AP Bio COMPLETE COURSE review

control group

In an experiment, the group that is not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.

Describe the structure of a eukaryotic cell.

A eukaryotic cell has a cell membrane (and a cell wall in plant cells) and a cytoskeleton. The organelles float around in the cytoplasm. Eukaryotic cells also have a nucleus which holds its genetic material.

molecule

A group of atoms bonded together

Plastids

A group of membrane‐bound organelles commonly found in photosynthetic organisms and mainly responsible for the synthesis and storage of food.

Hypertonic

(of a solution) having a higher osmotic pressure than a comparison solution

dehydration synthesis

A chemical reaction in which two molecules covalently bond to each other with the removal of a water molecule. breaks down monomers or polymers (macromolecules)

quartenary structure

2+ secondary structures combined together

polar covalent bond

A covalent bond in which electrons are not shared equally

element

A pure substance made of only one kind of atom

compound

A substance made up of atoms of two or more different elements joined by chemical bonds

Golgi apparatus

A system of membranes that modifies and packages proteins for export by the cell

hypothesis

A testable prediction, often implied by a theory

Lysosomes

An organelle containing digestive enzymes

atom

Basic unit of matter

hydrolysis

Breaking down complex molecules by the chemical addition of water. breaks down monomers or polymers (macromolecules)

major elements of biological molecules

C, H, On N, Ca, P, Fe, Mg, Na, K, Cl and S

Vacuole

Cell organelle that stores materials such as water, salts, proteins, and carbohydrates

nucleus

Center of an atom

plasmolysis

Collapse of a walled cell's cytoplasm due to a lack of water

geometric isomers

Compounds that have the same molecular formula but differ in the spatial arrangements of their atoms.

experimental group

In an experiment, the group that is exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable.

Osmosis

Diffusion of water through a selectively permeable membrane

properties of valence electrons

Electrons are located in orbitals surrounding the nucleus. The first orbital can hold two electrons, the second can hold 8 and the third can hold 18 (unless it is the outermost ring in which case it can hold 8). Atoms with 1, 2, or 3 in their valance tend to donate electrons while atoms with 5, 6, or 7 electrons in their valance tend to accept electrons. Different types of bonds are formed depending on the valance electrons.

activation energy

Energy needed to get a reaction started

active transport

Energy-requiring process that moves material across a cell membrane against a concentration difference

Explain cell theory.

Every cell comes from a pre-existing cell and every living thing is made up of cells. Was established in the mid 19th century.

Develop experimental designs appropriate for testing given hypotheses.

Experimental designs should follow the scientific method (observation, question, hypothesis, experiment, conclusion, natural law, theory). A null hypothesis can be predicted because it is easy to prove wrong. Data can be tested qualitatively or quantitatively. Standard deviation can test the distance of a piece of data from the mean and standard error can tell how accurately the mean has been estimated.

anchoring junctions (desmosomes)

Fasten cells to one another, common in stretched areas such as heart, uterus, and outer skin (adhesions)

ionic bond

Formed when one or more electrons are transferred from one atom to another

relate hydrogen bonding to the properties of water

Hydrogen bonding relates to the properties of water because hydrogen bonds are formed between polar molecules and water is polar.

transmembrane proteins

Integral proteins that span the membrane. transport polar molecules and ions

microfilament

Long, thin fibers that function in the movement and support of the cell

Glycolipids

Membrane carbohydrates that are covalently bonded to lipids.

glycoproteins

Membrane carbohydrates that are covalently bonded to proteins.

tight junctions

Membranes of neighboring cells are pressed together, preventing leakage of extracellular fluid

intermediate fibers

Moderately thick and mainly anchor organelles and enzymes to certain parts of the cell

Pumps

Molecules are "pumped" by a transport protein to get across the membrane, requiring energy

Name and describe measurement system used by scientists

Moles are used to measure atomic weight because one mole of a substance contains the same number of molecules as another substance. One mole is 6.022 x 10^23

facilitated diffusion

Movement of specific molecules across cell membranes through protein channels

Draw and describe a plant cell in a hypotonic solution. How will a plant cell respond differently than an animal cell and why?

Plant cells like having too much water so they like being in a hypotonic solution while an animal cell would lyse in a hypotonic solution.

Mitochondria

Powerhouse of the cell, organelle that is the site of ATP (energy) production (cellular respiration)

Exocytosis

Process by which a cell releases large amounts of material

Distinguish between eukaryotes and prokaryotes, plant and animal cell. Know examples.

Prokaryotic cells have no nucleus or membrane-bound organelles but do have genetic matter (bacteria and archaea). Eukaryotic cells have a nucleus and all other membrane-bound structures (animalia, plantae, fungi and protista). Plant cells have a cell wall, plastids and chloroplasts while animal cells do not. Meanwhile, animal cells contain lysosomes while plant cells do not.

nucleic acid structure

RNA and DNA.

Microtubules

Spiral strands of protein molecules that form a tubelike structure

Stimulus vs. Response

Stimulus - what causes response Response - what organism does because of stimulus

atomic mass

The average mass of all the isotopes of an element

independent variable

The experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.

function of nucleic acids

helps with storage and expression of genetic information

Carriers

heterozygous individuals who carry the recessive allele but are phenotypically normal

law

how nature behaves

dependent variable

The outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable.

Understand how microscopes work. Understand what kind of microscope can be used under different conditions.

There are simple microscopes, compound microscopes, compound light microscopes and electron microscopes. TEM (transmission electron microscopes) give a 2D image of internal structures. SEM (scanning electron microscopes) give a 3D image of surface features. STEM (scanning tunneling electron microscopes show internal structures in 3D.

hydrogen bond

weak attraction between a hydrogen atom and another atom

enzyme

a catalyst for almost all reactions

nonpolar covalent bond

a covalent bond in which the electrons are shared equally by the two atoms

coenzyme

a non-protein organic molecule needed for enzyme function

substrate

a substance that fits into an enzyme

secondary structure

alpha helix and beta helix

cofactor

an inorganic non-protein compound needed by enzymes to function

Describe the steps in the scientific process.

begins with observation (what you can observe with your five senses), which leads to question, which leads to a hypothesis (educated guess to the answer of the question and must be testable and able to be proven true or false), then experiment (where one determines variables and collects data), and then conclusion (the results of the experiment which may lead to new questions/hypotheses). The conclusion may lead to natural law (describes how nature behaves but is up to the theory as to why nature behaves that way) which may lead to theory (which explains why nature behaves the way that natural law says. It answers the original question and other questions raised during the experiment. It also predicts the results of further experiments with the same question).

4 main macromolecules

carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids

Plasmodesmata

channels through cell walls that connect the cytoplasms of adjacent cells

types of chemical reactions

combination, dissociation, exchange, oxidation, reduction, re-dox, endergonic and exergonic

structural isomers

differ in the covalent arrangements of their atoms

function of carbohydrates

energy storage

Explain Induced fit hypothesis to explain how enzymes catalyze chemical reactions.

explains how enzymes function. It says that enzymes have a specific shape. The folding forms an active site, and substrates can fit into the active site. This causes enzymes to undergo a conformational change (change in shape) that causes the substrate to fit better and also reduce the activation energy (energy needed for the reaction to start).

function of lipids

fat and fat-like substances that release energy when they are oxidized

lipid bilayer

flexible double-layered sheet that makes up the cell membrane and forms a barrier between the cell and its surroundings. impermeable to ions and polar molecules

Know and be able to identify different functional groups.

groups of elements that take part in chemical reactions and work as a single entity. Each one has specific properties. Some of the functional groups are hydroxyl, carboxyl, amino, phosphate, sulfhydryl, and carbonyl.

enantiomers

isomers that are mirror images of each other

Explain the unique properties of carbon that make it useful as the backbone of biological molecules.

it can bond to form a hydrocarbon chain and makes the hydrocarbon skeleton that all life is made from.

Carbohydrate structure

monosaccharides, disaccharides and polysaccharides. (fixed ratio of C, H and O with 1 C, 2 H and 1 O with a minimum of 3 C

simple diffusion

movement of a solute from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration

function of proteins

necessary for the structure, function and regulation of body tissue and organs

lipid structure

neutral fats, phospholipids and steroids. made up of C, H and O in no fixed ratio but with more C and H than O. made up of C, H, H, O, N and sometimes S) and nucleic acids (H, O, N, C and P

Microbodies

organelles that serve as specialized containers for metabolic reactions

molecular structure of water

polar because it connects with other water molecules through covalent bonds. However, the hydrogen and oxygen atoms in H2O are connected through hydrogen bonds

Endocytosis

process by which a cell takes material into the cell by infolding of the cell membrane

List and characterize each of the primary subatomic particles.

protons (positive charge and inside of the nucleus of the atom), neutrons (no charge and are also in the nucleus) and electrons (negative charge and are in the orbitals outside of the atom)

channel proteins

provide corridors that allow a specific molecule or ion to cross the membrane

gap junctions

provide cytoplasmic channels between adjacent animal cells

Hypotonic

when comparing two solutions, the solution with the lesser concentration of solutes

Isotonic

when the concentration of two solutions is the same

Endosymbiosis

says that billions of years ago, there were two independent bacteria (one of which was the ancestor of chloroplasts and mitochondria). Eventually, the chloroplast/mitochondria ancestor went inside of the other bacteria cell and lived inside of it and both bacteria benefited from the arrangement. Then, when the larger bacteria reproduces, the internal bacteria are passed on from generation to generation, leading to eukaryotic cells with chloroplasts and mitochondria.

ph scale

scale with values from 0 to 14, used to measure the concentration of H+ ions in a solution; a pH of 0 to 7 is acidic, a pH of 7 is neutral, and a pH of 7 to 14 is basic

tertiary structure

secondary structure folded over. Is maintained by either hydrogen bonds, sulfide bridges, ionic bonds or Van Der Waals interactions

primary structure

sequence of amino acids that makes up the polypeptide chain

Ribosomes

site of protein synthesis

null hypothesis

states that there is no difference between two of the groups and can easily be proven wrong.

catalyst

substance that speeds up the rate of a chemical reaction

Describe characteristics of life. Use these criteria to distinguish if a given item is alive

the ability to reproduce, organization, ability to grow and develop, response of stimuli and energy processing.

active site

the fold on an enzyme where the substrate fits

passive transport

the movement of substances across a cell membrane without the use of energy by the cell

atomic number

the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom

cis isomers

the two Xs are on the same side

trans isomers

the two x's are on opposite sides

protein structure

thousands of types that are determined by the amino acids present

protein pumps

transport proteins that require energy to do work

theory

why nature behaves a certain way