AP Bio COMPLETE COURSE review
control group
In an experiment, the group that is not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.
Describe the structure of a eukaryotic cell.
A eukaryotic cell has a cell membrane (and a cell wall in plant cells) and a cytoskeleton. The organelles float around in the cytoplasm. Eukaryotic cells also have a nucleus which holds its genetic material.
molecule
A group of atoms bonded together
Plastids
A group of membrane‐bound organelles commonly found in photosynthetic organisms and mainly responsible for the synthesis and storage of food.
Hypertonic
(of a solution) having a higher osmotic pressure than a comparison solution
dehydration synthesis
A chemical reaction in which two molecules covalently bond to each other with the removal of a water molecule. breaks down monomers or polymers (macromolecules)
quartenary structure
2+ secondary structures combined together
polar covalent bond
A covalent bond in which electrons are not shared equally
element
A pure substance made of only one kind of atom
compound
A substance made up of atoms of two or more different elements joined by chemical bonds
Golgi apparatus
A system of membranes that modifies and packages proteins for export by the cell
hypothesis
A testable prediction, often implied by a theory
Lysosomes
An organelle containing digestive enzymes
atom
Basic unit of matter
hydrolysis
Breaking down complex molecules by the chemical addition of water. breaks down monomers or polymers (macromolecules)
major elements of biological molecules
C, H, On N, Ca, P, Fe, Mg, Na, K, Cl and S
Vacuole
Cell organelle that stores materials such as water, salts, proteins, and carbohydrates
nucleus
Center of an atom
plasmolysis
Collapse of a walled cell's cytoplasm due to a lack of water
geometric isomers
Compounds that have the same molecular formula but differ in the spatial arrangements of their atoms.
experimental group
In an experiment, the group that is exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable.
Osmosis
Diffusion of water through a selectively permeable membrane
properties of valence electrons
Electrons are located in orbitals surrounding the nucleus. The first orbital can hold two electrons, the second can hold 8 and the third can hold 18 (unless it is the outermost ring in which case it can hold 8). Atoms with 1, 2, or 3 in their valance tend to donate electrons while atoms with 5, 6, or 7 electrons in their valance tend to accept electrons. Different types of bonds are formed depending on the valance electrons.
activation energy
Energy needed to get a reaction started
active transport
Energy-requiring process that moves material across a cell membrane against a concentration difference
Explain cell theory.
Every cell comes from a pre-existing cell and every living thing is made up of cells. Was established in the mid 19th century.
Develop experimental designs appropriate for testing given hypotheses.
Experimental designs should follow the scientific method (observation, question, hypothesis, experiment, conclusion, natural law, theory). A null hypothesis can be predicted because it is easy to prove wrong. Data can be tested qualitatively or quantitatively. Standard deviation can test the distance of a piece of data from the mean and standard error can tell how accurately the mean has been estimated.
anchoring junctions (desmosomes)
Fasten cells to one another, common in stretched areas such as heart, uterus, and outer skin (adhesions)
ionic bond
Formed when one or more electrons are transferred from one atom to another
relate hydrogen bonding to the properties of water
Hydrogen bonding relates to the properties of water because hydrogen bonds are formed between polar molecules and water is polar.
transmembrane proteins
Integral proteins that span the membrane. transport polar molecules and ions
microfilament
Long, thin fibers that function in the movement and support of the cell
Glycolipids
Membrane carbohydrates that are covalently bonded to lipids.
glycoproteins
Membrane carbohydrates that are covalently bonded to proteins.
tight junctions
Membranes of neighboring cells are pressed together, preventing leakage of extracellular fluid
intermediate fibers
Moderately thick and mainly anchor organelles and enzymes to certain parts of the cell
Pumps
Molecules are "pumped" by a transport protein to get across the membrane, requiring energy
Name and describe measurement system used by scientists
Moles are used to measure atomic weight because one mole of a substance contains the same number of molecules as another substance. One mole is 6.022 x 10^23
facilitated diffusion
Movement of specific molecules across cell membranes through protein channels
Draw and describe a plant cell in a hypotonic solution. How will a plant cell respond differently than an animal cell and why?
Plant cells like having too much water so they like being in a hypotonic solution while an animal cell would lyse in a hypotonic solution.
Mitochondria
Powerhouse of the cell, organelle that is the site of ATP (energy) production (cellular respiration)
Exocytosis
Process by which a cell releases large amounts of material
Distinguish between eukaryotes and prokaryotes, plant and animal cell. Know examples.
Prokaryotic cells have no nucleus or membrane-bound organelles but do have genetic matter (bacteria and archaea). Eukaryotic cells have a nucleus and all other membrane-bound structures (animalia, plantae, fungi and protista). Plant cells have a cell wall, plastids and chloroplasts while animal cells do not. Meanwhile, animal cells contain lysosomes while plant cells do not.
nucleic acid structure
RNA and DNA.
Microtubules
Spiral strands of protein molecules that form a tubelike structure
Stimulus vs. Response
Stimulus - what causes response Response - what organism does because of stimulus
atomic mass
The average mass of all the isotopes of an element
independent variable
The experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.
function of nucleic acids
helps with storage and expression of genetic information
Carriers
heterozygous individuals who carry the recessive allele but are phenotypically normal
law
how nature behaves
dependent variable
The outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable.
Understand how microscopes work. Understand what kind of microscope can be used under different conditions.
There are simple microscopes, compound microscopes, compound light microscopes and electron microscopes. TEM (transmission electron microscopes) give a 2D image of internal structures. SEM (scanning electron microscopes) give a 3D image of surface features. STEM (scanning tunneling electron microscopes show internal structures in 3D.
hydrogen bond
weak attraction between a hydrogen atom and another atom
enzyme
a catalyst for almost all reactions
nonpolar covalent bond
a covalent bond in which the electrons are shared equally by the two atoms
coenzyme
a non-protein organic molecule needed for enzyme function
substrate
a substance that fits into an enzyme
secondary structure
alpha helix and beta helix
cofactor
an inorganic non-protein compound needed by enzymes to function
Describe the steps in the scientific process.
begins with observation (what you can observe with your five senses), which leads to question, which leads to a hypothesis (educated guess to the answer of the question and must be testable and able to be proven true or false), then experiment (where one determines variables and collects data), and then conclusion (the results of the experiment which may lead to new questions/hypotheses). The conclusion may lead to natural law (describes how nature behaves but is up to the theory as to why nature behaves that way) which may lead to theory (which explains why nature behaves the way that natural law says. It answers the original question and other questions raised during the experiment. It also predicts the results of further experiments with the same question).
4 main macromolecules
carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids
Plasmodesmata
channels through cell walls that connect the cytoplasms of adjacent cells
types of chemical reactions
combination, dissociation, exchange, oxidation, reduction, re-dox, endergonic and exergonic
structural isomers
differ in the covalent arrangements of their atoms
function of carbohydrates
energy storage
Explain Induced fit hypothesis to explain how enzymes catalyze chemical reactions.
explains how enzymes function. It says that enzymes have a specific shape. The folding forms an active site, and substrates can fit into the active site. This causes enzymes to undergo a conformational change (change in shape) that causes the substrate to fit better and also reduce the activation energy (energy needed for the reaction to start).
function of lipids
fat and fat-like substances that release energy when they are oxidized
lipid bilayer
flexible double-layered sheet that makes up the cell membrane and forms a barrier between the cell and its surroundings. impermeable to ions and polar molecules
Know and be able to identify different functional groups.
groups of elements that take part in chemical reactions and work as a single entity. Each one has specific properties. Some of the functional groups are hydroxyl, carboxyl, amino, phosphate, sulfhydryl, and carbonyl.
enantiomers
isomers that are mirror images of each other
Explain the unique properties of carbon that make it useful as the backbone of biological molecules.
it can bond to form a hydrocarbon chain and makes the hydrocarbon skeleton that all life is made from.
Carbohydrate structure
monosaccharides, disaccharides and polysaccharides. (fixed ratio of C, H and O with 1 C, 2 H and 1 O with a minimum of 3 C
simple diffusion
movement of a solute from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration
function of proteins
necessary for the structure, function and regulation of body tissue and organs
lipid structure
neutral fats, phospholipids and steroids. made up of C, H and O in no fixed ratio but with more C and H than O. made up of C, H, H, O, N and sometimes S) and nucleic acids (H, O, N, C and P
Microbodies
organelles that serve as specialized containers for metabolic reactions
molecular structure of water
polar because it connects with other water molecules through covalent bonds. However, the hydrogen and oxygen atoms in H2O are connected through hydrogen bonds
Endocytosis
process by which a cell takes material into the cell by infolding of the cell membrane
List and characterize each of the primary subatomic particles.
protons (positive charge and inside of the nucleus of the atom), neutrons (no charge and are also in the nucleus) and electrons (negative charge and are in the orbitals outside of the atom)
channel proteins
provide corridors that allow a specific molecule or ion to cross the membrane
gap junctions
provide cytoplasmic channels between adjacent animal cells
Hypotonic
when comparing two solutions, the solution with the lesser concentration of solutes
Isotonic
when the concentration of two solutions is the same
Endosymbiosis
says that billions of years ago, there were two independent bacteria (one of which was the ancestor of chloroplasts and mitochondria). Eventually, the chloroplast/mitochondria ancestor went inside of the other bacteria cell and lived inside of it and both bacteria benefited from the arrangement. Then, when the larger bacteria reproduces, the internal bacteria are passed on from generation to generation, leading to eukaryotic cells with chloroplasts and mitochondria.
ph scale
scale with values from 0 to 14, used to measure the concentration of H+ ions in a solution; a pH of 0 to 7 is acidic, a pH of 7 is neutral, and a pH of 7 to 14 is basic
tertiary structure
secondary structure folded over. Is maintained by either hydrogen bonds, sulfide bridges, ionic bonds or Van Der Waals interactions
primary structure
sequence of amino acids that makes up the polypeptide chain
Ribosomes
site of protein synthesis
null hypothesis
states that there is no difference between two of the groups and can easily be proven wrong.
catalyst
substance that speeds up the rate of a chemical reaction
Describe characteristics of life. Use these criteria to distinguish if a given item is alive
the ability to reproduce, organization, ability to grow and develop, response of stimuli and energy processing.
active site
the fold on an enzyme where the substrate fits
passive transport
the movement of substances across a cell membrane without the use of energy by the cell
atomic number
the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom
cis isomers
the two Xs are on the same side
trans isomers
the two x's are on opposite sides
protein structure
thousands of types that are determined by the amino acids present
protein pumps
transport proteins that require energy to do work
theory
why nature behaves a certain way