ate seeds, nuts, berries, chewing intensive food

foreman magnum

- hole in base of skull where the spinal cord connects to brain; more anterior for humans and posterior for species like chimps (early trait that distinguishes early hominids from hominins) - australopiths start at around 430 but never past 600 cc

Same-sex Unions (Neur) "Living Together"

- patrilineal society in Sudan; property is passed down thru male offspring - if father had only daughters, he'd ask one daughter to assume the son position and marry a wife (not sexual but social and symbolic one) - this social allows the patrilineal to continue as the female husband is socially recognized as the male heir & cultural circumstance - American society often remains a necessary prerequisite for people to live together for cohabitation

Changes in Family and Household Organization in US

- patterns of American kinship have changed over time and the reality fails to match w/ the cultural ideal of the nuclear family - nuclear family is a small minority (more ideal culture rather than real culture) - as our population has gotten larger in the US, we see the overall # of people in the household getting smaller - increases in single mother and father families - half the number of married couples living with children

Grasping ability (loris)

- primates have 5 digits on our hands and feet that are suited for grasping - as humans became more bipedal (upright locomotion, walking on two legs) we have eliminated the grasping ability of our feet

Reliance on Sight over Smell (Gibbon)

- primates have stereoscopic vision - we have binocular vision (forward facing eyes and can see in depth and color)

Analogies, convergent evolution

- similar traits & features can arise when unrelated species adapt to similar selective forces and or environmental pressures in similar ways - such similarities are call analogies result of convergent evolution; one unrelated living thing relates to similar environmental pressures in similar ways - its resemblance is not evidence of relatedness or homologies - ex) what are fish? are dolphins fish? no, they're mammals. but what kind of traits do dolphins and fish share with one another? they have fins, they are hairless for efficient locomotion in water, etc. - traits shared b/t dolphins and fish are analogies - another example: birds and bats - in forming taxonomies, scientists strive to only use homologies Platy- flat nose catarrhine- sharp nose --> we are more closely related to all species of monkeys than we are to non-primate animals like dogs, cats, kangaroos or buffalo

Economic Anthropology

- study of economics in cross cultural comparative perspective - it is the part of the discipline that debates issues of human nature that relate directly to the decisions of daily life and making a living - How are production, distribution, and consumption organized in different societies? This question focuses on systems of human behavior and their organization - What motivates people in different societies to produce, distribute, or exchange, and consume? Here the focus is not on systems of behavior but the individuals who participate in those systems

Kinship Calculation

- system through which people in a society conceptualize kin relationships - involves distinguishing b/t diff varieties of relatedness & accounts for diff forms of connection (like blood, marriage, and descent) - Kin Type (biological & refer to the actual genealogical relationship) vs Kin Term (labels given in a particular culture to describe diff kinds of relatives)

parallel vs cross cousins

- the sex/gender of linking relative of the parent's generation is the same (father's brother/ mother's sister) any children they have to you are parallel cousins - if the sex/gender is different (father's sister's children or mother's brother's children) any children they have to you are cross cousins

The State

- these larger surpluses required greater administration and oversight - This led to the emergence of the State: a form of social and political organization that has a formal, central government and a division of society into social classes - Surplus Takers (ruling elite priests), Production Organizers (also apart of central gov, artisans, officials dependent on populations of food producers), and Food Producers (commoners, slaves) - wealth in all state societies tends to concentrate among upper tiers like PO but especially surplus takers

How do we decide whether a fossil discovery is a hominin or a hominid?

- these terms refer to the degree of relatedness b/t humans and closely related ape species, hominids with the D or humans, African apes and their immediate ancestors - hominiN: specific label referring to ancestral human species that existed after our evolutionary line split from African ape line (~ 6 mya) - all hominins are hominids; chimps are just hominids not hominins - hominid: broader, more inclusive; includes all human ancestral species including before and after the split from African apes - before and after Hagopian hominids hominin after split from Ogopan

Haplorrhines

-nostrils tend to be surrounded by dry, hairy skin (Chimpanzee) -bigger than Strep & bigger brains (biggest primate: Gorilla) -diurnal (Bonobo) -gregarious (social)

Strepsirrhines (Africa, Indonesia, South Asia)

-nostrils tend to be surrounded by moist, naked skin (Ring-Tailed Lemur) -smaller than Haplorrhines -relatively smaller brains compared to Haplorrhines -nocturnal (Lemur) --- tapetum! -solitary

Hominin Evolutionary Trends

1. Body Size 2. Locomotion (i.e. movement towards bipedalism); foreman magnum 3. Cranial Capacity (i.e. big brain) 4. Tool Use 5. Dentition (tooth size, type) 6. Cranial Morphology (brow ridge, sagittal crest, zygomatic arches) 7. Diet 8. these traits change at diff rates; but today, as major adaptions and changes over time, culminating in Homo sapiens sapiens, the last hominin species alive today

New Problems

1. Decline in public health - state societies saw less varied diet that was less nutritious or healthy compared to a foragers diet that was rich in protein and low in fats and carbs 2. diseases and epidemics - diseases like smallpox didn't start impacting humans until we started being sedentary in large numbers alongside animals 3. increased poverty, inequality, and crime - resources were no longer common goods; less egalitarian, less equal 4. large-scale warfare - large massive populations fighting for superiority 5. environmental degradation - dense sedentary populations acquire space to live, which leads to deforestation - smelting and chemical processes lead to air pollution - salts, chemicals and microorganisms accumulate in irrigated fields

Foraging

1. Depends on naturally available food - tend to travel based on season 2. Small populations - usually less than 100 people but foraging an adaptive strategy is reliable and allows for large amounts of leisure time 3. Mobile and flexible 4. Relatively egalitarian (doesn't encourage social stratification) 5. Gendered division of labor - two important distinctions: man or woman, and young or old - men hunt or fish - women gather and collect - tend to be egalitarian ex) Dobe Ju'Hansi (Lee); Hadza of Tanzania; Australian Aborigines - modern foragers are influenced by national and international policies and the political economic events in the world system (don't view them this way b/c this is the extreme ideology of the Noble Savage) 6. Judging other cultures is problematic for a # of reasons: a. it evaluates one culture based on its perceived level of progress in contrast to Western societies b. it fails to understand the relationship b/t human groups and the environments in which they live (there's a reason why some groups are hunter gatherers rather than agriculturalists)

For most Americans marriage is NOT supposed to be based on

1. Explicitly about economics 2. Made by parents 3. Against the will of espoused 4. For reasons other than love or for impersonal reasons ´ Marriages based on these factors are often (negatively) viewed as arranged marriages - the more cultural distance we place b/t ourselves and cultures different from our own in both time and space, the more likely we are to view these other types of marriages as arranged ´ Americans typically don't believe in arranged marriages

Broad Spectrum Revolution

1. Global Warming 2. Receding Glaciers - end of last Ice Age, glaciers are treated, and climates became drier 3. Expansion of Human Range - many species of big game, those megafauna that were hunted by Neanderthals, wooly mammoths, wooly rhinos all went extinct to pursue new resources 4. Foragers pursued a more generalized economy - with glacier retreat at the end of EU Ice Age, foragers pursued a more generalized economy, one focusing less on large animals (BROAD SPECTRUM PERIOD) ´ By 10,000 BP people in the Middle East were subsisting on domesticated crops and animals and living in permanent settlements - humans hunted, gathered, collected and cut and fished a wider range or broader spectrum of plant and animal life; diverse diets - people in Middle East were already subsisting on domesticated wheat, goats and sheep & living in permanent settlements ´ By 7,000 BP people were abandoning broad spectrum economies in favor of economies based on a small # of domesticated sources of food

Next Time

1. Hunting and gathering were the primary subsistence practices for most of human history 2. Plant and animal domestication emerge out of such lifestyles 3. The Neolithic Revolution began in the Middle East 10,000 years ago and spread throughout Old World

Key Attributes of early cities/states

1. Larger and more densely populated than previous settlements 2. Productive farming economies supporting dense populations, often including cities 3. Taxation used to accumulate resources needed to support a growing number of specialists (rulers, a military, a control over human labor) 4. Monumental Architecture (pyramids, ziggurats) that symbolized status of rulers 5. Had some form of record-keeping, usually a written script (like cuneiform first recognized form of writing and bureaucracy) - does not imply linguistic standardization b/c cuneiform was not a spoken language 6. Social Stratification (sharp social divisions based on unequal access to wealth and resources) - combine 6 and 4 together and go back to surplus takers, production organizers and food producers (form of pyramid) - wealth in all state societies tends to concentrate among those upper tiers (ST AND PO)

Apes

1. Larger bodies compared to monkeys 2. Longer lifespans 3. Longer birth intervals & period of infant dependency 4. A tendency towards upright posture 5. Larger brains 6. Shorter faces 7. No tails

For most Americans marriage is supposed to be based on

1. Love: based on the decision to marry to have sex 2. Sex - love and sex combine in the person of our spouse early in the game - people who love each other and have sex exclusively do not necessarily get married 3. Choice: people choose to marry & in ways suggest diff types of commitments to one another; emotional commitments, sexual commitments, financial commitments - must be intensely personal! not be coerced (friends and family should NOT make it for you) - tells us what to do and what not to do

Horticulture

1. Swiddens (burned clearings made for temporary cultivation); Slash and Burn - burning stuff at the surface releases nutrients into the soil & kills bugs - travel to diff places to let the soil fallow (let it return to nature) - short term, non-intensive, not permanent 2. Hand-held tools (e.g. hoes and digging sticks) 3. Low Yields (not the most productive soil, not the most productive fields) - people are growing for their own consumption - low population density; more permanent, sedentary compared to foraging groups 4. Inequalities Appear - sex division appear - villages appear - low grade warfare (some individuals emerge as leaders) ex) Kawelka of Papa New Guinea (Ongka's Big Moka, upcoming); Kuikuru of central Brazil

Exchange

Economist Karl Polyani (1968) identified 3 principles of exchange: 1. Reciprocity 2. Redistribution 3. Markets ** Not always about the money!

Dowry

Gifts given by bride's family to groom's family upon marriage; less common than bride wealth - compensation for taking on being responsible for the bride - bride can be viewed as a burden, as something to be taking care of

Economy

a system of production, distribution, and consumption of resources

Correlations b/t subsistence strategies &

a. Social/Political Organization b. Environment/ Geography: diff adaptive strategies are long term adaptations to diff environmental pressures c. Population Density: you may have a larger/more dense population or smaller/less dense population based on available resources d. Diet

alluvial plain

below & next to piedmont steppes; area watered by Tigris and Euphrates rivers rich fertile soil - archeologists agree that the story of food production begins in the hilly flanks where wild wheat and wild barley grew in abundance and can be compared to the biblical Eden; this is the new and improved cosmology

· What makes a life of domestication worthwhile? · Why would humans choose a way of life that brings with it so many maladaptive, dangerous, and evil things?

human ancestors were forced into a life of domestication as a result of global warming and our deep and recent history

Agriculture

larger scale, more permanent, more widespread 1. More Complex Tools (plows, draft animals, irrigation systems, conservation) - animals for transportation and cultivation - animal manure for fertilization 2. Permanent Plots and Fields - terracing (more efficient use of landscape, more efficient use of resources like water) - avoids erosion, runoff, more efficient use or irrigation and space - intensive cultivation: continuous and intensive use of the land 3. Sedentary Lifestyle; Higher Population Density - more labor intensive 4. Increased Specialization 5. Higher Productivity (bigger yields) - more radical alteration on the env. 6. Individual Ownership - HARDER WORK, MORE INVESTMENT IN TOOLS AND LAND, MORE COMPLEX FORMS OF MANAGEMENT AND CONTROL - produce so much surplus, it can support cities and hold 10x more people than horticulture - the tendency for food producers to lose power and become subjects of larger political and economic systems = peasants

neolocality

living apart from relatives of bride and groom

uxorilocality

living with relatives of the bride

Gibbons

longer arms and legs, which is adaptive brachiation and an arboreal lifestyle - South Asia - places like China and Indonesia

Means of Production

major productive resources, such as land, labor, technology - factory machinery - human labor

Adaptive Strategies

§ Before the Industrial Revolution, the vast majority of the world's population lived in economies based on four "adaptive strategies" all but one of which developed in the last 10,000 years 1. Foraging (hunting and gathering): make a living based on available resources in your environment 2. Horticulture: domestication, but usually small scale, more seasonal; slash and burn cultivation 3. Agriculture: domestication, but the larger scale, more intensive, more constant compared to horticulture 4. Pastoralism: side development to agriculture; communities that live with herd animals - pastoral nomadism: entire community travels seasonally - transhumant: permanent settlement to part of the community that stays there year-round while the rest of the group travels with the herd 5. Industrialism - Yehudi Cohen's typologies (1974) - used the term adaptive strategy to describe a society's main system of economic production

Homo Neandertalensis

§ The Neandertals (Homo neandertalensis) lived in EU; first one found in Neander Valley in Germany - was significantly colder compared to Africa; not cold adapted compared to Homo sapiens § Large torso/ short limb configuration: adaptation to conserve heat Alan's rule § Face pulled forward, long broad noses to protect the brain from cold air (Thompson's nose rule) § Heavy brow ridges, slanting foreheads, massive faces, large jaws § Larger cranial capacity than modern humans (1430 cc) § Tools (Mousterian) improved on the Acheulian variety and Oldowan - made leather vests § Clothing § Diet (animal protein; big hunters) a lot of megafauna, reindeer, wooly mammoths, wooly rhinos - the OG paleo diet; mainly MEAT § Did neandertals evolve into Homo sapiens sapiens or did they die out/ were they outcompeted and went extinct? - Neanderthals features became softer, less robust; smaller brow ridges, smaller front teeth

Group Selection

¨ H. erectus, culture inclusive fitness and group selection; major success in species levels ¨ Shift from Darwinian to increasingly (spiritually) Lamarckian selection ¨ Culture became something of an acquired characteristic, passed down directly and indirectly to one's offspring

The Australopiths

¨ Two genera: Australopithecus, Paranthropus ¨ Australopithecus anamensis (4.2-3.9 mya) ¨ Australopithecus afarensis (3.8-3.0) ¨ Australopithecus africanus (3.5-2.5) (South Africa) ¨ Paranthropus robustus (1.9-1.0) (South Africa) ¨ Paranthropus boisei (2.3-1.4) ¨ NOTE: H. habilis lived alongside P. boisei for half a million years ¨ What were Australopiths like? ¨ Ape-like from top down ¨ Human-like from ground up - pretty small

Australopith locomotion

¨ most popular locomotion or the environment pressures that may have led to such adaptation to bipedal locomotion - there are no trees in the savannah so they tend to be more upright; can carry things and see distances - can use their energy more efficiently but also regulate their body temp more efficiently

Australopith cranial capacity

¨ small; chimp like (430cc and got bigger towards 600cc) - pay attention to brain size & birth canal! Birth canal was relatively smaller compared to homo species - Austropiths= more narrow birth canal ¨ While physically smaller than later species, they had relatively robust features to refer to

Families

ª In many human societies the nuclear family was, and continues to be, submerged within larger, more important groups of kin, or it is virtually non-existent ª Extended families are primary unit of social organization in many societies around the world ª Muslims of western Bosnia ª Nayar of India measures descent through female relatives; no nuclear family - terawatts: each headed by female senior & children were not considered members of biological father

Homo Floresiensis

ª On Flores near Indonesia ª Lived from 700,000 to 60,000 B.P. ª Human-like but with very small brains (400cc); had to do with their environment and the adaptation to warm island environment ª known as hobbits, very short and stout ª Pygmy H. erectus? ª Scientists agree that: 1. about 6 mya, our hominin ancestors originated in Africa, and as apelike creatures they became bipedal 2. By 3.3 mya, while still in Africa, hominins were making crude (oldowan) stone tools 3. By 1.7 mya, hominins had spread from Africa to Asia and eventually to EU 4. Sometime around 300,000 years ago, anatomically modern humans evolved from ancestors who had remained in Africa. Like Homo erectus before them, they spread out of Africa

Marital Exchange

ª Outside industrial societies, marriage is often more a relationship b/t groups than one b/t individuals ª People don't just take a spouse; they assume obligations to a group of in-laws ª Marriage is always a relationship based on exchange or refusal to exchange -bride wealth -dowry ª These gifts create debt and durable alliances b/t descent groups ª Both are compensatory acts. What they compensate for, however, is different

Kula Ring

® Mwali armband- travel counterclockwise ® Soulava necklaces- travel clockwise ® Trobriand Islands - these objects are PRICELESS - their value is derived from their participation in this exchange network ® "once in the Kula, always in the Kula"- referring to participants and objects ® Kula objects must be passed on, taking 2-10 years to make the full cycle ® Exchange accompanied by ceremony, magic ® Reinforces status and authority ® Based on trust, obligation and shame (if you get greedy and hold onto them) ® Differentiated from gimwali (barter) ® Creates social networks and marriage options

Distinctions in Kin Terms

® Sex (e.g. "uncle" vs "aunt") ® Generation (e.g. cousin = same generation) ® Affinity (e.g. "mother" vs "mother-in-law") ® Bifurcation (when terms for mother's relatives differ from those used for father's relatives (e.g. mjomba vs baba ndogo in Swahili) - parallel vs cross cousins ® Relative age (e.g. older vs younger siblings, so koyang/kuya vs ate in Tagalog) ® Sex of linking relative (e.g. parallel vs cross cousins)

Nuclear Families (extended households)

® The nuclear family is not the only one possible in our society - different forms can be found among lower socio-economic classes ® Class Differences ® Nuclear, Expanded, and Extended Family Households - lower classes in society are more likely to live in extended family households - lack of money can affect the shape of nuclear families and abundance of wealth can shape it as well

Karl Marx

® focused on the importance of human labor in transforming raw materials into desired products ® Labor links humans to the material world around us and is a fundamentally social activity ® Capitalism is now the dominant form of industrial economy and capitalist systems, a few people own and control the means of production, the machinery ® all others must sell their labor to gain temporary access to the means of production and things produced

Neoclassical Economics

´ "Free market" = "free" b/c no traditional restrictions determine distribution (not linked to social status) ´ The market (via supply and demand) determines levels of production and consumption - if supply is high, demand is low; supply= high, demand = low ´ Capitalism is viewed as the only form of economic rationality By extension, non-capitalist societies are falsely seen as irrational

Polygyny

´ Even when polygyny is encouraged, most people tend to be monogamous; there's a human tendency towards monogamy ´ Polygyny is more prevalent when there is a gender disparity within a given society ´ Reasons for polygyny: - men marrying later than women - the inheritance of widow from a deceased brother - increased prestige or household productivity - an infertile wife

Competition

´ Genus Homo came on the scene roughly 2 mya ´ Many species coexisted for extended periods of time and competed for resources ´ Some evolutionary lines were dead ends while others ultimately resulted in Homo sapien sapien (i.e. The Chosen Primate); some outcompeted into extinction

Homo erectus

´ H. erectus arrive roughly 100,000 years after H. habilis - one of the most important species of evolution ´ Lived from 1.9 mya to 500,000 B.P. ´ Modern body and limbs - large front teeth, brow ridge, football shaped head ´ Bigger brain, b/t 900 and 1250 cc ´ Why the rapid pace of evolution? Is this an example of punctuated equilibrium? - punctuated equilibrium: rapid change after extended periods of relative stasis - we saw other species brain size steadily move at diff rates and speeds, but homo erectus had this rapid spike

Descent

´ In most human societies the nuclear family is present but is submerged within larger, more permanent groups ´ Descent Groups: permanent social units whose members claim common ancestry

Making a Living

´ Making a Living and Foraging for Food ´ Until 10,000 years ago, there was no difference b/t these two things ´ This began to change with the advent of domestication and new forms of food production based on farming ´ Today, fewer than 30,000 people make their living by foraging and this # is constantly decreasing

Denisovans (outlier)

´ Southern Siberia - discovered a finger fragment and a wisdom tooth in a cave (Denisova) - scientists were able to extract entire DNA genome linked to these materials ´ Split from ancestral neandertals around 400,000 years ago - went east when neandertal went west ´ Wisdom tooth and finger fragment ´ Tooth unlike either Neandertal or AMH teeth ´ Lived roughly 400,000 to 50,000 B.P.

Chimpanzees

´ closely related to us ´ live in Africa ´ smaller, more agile than gorillas ´ show less sexual dimorphism; females are roughly 88% the size of their male counterparts while is essentially the same ratio of sexually amorphous and found in homo sapiens - 390 cc brain size

Gorillas

´ live in Africa ´ show a marked degree of sexual dimorphism with the avg adult female weighing half as much as the avg adult male (400 pounds and 6 ft) ´ mostly terrestrial & spend time in social groups usually 10-20 members with very sharp social hierarchies, with alphas diet: green bulk vegetation

Incest

· Marriage is often conceptualized as a way of avoiding incest (sexual relations with a close relative) · Having a taboo against incest (incest taboo) is a human universal · How cultures define their relatives, and thus incest, is variable and culturally specific - while incest taboo is a human universal, cultural universal what is or is not incest is culturally specific and therefore is a social construction · Patrilineal descent and incest among the Lakher of SE India - strictly patrilineal - sex b/t ego and mother's daughter from second marriage is not considered incest because she belongs to a different descent group within the patrilineal system ***it is not simply that some societies are more tolerant of incest than others!******* every culture has a taboo against incest it shows that b/c we define who is/is not our kin differently cross culturally what is or is not incest is culturally variable!!!!! it varies from culture to culture

Kinship

· The way we think of relatives in the U.S. is not simply based on shared blood or genetic relatedness - we naturalize in a centralized kinship · ½ vs ¼ Shared Genetic Material · If not genetic relatedness, is kinship based on love? Do you love all your kin? - gender, age, generation are incredibly important in how we factor relatedness - theory #2; but do you actually love all your kin equally? · Kinship signifies three things: 1. The totality of relationships based on ideas of shared substance and mutuality that link individuals in a web of special rights and obligations 2. Kinds of groups formed in a society based on these ideas and relationships - becoming more micro, scaling down from number one & diff types of groups formed a society based on these ideas of shared substance, mutuality that we can visualize in a web of special rights and obligations 3. The systems of terms used to classify relatives and distinguish them from each other and from people who are not relatives

Polyandry

· Very rare, almost exclusively in South Asia (Tibet, Nepal, India, Sri Lanka) · Cultural adaptation to mobility associated with customary male travel for trade, commerce, and military operations · Ensures at least one man at home to accomplish male activates · Fraternal Polyandry is an effective strategy when resources are scarce (e.g. Tibet, Goldstein) · Nepali Fraternal husbands are brothers to one another · Expanded polyandrous households allow brothers to pool resources - any children from these marriages will jointly inherit brothers property regardless of their biological paternity · Restricts # of wives and heirs, so land transmitted with minimal fragmentation

Plant Domestication

· Wild Wheat/Barley brittle axis, hard husks - humans selected these traits in wheat - as seeds were taken to new environments, new phenotypes were favored by a combination of natural and human selection - chose them b/c they could be more effectively prepared for eating domesticated plants - cultivares- larger · Domesticated Wheat/barley--> hard axis, brittle husks · What are the advantages of such adaptations? - there are no humans planting wild wheat/ barley. so you want to get it in the ground to grow the next generation, so brittle access means the seed covered with the husk will fall off easily - domesticated farm, both the hard axis and brittle husk make it easier for human consumption - harder axis means it won't break off easily & brittle gives you access to eat easier

Hogopan

· hypothetically (we don't know what species it was) existed between 8 to 6 mya - split into diff evolutionary lines in diff ecological niches and their diets became specialized (African ape line and human line) - last common ancestor b/t humans and African apes

Descent Groups

· more common in horticultural, agricultural, pastoral, and other non-industrial economies · they are rare in foraging and modern, industrial, capitalist economies · decent groups are not constituted with flexibility, high mobility, and easy access to kin-group resources in mind - these systems often involve familial property that must be distributed consistent and concrete ways · Why?

Behavioral Modernity

· relying on symbolic thought, elaborating cultural creativity, and as a result becoming fully human in behavior as well as in anatomy - developed roughly 45,000 years ago and quickly spread (creative explosion theory) - idea in parts of Africa dating back to 165,000 - it was a gradual accumulation and creative expansion and contrast to a sudden explosion · This class focuses on how human adaptions became increasingly complex and unstable after about 35,000 BP - altering natural environment like gathering oysters and mussels, doing fishing with harpoons and hook, cooking and smoking pit for fish - alter nature mentally, magically and involve art and ceremony · Caves in France and Argentina - cave paintings and rock paintings; evidence of ceremonies and religious thought - 17,000 years old- France - quavered model in Argentina (hands); red ocher; wholly disconnect cultures; negatives and positives - shows human respond to human pressures in similar ways

Families and Residence Rules

Þ Relationship b/t kinship and marital formations Þ where we live often correlates with whom we live Þ Family of Orientation (the family in which one is born and grows up) Þ Family of Procreation (formed when one marries and has children) Þ Brazil vs US - family of orientation predominates in Brazil, along with extended and expanded family households - nuclear family and family of procreation predominates US Þ social emphasis is placed on certain kinship ties, which in turn promote (or discourage) certain types of residence

Homo Erectus and Leaving Africa

Þ controlled fire enabled Homo erectus to spread into temperate climates and ultimately leave Africa - fire combined with more refined tools allowed our ancestors to exploit a new adaptive strategy gathering and hunting; small groups broke off from larger ones and moved a few miles away - forged new tracks of edible vegetation and carved out new hunting territories - first species to leave was Homo erectus: Þ They were in southern EU by 900,000 B.P. (potentially as early as 1.7 mya) Þ Had reached java, in Southeast Asia, by 700,000 B.P. (potentially as early as 1.6 mya) Þ They were in China by 500,000 B.P. Þ By 500,000 B.P.H. erectus had evolved into Homo heidelbergensis (800,000-200,000 BP) followed by Neandertals (130,000-39,000 BP) - view Homo heidelbergensis as an intermediate position b/t Homo erectus and Homo sapiens - there were populations of Homo erectus that remained in Africa and evolved into archaic Homo sapiens in that continent & radiated out to other parts of world - Homo erectus also evolved into Neanderthal