AP Art History Unit 2

Statues of votive figures, from the Square Temple at Eschnuna, 2700 BCE, gypsum inlaid with shell and black limestone, modern-day Iraq

Form: Crafted from gypsum, inlaid with shell and black limestone. Vary in size and often depict worshippers in a stylized manner, with large, wide eyes and clasped hands. Function: Offerings to the gods, representing the worshippers' presence and devotion during prayer. Content: The figures embody a direct connection to the divine, often depicting individuals in a state of worship, emphasizing piety and the relationship between humans and the gods. Context: The figures reflect the religious practices and beliefs of early Mesopotamian society, showcasing the importance of intermediaries between the people and their deities. They highlight the role of art in ritual and community life during this period.

Athenian Agora, Archaic through Hellenistic Greek, 600-150 BCE, Athens

Form: A large open space surrounded by various buildings, including temples, stoas (covered walkways), and public structures. The layout evolved over centuries, reflecting different architectural styles. Function: Served as the heart of Athenian civic life, functioning as a marketplace, political center, and religious site where citizens gathered for various activities. Content: Key buildings included the Temple of Hephaestus, the Stoa of Attalos, and the Bouleuterion (council chamber). The Agora featured statues, altars, and other monuments that reflected Athenian values and civic pride. Context: The Agora was central to Athenian democracy, facilitating political discourse, trade, and social interaction. It evolved from an Archaic gathering place to a vibrant center of Hellenistic culture, showcasing the importance of public life in ancient Athens and its role in shaping Western civilization.

Great Sphinx, 2550 BCE, Giza, cut limestone

Form: Carved from a single block of cut limestone. A monumental statue featuring the body of a lion and the head of a pharaoh, traditionally believed to represent Khafre. Function: Served as a protective sentinel for the Giza plateau and the associated funerary complex, symbolizing strength and wisdom. Content: The Sphinx combines human intelligence and animal strength, representing the pharaoh's power and divine connection. Its serene expression conveys a sense of eternity. Context: Reflects the artistic and architectural achievements of the Old Kingdom. It underscores the importance of monumental sculpture in ancient Egyptian culture and the belief in the afterlife, as well as the enduring legacy of the pharaohs.

Lamassu, from the Citadel of Sargon II, 720-750 BCE, alabaster, modern-day Iraq

Form: Carved from alabaster. A mythical creature with the body of a bull or lion, wings, and a human head, often placed at entrances. Function: Served as a protective symbol for palaces and cities, warding off evil spirits and signaling the power of the ruler. Content: The composite form represents strength, protection, and divinity, reinforcing the authority of the Assyrian king. Context: Exemplifies Assyrian art and architecture, highlighting the empire's emphasis on grandeur and intimidation in its monumental sculptures.

Code of Hammurabi, Babylon, 1792-1750 BCE, basalt, modern-day Iran

Form: Carved from basalt. A stele with a large relief at the top depicting Hammurabi receiving the laws from the sun god Shamash, followed by inscribed text detailing the laws. Function: Served as a public display of laws and justice, promoting order and governance in Babylon. Content: The text outlines various laws, covering civil, economic, and criminal matters, emphasizing principles of justice and retribution ("an eye for an eye"). Context: One of the earliest written legal codes, it reflects the values and social structure of ancient Mesopotamia, illustrating the central role of law in maintaining order and authority.

Palette of King Narmer, predynastic Egypt, 3000-2920 BCE, graywacke

Form: Carved from graywacke. A large, flat ceremonial palette with detailed relief carvings on both sides, featuring a central depression for mixing cosmetics. Function: Ceremonial Use: Likely served a ritual purpose, possibly for preparing makeup for the king, but also commemorates Narmer's unification of Upper and Lower Egypt. Content: One side depicts Narmer wearing the crown of Upper Egypt, striking down an enemy, while the reverse shows him in the crown of Lower Egypt, symbolizing his dominance and the unification of the two regions. Context: Reflects the political and religious significance of the king in early dynastic Egypt, marking the transition from prehistory to the historic period. It showcases the themes of power, order, and the divine right to rule.

Akhenaten, Nefertiti, and three daughters, 1353-1335 BCE, limestone

Form: Carved from limestone. This relief depicts Akhenaten and Nefertiti sitting together with their three daughters, showcasing a domestic scene filled with warmth and intimacy. Function: Served as a family portrait emphasizing the royal family's unity and divine connection, reflecting Akhenaten's new religious focus. Content: The figures are depicted in a relaxed and affectionate manner, with the daughters playing or reaching for their parents. The sun's rays are shown extending toward the family, symbolizing the Aten, the sun disk, which Akhenaten worshipped. Context: Represents a dramatic shift in artistic style during the Amarna Period, moving away from traditional depictions of pharaohs. It reflects Akhenaten's religious reforms and his emphasis on the role of the family, presenting a more humanized and intimate portrayal of royal life in ancient Egypt.

Head of a Roman Patrician ~75-50 BCE. Marble. Republican Roman.

Form: Carved from marble. A life-sized bust featuring realistic and detailed facial features, often characterized by a stern expression and distinctive wrinkles. Function: Served as a representation of an esteemed member of the Roman elite, likely displayed in public or private spaces to emphasize status and lineage. Content: The emphasis on age, with pronounced lines and textures, reflects the Roman values of gravitas (seriousness) and virtus (virtue), highlighting wisdom and experience. Context: Exemplifies the Republican Roman tradition of verism, which aimed to capture the subject's true likeness, celebrating individual characteristics over idealized beauty. It reflects the importance of ancestry and the role of patricians in Roman society, emphasizing their political and social power during the late Republic. This approach to portraiture also influenced later Roman art and portraiture traditions.

Seated Scribe, Saqqara, Egypt, 2620-2500 BCE, Old Kingdom, painted limestone

Form: Carved from painted limestone. The figure depicts a scribe seated with a papyrus scroll on his lap, wearing a simple kilt and a focused expression. Function: Intended as a funerary statue to accompany the scribe in the afterlife, emphasizing the importance of literacy and record-keeping. Content: The scribe is portrayed with realistic features, emphasizing his role in society. His posture and tools suggest his profession and status. Context: Found in Saqqara, this piece exemplifies the Old Kingdom's artistic focus on realism and individuality. It reflects the value placed on scribes in ancient Egyptian society, highlighting their essential role in administration and record-keeping within a highly structured civilization.

Kneeling statue of Hatshepsut, 1473-1458 BCE, red granite

Form: Carved from red granite. The statue depicts Hatshepsut in a kneeling position, wearing royal regalia and a headdress, with her hands resting on her knees, holding offerings. Function: Intended as a votive statue for her mortuary temple, representing her devotion to the gods and her role as a pharaoh. Content: The kneeling posture signifies humility before the gods, while the royal attire emphasizes her status and authority as a ruler. Inscriptions often accompany the statue, reinforcing her divine right to rule. Context: Highlights Hatshepsut's unique position in a male-dominated society, showcasing her achievements as one of the few female pharaohs in ancient Egypt. It reflects the intersection of gender, power, and religious devotion in her reign.

Mortuary Temple of Hatshepsut, 1473-1458 BCE, sandstone carved into rock cliff, near Luxor, Egypt

Form: Carved from sandstone into the rock cliff. The temple features a series of terraces and colonnades, seamlessly integrated into the natural landscape, with a grand approach and multiple levels. Function: Served as a mortuary temple for Pharaoh Hatshepsut, intended for worship and to honor her legacy, as well as to facilitate her afterlife. Content: The temple includes impressive statues, reliefs depicting Hatshepsut's divine birth and trading expeditions, and chapels dedicated to various gods. Context: One of the most significant examples of ancient Egyptian architecture, reflecting Hatshepsut's unique role as one of the few female pharaohs. It emphasizes themes of power, divine right, and the importance of monumental architecture in establishing a ruler's legacy.

Alexander Mosaic from the House of the Faun, Roman Copy of 100 BCE mosaic

Form: Composed of colored tesserae (small pieces of stone and glass). A large mosaic depicting a dramatic battle scene between Alexander the Great and Darius III of Persia. Function: Served as a stunning floor decoration in the House of the Faun, showcasing the wealth and sophistication of the Roman elite. Content: The mosaic captures the intensity of the battle, with Alexander riding his horse and charging towards Darius, who is depicted in a moment of retreat. The details highlight facial expressions and the dynamics of movement, showcasing the chaos of combat. Context: This mosaic is a Roman adaptation of a Hellenistic original, reflecting the Roman admiration for Greek art and culture. It symbolizes themes of power, victory, and heroism, celebrating Alexander's military prowess. The mosaic demonstrates the high level of artistic skill in the late Hellenistic period and the cultural exchange between Greece and Rome.

Forum of Trajan Apollodorus of Damascus. ~110 CE. Brick and concrete (architecture), marble (column). Rome, Italy. Column of Trajan Market of Trajan

Form: Constructed from brick and concrete for the architecture; the Trajan's Column is made of marble. A grand complex featuring a large open space, basilica, libraries, and the iconic column, which is adorned with intricate reliefs. Function: Served as a center for political, social, and economic activities, celebrating Trajan's victories and enhancing civic life in Rome. The column served as both a commemorative narrative as well as a marker for Trajan's grave (his ashes were placed in the base). Market served as a hub for trade and commerce, housing various shops and markets for goods, food, and services. Content: The forum includes a vast colonnade, a large basilica for legal proceedings, and two libraries (one for Greek texts and one for Latin). The column stands 38 meters tall, decorated with a continuous frieze depicting scenes from Trajan's Dacian campaigns. The market includes a series of vaulted rooms and a large semicircular hall (the Great Hall), with large windows allowing natural light. The use of arches and concrete construction showcases Roman engineering prowess. Context: Commissioned by Emperor Trajan and designed by Apollodorus of Damascus, this forum exemplifies Roman architectural innovation and the use of public space for imperial propaganda. It reflects the values of Roman society, including military achievement, civic pride, and cultural patronage, making it a key example of Roman public architecture and urban planning. The forum served as a model for future imperial forums in Rome.

The Pantheon ~118 - 125 CE. Concrete with stone facing. Rome, Italy

Form: Constructed from concrete with a stone facing. A circular building with a massive domed roof, featuring a portico with large Corinthian columns and a grand entrance. Function: Originally built as a temple for all Roman gods, it later became a Christian church, serving both religious and community functions. Content: The dome is 43.3 meters in diameter, with an oculus at its center, allowing natural light to illuminate the interior. The interior features harmonious proportions and a coffered ceiling that reduces weight while adding aesthetic depth. Context: Symbolizes the grandeur of the Roman Empire. Its innovative use of concrete allowed for the construction of the largest unreinforced concrete dome in history, influencing architecture for centuries. The Pantheon's enduring presence and functionality reflect the adaptability of Roman structures and their significance in both ancient and modern contexts.

Great Pyramids (Menkaura, Khafre and Khufu), 2550-2490 BCE, Giza, cut limestone

Form: Constructed from cut limestone blocks. Three pyramids—Khufu, Khafre, and Menkaura—each with a stepped structure and a sloping profile, symbolizing rays of the sun. Function: Served as monumental tombs for the pharaohs, designed to facilitate their journey to the afterlife and demonstrate their power and divine status. Content: The pyramids include burial chambers, causeways, and mortuary temples. They were originally encased in smooth, white Tura limestone, reflecting sunlight. Context: The Great Pyramids represent the pinnacle of Old Kingdom architecture and engineering. They reflect the centralized power of the pharaohs, the religious beliefs in the afterlife, and the immense resources allocated to royal burial practices in ancient Egypt.

House of the Vettii ~300-200 BCE; rebuilt ~70 CE. Cut stone and fresco. Pompeii, Italy. Imperial Roman.

Form: Constructed from cut stone and adorned with frescoes. A typical Roman domus (house), featuring a central atrium, peristyle garden, and various rooms arranged around these spaces. Function: Served as a private home for a wealthy family, reflecting their social status and lifestyle. Content: The frescoes depict vibrant scenes from mythology, nature, and daily life, showcasing the artistic style and tastes of the time. The layout includes reception areas for guests and private rooms for the family. Context: Exemplifies the architectural and artistic advancements of Imperial Rome, particularly during the early Roman Empire. Its luxurious features and elaborate decorations reflect the wealth and cultural values of Pompeii's elite. The house provides insights into Roman domestic life, social hierarchy, and the importance of art and decoration in expressing identity and status. The rebuilding after the earthquake of 62 CE demonstrates the resilience and ongoing prosperity of Pompeian society prior to the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 CE.

Kallikrates, Temple of Athena Nike, 427-424 BCE, marble, Athens

Form: Constructed from marble. A small, elegant temple in the Ionic style, featuring a four-columned portico and a continuous frieze adorned with reliefs. Function: Dedicated to Athena Nike, the goddess of victory, it served as a place of worship and celebration of Athenian military successes. Content: The temple includes intricate friezes depicting historical battles and mythological scenes, highlighting themes of victory and protection. Context: Exemplifies the grace and refinement of Classical architecture. It reflects the Athenian commitment to honoring their gods and celebrating their achievements, serving as a symbol of both civic pride and divine favor. Its location on the Acropolis further emphasizes its importance in Athenian culture and religion.

Colosseum (Flavian Amphitheater) 72 - 80 CE. Stone and concrete. Rome, Italy. Imperial Roman.

Form: Constructed from stone and concrete. An enormous elliptical structure featuring multiple tiers of seating, with a complex system of arches and vaults. Function: Served as a public arena for gladiatorial contests, animal hunts, and various spectacles, accommodating tens of thousands of spectators. Content: The Colosseum includes 80 entrances, a central arena surrounded by a wall, and extensive seating arrangements, demonstrating advanced engineering techniques. The exterior showcases a combination of Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian columns. Context: Commissioned by the Flavian emperors, the Colosseum symbolizes the grandeur and power of Imperial Rome. It reflects the Roman emphasis on public entertainment and social cohesion, serving as a venue for events that reinforced the emperor's authority and the glory of Rome. The amphitheater remains an iconic symbol of ancient Rome and a testament to Roman architectural innovation and urban planning.

Tomb of the Triclinium, 480-470 BCE, tufa and fresco, Tarquinia

Form: Constructed from tufa (a volcanic stone) and decorated with frescoes. The tomb features a vaulted ceiling and benches along the walls, reflecting a banquet setting. Function: Served as a burial site for the deceased, designed to commemorate the afterlife and celebrate the deceased's social status. Content: The frescoes depict a lively banquet scene with reclining figures, musicians, and dancers, illustrating Etruscan customs and their views on the afterlife. The vibrant colors and dynamic poses convey a sense of joy and festivity. Context: Exemplifies Etruscan funerary practices and their emphasis on the importance of the afterlife. The artwork reflects Etruscan beliefs in enjoying life and the continuity of social practices beyond death, showcasing the sophistication of Etruscan art and culture during this period.

Audience Hall of Darius and Xerxes, 520-465 BCE, limestone, modern-day Iran

Form: Constructed primarily from limestone. A grand structure with an expansive hypostyle hall supported by massive columns, featuring intricate reliefs and carvings. Function: Ceremonial Space: Served as a venue for royal audiences and ceremonies, where the king would receive dignitaries and subjects. Content: The hall's walls are adorned with reliefs depicting scenes of tribute, showcasing the diverse peoples of the Persian Empire and the king's power. Context: exemplifies the grandeur of the Achaemenid Empire, reflecting its administrative sophistication, cultural diversity, and the central role of the king in governance and diplomacy.

Temple of Amun-Re and Hypostyle Hall, 1550-250 BCE, cut stone and mudbrick, near Luxor, Egypt

Form: Constructed using cut stone and mudbrick. The temple complex features massive columns, extensive relief carvings, and a vast hypostyle hall with 134 towering columns arranged in rows. Function Served as a major religious site dedicated to the god Amun-Re, where rituals and ceremonies were conducted, reinforcing the pharaoh's divine connection. Content: The hypostyle hall is characterized by its high ceilings and intricate columns, symbolizing a forest of stone. Walls are adorned with detailed reliefs depicting scenes of gods, pharaohs, and offerings. Context: Reflects the wealth and power of the New Kingdom. It embodies the fusion of religious and political life in ancient Egypt, showcasing the grandeur of temple architecture and the central role of Amun-Re in Egyptian worship and state affairs.

Temple of Minerva, 510-500 BCE, mud brick or tufa and wood, Veii (near Rome)

Form: Constructed using mud brick or tufa (a type of volcanic stone) and wood. A typical Etruscan temple layout featuring a raised platform, a deep front porch with columns, and a triple cella (inner chamber). Function: Dedicated to the goddess Minerva, it served as a place of worship and rituals for the Etruscan people. Content: The temple's façade would have featured decorative elements, possibly including terracotta statues on the roof and painted decorations, reflecting Etruscan artistic traditions. Context: Exemplifies Etruscan religious architecture and its influence on Roman temple design. It highlights the importance of religion in Etruscan society and the veneration of deities, marking a significant development in ancient Italic architecture. The temple's design laid the groundwork for later Roman temples, showcasing the transition from Etruscan to Roman religious practices.

Standard of Ur from the Royal Tombs at Ur, 2600-2400 BCE, wood inlaid with shell, lapis lazuli, red limestone, modern-day Iraq

Form: Made from wood, inlaid with shell, lapis lazuli, and red limestone. A rectangular box with two panels, one depicting war and the other peace, showcasing detailed figures and scenes. Function: Likely served as a standard or flag during royal or military events, symbolizing the authority and achievements of the ruler. Content: The panels depict scenes of battle, celebration, and feasting, illustrating social hierarchy and the importance of warfare and prosperity in Ur. Context: Reflects the wealth, artistry, and complex social structure of Sumerian society. It underscores the interconnection between power, ritual, and identity in early Mesopotamia.

Niobid Painter, Niobides Krater, Classical Greek, 460-450 BCE, clay, red-figure technique with white highlights

Form: Made of clay using the red-figure technique with white highlights. A large, decorated krater (mixing bowl) featuring intricate scenes on both sides. Function: Served as a wine-mixing vessel, often used in symposiums or religious rituals. Content: One side depicts the mythological scene of Niobe boasting about her children, while the other illustrates the divine retribution from Leto, mother of Apollo and Artemis, who punishes Niobe by sending her children to their deaths. The figures are characterized by detailed expressions and elegant poses. Context: Exemplifies the artistic refinement of Classical Greek pottery, emphasizing storytelling through imagery. The krater reflects themes of hubris, divine punishment, and the human condition, showcasing the interplay between mythology and daily life in ancient Greece.

Innermost coffin of King Tutankhamun's tomb, 1323 BCE, gold with inlay of enamel and semi precious stones

Form: Made of gold with inlays of enamel and semi-precious stones. Features a detailed likeness of Tutankhamun's face and decorative motifs. Function: Served to protect the king's body and ensure safe passage to the afterlife. Content: Gold represents immortality; inlays depict gods and protective symbols. Context: Exemplifies the wealth and artistry of the New Kingdom. Reflects the funerary practices of the time and the belief in the pharaoh's divine right to rule, as well as the artistry that defined the era's royal burials. The tomb and its treasures have provided invaluable insight into ancient Egyptian culture and beliefs.

Attributed to Kallimachos, Grave stele from Hegeso, 410 BCE, marble and paint, Athens

Form: Made of marble and originally painted. A tall, rectangular stele featuring a relief of Hegeso, a seated woman, with her hand holding a jewelry box, alongside a standing servant. Function: Served as a grave marker to commemorate Hegeso, emphasizing her social status and family connections. Content: Hegeso is depicted in a moment of contemplation, surrounded by decorative elements. The servant stands attentively, highlighting the relationship between them and the social context of the scene. Context: Reflects the importance of funerary art in ancient Athens and the values placed on women in society. It combines elements of realism and idealism, showcasing the emotional depth of the figures and the significance of memorializing individuals in the context of family and status.

Athena, from the Great Altar of Zeus and Athena at Pergamon, Hellenistic Greek, 175 BCE, marble

Form: Made of marble. A detailed relief sculpture of Athena, depicted in a dynamic pose with intricate drapery and expressive features. Function: Part of the frieze on the Great Altar, celebrating the goddess's role in the battle against the giants. Content: Athena is often shown in full armor, emphasizing her status as a warrior goddess. The sculpture captures a moment of action, highlighting her strength and divine power. Context: Reflects Hellenistic art's focus on realism and emotional intensity. It underscores the importance of divine figures in Greek mythology and their role in human affairs, particularly in the context of victory and protection. The altar itself symbolizes the political and cultural identity of Pergamon during the Hellenistic period.

Seated Boxer, Hellenistic Greek, 100 BCE, bronze

Form: Made of marble. A detailed relief sculpture of Athena, depicted in a dynamic pose with intricate drapery and expressive features. Function: Part of the frieze on the Great Altar, celebrating the goddess's role in the battle against the giants. Content: Athena is often shown in full armor, emphasizing her status as a warrior goddess. The sculpture captures a moment of action, highlighting her strength and divine power. Context: Reflects Hellenistic art's focus on realism and emotional intensity. It underscores the importance of divine figures in Greek mythology and their role in human affairs, particularly in the context of victory and protection. The altar itself symbolizes the political and cultural identity of Pergamon during the Hellenistic period.

Winged Victory of Samothrace, Hellenistic Greek, 190 BCE

Form: Made of marble. A dynamic, larger-than-life sculpture of the goddess Nike, depicted with wings and draped clothing, capturing a sense of movement and triumph. Function:nOriginally erected to celebrate a naval victory, it served as a votive offering and a symbol of triumph. Content: The figure's outstretched wings and flowing garments suggest wind and motion, emphasizing the theme of victory. The statue stands on a ship's prow, reinforcing its connection to naval accomplishments. Context: Exemplifies Hellenistic art's focus on dramatic expression and movement. Discovered on the island of Samothrace, it reflects the cultural importance of victory in Greek society, celebrating both military success and divine favor. The sculpture remains an iconic representation of ancient Greek art and its celebration of the human experience.

Great Altar of Zeus and Athena at Pergamon, present-day Turkey, Hellenistic Greece, 175 BCE, marble

Form: Made of marble. A grand structure featuring a massive staircase leading to an elevated altar, adorned with a continuous frieze depicting a battle between gods and giants. Function: Served as a ceremonial altar for worship and offerings to Zeus and Athena, celebrating their divine power. Content: The frieze showcases dynamic scenes of battle, with figures exhibiting intense expressions and dramatic poses, emphasizing the struggle between gods and giants. Context: Exemplifies Hellenistic art's emphasis on drama and emotional intensity. It reflects the political and cultural aspirations of the Pergamene kingdom, symbolizing power and religious devotion while illustrating the ideals of heroism and divine intervention in human affairs. The altar remains a key example of monumental Hellenistic architecture and sculpture.

Victory adjusting her sandal, from the Temple of Athena Nike, 410 BCE, marble

Form: Made of marble. A high-relief sculpture depicting the goddess Nike (Victory) in a graceful pose, bending to adjust her sandal. Function: Part of the frieze from the Temple of Athena Nike, this sculpture served to enhance the temple's narrative and aesthetic. Content: The figure showcases detailed drapery and a dynamic sense of movement, emphasizing both the elegance of Nike and the intricacy of the garment. Context: Exemplifies the classical ideals of beauty and realism in Greek art. It symbolizes victory and triumph, reflecting Athenian values of military success and divine favor. The sculpture also highlights the artistic skill of the period, with its naturalistic representation and attention to detail, making it a key example of classical relief sculpture.

Helios, horses, and Dionysos (Heracles?), 438-432 BCE, marble

Form: Made of marble. A high-relief sculpture originally part of the Parthenon frieze, depicting the sun god Helios in his chariot, flanked by horses, with figures representing Dionysos (or Heracles) nearby. Function: Served as part of the temple's decorative scheme, illustrating mythological themes and celebrating divine figures. Content: Helios is depicted emerging from the ocean, driving his chariot across the sky. The figures display intricate details and dynamic movement, emphasizing the grandeur of the gods. Context: Exemplifies the Classical Greek style, showcasing high levels of artistic skill and the integration of mythology into public architecture. It reflects the religious and cultural values of Athens during its golden age, highlighting the importance of the gods in daily life and civic identity.

Ludovisi Battle Sarcophagus ~250 CE. Marble. Late Imperial Roman.

Form: Made of marble. A large, intricately carved sarcophagus featuring a dynamic relief depicting a battle scene. Function: Served as a burial container, intended to commemorate the deceased and convey themes of heroism and martial valor. Content: The relief shows a chaotic battle between Romans and barbarians, with figures engaged in combat, expressing intense emotions. The composition is crowded, emphasizing the turmoil of war, with soldiers, horses, and fallen warriors all portrayed in dramatic poses. Context: Exemplifies the artistic style of the late Roman Empire, reflecting a shift towards more emotional and expressive representations in sculpture. It highlights themes of strength, bravery, and the virtues of the Roman soldier, serving both as a personal tribute and a broader commentary on the Roman experience during a time of military conflict. The Ludovisi Battle Sarcophagus remains a key example of Roman funerary art and its narrative capabilities.

Anavysos Kouros, Archaic Greek, 530 BCE, Athens

Form: Made of marble. A life-sized statue of a standing youth, characterized by a rigid posture, symmetrical proportions, and detailed anatomical features. Function: Served as a tombstone or votive offering, commemorating an individual, likely a young man who died in battle. Content: The statue includes an inscription praising the deceased, indicating his valor and the mourning of his family. Context: Exemplifies the Archaic Greek style, showcasing a shift towards more naturalistic representation in sculpture. It reflects the values of youth, heroism, and the importance of public commemoration in Greek society.

Peplos Kore, from the Acropolis, Archaic Greek, 530 BCE

Form: Made of marble. A life-sized statue of a young woman, standing upright and draped in a peplos, a traditional garment, with a detailed, flowing style. Function: Likely served as a religious figure or offering, possibly dedicated to a goddess. Content: The statue has a serene expression and holds a small object (possibly a fruit or a garment) in her left hand. Her clothing showcases intricate patterns and details. Context: Exemplifies Archaic Greek art and reflects the evolving representation of female figures in sculpture. It highlights themes of beauty, divinity, and the role of women in religious practices in ancient Greece.

Plaque of the Ergastines, 447-438 BCE marble

Form: Made of marble. A relief sculpture that depicts a procession of young women, known as the Ergastines, as they carry a peplos (a garment) for the statue of Athena. Function: Part of the Parthenon frieze, this plaque celebrates the Panathenaic Festival, a major religious event in Athens. Content: The figures are depicted in a dynamic procession, showcasing detailed drapery and expressions. The scene emphasizes the importance of civic duty and religious devotion. Context: Exemplifies the high level of artistry in Classical Greek sculpture and reflects Athenian values of community, piety, and the celebration of tradition. It underscores the role of women in religious ceremonies and the cultural significance of the Panathenaic Festival in Athenian society.

Sarcophagus of the Spouses, 520 BCE, terra cotta

Form: Made of terra cotta. A large rectangular sarcophagus featuring a sculpted lid with figures of a reclining couple. Function: Served as a burial container for a married couple, symbolizing their eternal union in the afterlife. Content: The couple is depicted lying together, sharing a meal or a moment of intimacy. Their facial expressions and poses convey a sense of comfort and affection. The intricate details of their clothing highlight Etruscan craftsmanship. Context: Reflects Etruscan beliefs about the afterlife and the importance of family and companionship. It exemplifies Etruscan art's focus on realism and human emotion, marking a contrast to contemporary Greek practices. The Sarcophagus of the Spouses emphasizes the value placed on social bonds and the celebration of life, even in death.

Master sculptor Vulca, Apollo from Veii, 510 BCE, terra cotta

Form: Made of terra cotta. A life-sized sculpture depicting the god Apollo, characterized by a dynamic pose and detailed facial features. Function: Intended as a decorative figure for the roof of a temple, likely dedicated to Apollo or associated deities. Content: Apollo is depicted striding forward, with a lively expression and flowing drapery that emphasizes movement. His stance conveys a sense of vitality and grace. Context: Exemplifies Etruscan art's fusion of Greek influences and local styles. It reflects the Etruscans' religious beliefs and their reverence for the gods, showcasing the artistic sophistication of the period. The sculpture also highlights the importance of terracotta in Etruscan art, particularly in architectural contexts.

Augustus (Octavian) of Prima Porta ~20 CE. Marble (copy of a bronze original).

Form: Marble, a copy of a bronze original. A life-sized statue depicting Augustus in a contrapposto stance, dressed in military attire, with a cloak draped over his left shoulder. Function: Served as a public representation of Augustus, reinforcing his authority and leadership in the Roman Empire. Content: Augustus is shown with an outstretched arm, addressing his troops or the public. His armor features reliefs depicting allegorical figures and military victories, symbolizing peace and prosperity under his rule. Context: Exemplifies the use of art for political propaganda during the early Empire. Augustus, as the first Roman emperor, sought to present himself as a powerful yet benevolent leader. The blend of classical ideals with realistic features in the statue reflects the transition from the Republican to the Imperial style, emphasizing both his divinity and connection to the Roman people. The statue underscores Augustus's role in establishing the Pax Romana and the stability he brought to Rome.

Last Judgement of Hunefer, 1275 BCE, painted papyrus scroll

Form: Painted papyrus scroll. A horizontal narrative scene with detailed illustrations, depicting the judgment of Hunefer in the afterlife. Function: Served as a guide for Hunefer's journey through the afterlife, illustrating key moments of judgment. Content: Features Hunefer before Osiris, the god of the afterlife, with his heart being weighed against the feather of Ma'at, symbolizing truth and justice. Context: Reflects ancient Egyptian beliefs in the afterlife, the importance of moral conduct, and the ritual of weighing the heart, emphasizing the idea of divine judgment and the hope for eternal life.

Iktinos and Kallikrates, The Parthenon, 447-410 BCE, Athens

Form: Primarily constructed from marble. A Doric temple featuring a rectangular shape, with 46 outer columns and a distinctive pediment. The temple is characterized by its symmetry, proportion, and intricate decorative elements. Function: Dedicated to Athena Parthenos, the goddess of wisdom and war, it served as a place of worship and housed a monumental statue of Athena. Content: The Parthenon includes detailed friezes, metopes, and pediments depicting various mythological scenes, showcasing the artistry of ancient Greek sculptors and architects. Context: Symbolizes the power and cultural achievements of Athens during its golden age. It reflects the ideals of Classical architecture and represents Athenian democracy, civic pride, and devotion to the gods. The temple remains a lasting symbol of ancient Greece and Western civilization.Plaque of the Ergastines, 447-438 BCE marble

Polykleitos, Doryphoros (Spear Bearer), original 450-440 BCE, Roman marble copy of a Greek bronze original

Form: Roman marble copy of a Greek bronze original. A life-sized statue of a youthful athlete in a contrapposto stance, showcasing balanced proportions and idealized anatomy. Function: Intended to represent the ideal male form and the concept of beauty in physicality, possibly as a statue of a victorious athlete. Content: The figure holds a spear (now missing) and displays intricate details in muscle definition and posture, emphasizing harmony and symmetry. Context: Exemplifies Classical Greek ideals of beauty, proportion, and athleticism. It reflects the philosophical principles outlined in Polykleitos's treatise, the "Canon," which sought to define the perfect human figure. The Doryphoros influenced later art and remains a key example of Classical sculpture.

White Temple and Ziggurat: Uruk (modern Warka, Iraq) Sumerian. c. 3500-3000 B.C.E. Mud brick.

Form: a rectangular structure built on a raised platform (the ziggurat). It features whitewashed mud brick, giving it a bright appearance. The ziggurat consists of several tiers, which create a stepped profile. The temple has a central hall and several smaller rooms, with a sanctuary for worship. Function: Place of worship, dedicated to the sky god Anu. It served as a ceremonial center for religious practices. Likely functioned as a community gathering space, facilitating social and administrative activities. Content: The temple's height symbolizes the connection between the earthly and divine, illustrating the Mesopotamian belief in the importance of the gods in everyday life. Presumed that the temple was decorated with symbols of the gods and possibly included altars and offerings. Context: One of the earliest known examples of monumental architecture in human history, reflecting the complexities of urban society in ancient Mesopotamia. The temple's construction signifies the growth of religious and political power in this era.

King Menkaura and queen, 2490-2472 BCE, graywacke

King Menkaura and Queen (2490-2472 BCE) Form: Carved from graywacke. A closely unified sculpture depicting King Menkaura standing beside his queen, both figures showing idealized features and stiff postures typical of ancient Egyptian art. Function: Intended as a statue for the tomb of Menkaura, reinforcing his status and ensuring his presence in the afterlife. Content: The king is depicted with a slight forward stride, symbolizing action and vitality, while the queen stands beside him, often interpreted as a symbol of support and partnership. Both figures have serene expressions, signifying eternal life. Context: Exemplifies the ideals of Old Kingdom art, emphasizing stability, order, and the divine nature of the pharaoh. It reflects the significance of royal marriage and the role of the queen in ancient Egyptian society, as well as the culture's focus on the afterlife and the immortality of the pharaoh.