AP Bio

Eukaryotic vs. Prokaryotic. Which type do we find in each of the three domains?

*Eubacteria/Archaea : unicellular prokaryotic,no membrane bound organelles, peptidoglycan wall *Eukaryotic cells: multicellular,membrane bound organelles, nucleus, ER, golgi complex, and mitochondria, no peptidoglycan cell wall

Where did mitochondria and chloroplasts come from? What is our evidence? What about the endomembrane system?

*Mitochondria: came from aerobic bacteria Evidence mitochondria came from aerobic bacteria is they both share the same mitochondria,reproduce (binary fission), double membrane, & use oxygen to make ATP (energy). *chloroplasts: came from cyanobacteria through endosymbiosis (engulfed into a cell/as reproduction kept occurring, the mitochondria/chloroplasts eventually became part of the cell.) Evidence that chloroplasts came from cyanobacteria is both use oxygen to break down sugar molecules to make ATP.

How do organelles allow for increased complexity in cells? Where did organelles come from?

*Organelles- harvesting energy, making new proteins, getting rid of waste, etc. Varied organelles (smaller units) allow more individual processes to be completed, rather than having one big unit completing all the necessary functions. ) Most organelles have come from a process called symbiosis. Many scientists believe organelles found in eukaryotic cells today have formed from colonies of prokaryotic cells.

Determining Kingdom

*Organized by characteristics. -Protista are microscopic eukaryotes(do not form cellular tissue) - Fungi are eukaryotic/heterotrophic -Plantae are eukaryotic, have cell walls/ chloroplasts -Animalia are eukaryotic animals without cell walls or chloroplasts/autotrophic

Currently living through the sixth "Great Extinction"/ cause of this extinction event. Lou

*We are in the mists of a 6th mass extinction due to the fact that 3/4ths of today's animals could vanish within the next 300 years. The cause: humans... -Caused climate change - Destroyed wildlife habitats, -Brought invasive species (lead to competition between native and non-native species).

Hypothesis/procedure/Results: Miller-Urey Other two hypotheses about how life began?

-Hypothesis: Conditions that existed in Earth's primitive atmosphere were sufficient to produce amino acids, (Earth's atmosphere was capable of producing the building blocks of life on it's own). -Procedure: Using water, methane, ammonia, hydrogen and nitrogen, add a spark to create amino acids that make up proteins. -Results: Flask contained amino acids, but could not make ribonucleotides. *Other two hypotheses: Panspermia and life on ice.

mono/poly/paraphyletic groups

-Monophyletic: includes most recent common ancestor/all its descendants -paraphyletic: includes most recent common ancestor/ but not all of its descendants -polyphyletic: doesn't include the most recent common ancestor

Phylogenetic Trees

A root: all the organisms originated from. A branch: where organisms branch off/represent an evolutionary change from the last organism. A node: shows a common ancestor between two organisms. Branch length: refers to time/ how far away an organism is to another. A clade: two or more organisms that may have evolved from a common ancestor.

Technicalities w/ old "KIngdom" system

Amount of animals/organisms we have discovered. Originally there were plants and animals, then we discovered single celled organisms/microorganisms. Thus became so many overlapping traits that it was difficult to place any organisms in one finite grouping.

Determing Domains

Archae: Bacteria that live in extreme conditions (methogens, helophiles, thermophiles) Eubacteria: Regular Bacteria Eukarya: multicellular organsims/complex DNA (Fungi,Plants,Animals,Protists)

Archaea placed in their own domain of life

Archaea often completely resemble eubacteria. -unicellular -no organelles - grouped with other prokaryotes (morphology/cellular physiology). *Archaea have three RNA polymerases -cell walls that lack peptidoglycan - membranes that enclose lipids *Bacteria only have one RNA polymerase - hydrocarbons rather than fatty acids.

How does endosymbiosis support the idea that eukaryotes share a common ancestor with prokaryotes?

Endosymbiosis gives the idea of how eukaryotes/prokaryotes share a common ancestor through mitochondria/chloroplasts (in eukaryotic cells) originated with the bacteria's of proteobacteria/cyanobacteria. Theory of how eukaryotes share a common ancestor with prokaryotes is supported through the recordings of fossils, which indicated that eukaryotes had evolved from prokaryotes due to an invasion of prokaryotic cells by two smaller prokaryote cells.

Example of binomial nomenclature/Rules of creating a scientific name using this system

Homo sapiens. The first part of the name is called the Genus which is normally the name for small group of closely related organisms the first letter is capitalized in. The second part of the name is the specific epithet it is used to separate organisms closely related in the same genus the first letter is not capitalized. The names are usually derived from latin or greek roots and there must be a space in between them.

Rise of multicellularity directly linked to the evolution of eukaryotes?

Multicellularity allowed for more chemical reactions to occur, increased the surface area in which chemical reactions can occur. increased efficiency of chemical reactions led to to the ability of larger organisms to evolve (eukaryotes).

Why have "Adaptive radiations" proceeded mass extinction events?

Occurs when mass extinctions leave behind niches in ecosystems that can be filled by new or existing species (exhibit adaptations allowing them to survive in those spaces). Proceeds mass extinction events, b/c mass extinctions open up niches in ecosystems, makes resources more available, and decrease predation.

Why is it hypothesized that the evolution of RNA preceded the evolution of DNA?

RNA stored both genetic information/catalyzed (increase rate) of` the chemical reactions in primitive cells. Only later in evolutionary time did DNA take over as genetic material/proteins become the major catalyst and structural component of cells.

Taxanomy/Phylogeny

Taxonomy: classify living and extinct organisms based on a set rules. Phylogeny: study of the evolutionary history of an organism. *(Use the taxonomy while creating a phylogenetic tree to figure out the evolutionary paths.)

Maximum Parsimony

The criteria in which the phylogenetic tree that minimizes the total number of derived (group not including common ancestor) characters is the best

How science can be used to investigate events that no one was around to witness.

Through fossil records (show scientists what kind of organisms were living in a specific time period.) Examining the layers of sediment/rock in specific locations (clues about the climate in history) * Miller Experiment models how life would have come to be, using the gases scientists know existed (studying radiometric dating, layers of sediment, and other information gathered from space.)

Changes in Classification w/ new DNA technology

We are able to sequence DNA/ see the pattern of nucleotides in the DNA, thus giving us a more accurate technique for determining how closely related different species are. Also it can tell a great deal about the evolution/relationships of different species.

The Last Universal Common Ancestor of all life on earth was:

a. Unicellular: LUCA was unicellular b/c in the beginning, prokaryotes joined together to create eukaryotes. b. Heterotrophic: earliest organisms (prokaryotes) dwelt in harsh conditions of early Earth, and chloroplasts were unable to exist. Prokaryotes, without a chloroplast are not able to make their own food, have to "hunt" for food. c. DNA: genetic material: DNA had to have existed in order for proteins to be created (necessary in order for various parts of the cell to exist.)