Anthropology Ch. 3 & 4

chromosome What is it? Where is it? Why is it important? How many? Where do they come from? How do they work? How many in a human karyotype? Where do they come from? What are homologous chromosomes, autosomes, and sex chromosomes?

a threadlike structure of nucleic acids and protein found in the nucleus of most living cells carrying genetic information in the form of genes. 23 chromosomes 46 in a karyotype p. 62-63

amino acids What are they? What are their relationships to DNA and proteins?

amino acids are the building block for proteins DNA is the sequence code of amino acids

ribosome What essential function do these serve in the creation of life?

The ribosome is the molecular machine inside the cell that makes proteins from amino acids in the process called translation

variation What is the role of variation in natural selection? What are the genetic bases of variation? What is Mendel's contribution to understanding variation?

any difference between cells, individual organisms, or groups of organisms of any species caused either by genetic differences or by the effect of environmental factors on the expression of the genetic potentials

pleiotropy, polygenic, polymorphism Distinguish between these three terms.

pleiotropy: the production by a single gene of two or more apparently unrelated effects. polygenic: one of a group of nonallelic genes that together control a quantitative characteristic in an organism polymorphism: the condition of occurring in several different forms.

alleles What is a polymorphism? What are the relationships between genes, alleles, and chromosomes?

polymorphism: the presence of genetic variation within a population, upon which natural selection can operate. Chromosomes are made from DNA. Genes are short sections of DNA. Alleles are different forms of a gene.

replication What is the role of replication in evolution? How do cells replicate? How do individuals replicate?

replication mechanisms thus occurred at a critical period of life evolution that encompasses the late RNA world and the emergence of the Last Universal Cellular Ancestor (LUCA) to the present three domains of life (Eukarya, Bacteria and Archaea.).

three elements (preconditions) for evolution What are they? How do they combine to produce evolution in any system?

replication, variation, and competition in notes for 1b

genetics What are some of the uses of genetics in health and anthropology?

show how humans have evolved and what diseases existed, traits, etc.

speciation What is speciation and how does it happen? What is the difference between micro and macro evolution?

the formation of new and distinct species in the course of evolution. Microevolution happens on a small scale (within a single population), while macroevolution happens on a scale that transcends the boundaries of a single species. Despite their differences, evolution at both of these levels relies on the same, established mechanisms of evolutionary change: mutation.

mutation What, specifically are mutations, and what are their role in evolution? What kinds of mutations are there? What causes them? Where must a mutation take place in order for it to be inherited?

A gene mutation is a permanent alteration in the DNA sequence that makes up a gene Mutations only become alleles if they occur in sperm or egg cells during meiosis because this is the only way they can be passed on to the next generation.

gene What are genes made of? Where, specifically, are they located? How do they produce living things? How are they similar or different from alleles? What are the two basic categories of genes?

A gene is the basic physical and functional unit of heredity. Genes are made up of DNA

homo/heterozygous How is this related to genes, alleles, and dominant/recessive traits?

Aa, AA, aa

What is the difference between anogenisis and cladogenesis?

Anagenesis involves evolution within a single lineage. Cladogenesis involves evolution in a branching pattern, with many new species evolving from a single parent species.

selective pressure What is a selective pressure? Examples?

Any cause that reduces reproductive success in a portion of a population potentially exerts evolutionary pressure Because it can make a human pretty sick and eventually kill its host, malaria is exerting "selective pressure" on its victim.

DNA What is it? Where is it located? What is it made of? How does it work? What are the bases, how are they paired?

DNA is the carrier of genetic information located in the nucleus made up of nucleotides Bases: Adenine-thymine guanine-cytosine

Dominant and recessive allele/traits What does this mean in terms of genotype and phenotype?

Dominant is capital letter and the showed phenotype (characteristic) Recessive is lowercase letter and is not the present phenotype (characteristic)

segregation (genetic) What is the law of segregation? Why is it important? How does it influence our understanding of race?

Genetics. the principle, originated by Gregor Mendel, stating that during the production of gametes the two copies of each hereditary factor segregate so that offspring acquire one factor from each parent

genotype, phenotype, environment Describe the basic relationship between genotype, phenotype, and the environment. How does the environment influence each of these as well as the interaction between them?

Genotype refers the genes that an individual has. Phenotype refers to traits that an individual has, due to which genes are expressed and how. Two individuals could have the same genotype, but different phenotypes due to environmental factors influencing the expression of genes.

hox genes What do these genes do?

Hox genes help lay out the basic body forms of many animals, including humans, flies, and worms. They set up the head-to-tail organization.

independent assortment What does this law say? Does it have implications for the traits people associate with different races?

Independent Assortment describes how different genes independently separate from one another when reproductive cells develop.

inheritance How are traits inherited? What does this have to do with variation and Mendel?

Inheritance of Traits by Offspring Follows Predictable Rules. Genes come in different varieties, called alleles. Somatic cells contain two alleles for every gene, with one allele provided by each parent of an organism. The basic principles of Gregor Mendel's model of inheritance have held up for over a century. They can explain how many different characteristics are inherited, in a wide range of organisms including human beings

meiosis and mitosis What is it? In what cells do each of these occur? What happens in meiosis I? What happens in meiosis II? What is reduction division? What is the purpose of reduction division? When does independent assortment happen?

Meiosis: 4 haploid (somatic) daughter cells Mitosis: 2 diploid daughter cells p. 66-71

codon

a sequence of three nucleotides that together form a unit of genetic code in a DNA or RNA molecule.

environment What is the role of the environment in natural selection? What are some examples from the course materials?

Survival of the fittest; nature "selects" the organisms best suited to their environment to survive and pass on traits. The ability of an individual to survive and reproduce in its specific environment.

dominant and recessive allele/traits What does this actually mean in terms of the way that the genes function?

The first allele is dominant and the second allele is recessive. For genes on an autosome (any chromosome other than a sex chromosome), the alleles and their associated traits are autosomal dominant or autosomal recessive. Dominance is a key concept in Mendelian inheritance and classical genetics.

reproductive isolation What are isolating mechanisms? What do they have to do with evolution?

The mechanisms of reproductive isolation are a collection of evolutionary mechanisms, behaviors and physiological processes critical for speciation. They prevent members of different species from producing offspring, or ensure that any offspring are sterile.

zygote

a diploid cell resulting from the fusion of two haploid gametes; a fertilized ovum.

proteins What are the functions of proteins in living systems? Why are they important? How are they produced? What are the relationships between genes and protein production?

building blocks of life produced through: DNA is first transcribed into RNA, then RNA is translated into protein.

cell What are they? What are key cellular structures are involved in genetics.

cell is the basic unit of life for all organisms prokaryotic: cells with no internal compartments, first life on Earth, today they are single bacteria eukaryotic: organisms with internal compartments separated by membranes

gene flow Does genetic flow increase or decrease variability within a population's gene pool? How?

gene flow/migration can help maintain genetic diversity in a population, but it will decrease variation between two populations.

genetic drift Does genetic drift increase or decrease variability within a population's gene pool? How?

genetic drift, can either increase or decrease by chance over time. Genetic drift can result in the loss of rare alleles, and can decrease the size of the gene pool.

Down's syndrome What is the genetic cause of this? What is the influence of maternal age?

individuals have 47 chromosomes in each cell instead of 46. Children born to older parents are at greater risk for genetic abnormalities, such as Down syndrome.

competition This refers to competition within species. What role does competition play in natural selection?

is an interaction between organisms or species in which both the organisms or species are harmed. Limited supply of at least one resource (such as food, water, and territory) used by both can be a factor.

natural selection/evolution define and explain (required concepts/vocabulary: descent with modification, explain how nature selects who lives and dies). How does chapter 4 describe evolution in terms of allele frequencies?

the process whereby organisms better adapted to their environment tend to survive and produce more offspring. The theory of its action was first fully expounded by Charles Darwin and is now believed to be the main process that brings about evolution.

transcription and translation Concerning DNA. Where do these processes occur? What are their functions?

transcription occurs in the nucleus. it is the process by which the information in a strand of DNA is copied into a new molecule of messenger RNA translation occurs in the cytoplasm. in the genetic code carried by mRNA is decoded to produce the specific sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain.