AP Chemistry Comprehensive Review
Linear
sp
Trigonal planar
sp2
Tetrahedral
sp3
Trigonal bipyramidal
sp3d
Octahedral
sp3d2
Half life of 1st order equation
t = ln2/k = .693/k
Half life for 2nd order reaction
t1/2 = 1/k[A]0
Half life for 0 order reaction
t1/2 = [A]0/2k
covalent bond
the attraction that results from two atoms sharing electrons; typically forms between non-metals
Temperature -
the average kinetic energy of gas particles. (i.e. how fast the particles move); ALWAYS USE KELVIN
ionic bond
the force of attraction between a cation (positive ion) and an anion (negative ion); typically forms between a metal and a non-metal; electrons transfer from the metal to the non-metal
Pressure -
the force of gas particles hitting against the walls of the container; Make Units Match
chemical bond
the force that holds atoms together in a compound
Isotope
A form of an element with the same atomic number but different atomic mass (different number of neutrons)
Bond Pair
A pair of electrons that are shared in a covalent bond between two atoms
Equilibrium constant
E` = (.0591/n)logK
ln k2/k1 =
Ea/R (1/T2 - 1/T2)
Rate
k[A]^n[B]^m
1st order reactions
ln[A] vs time is straight line
1st order integrated rate law
ln[A]t = -kt + ln[A]0
% Weight
mass solute/mass solution
electronegativity
measure of the tendency of an atom to pull electrons to itself in a compound; increases in the upper-right representative elements
Weak acid strong base titration curve
Higher initial pH Gradual change toward equilibrium point in buffer region Equilibrium point: pH is greater than 7 1/2 equivalence point: pH = pKa
Concentration's effect on rate of reaction
Higher=faster
Pressure's effect on rate of reaction
Higher=faster
Temperature's effect on rate of reaction
Higher=faster
Critical temperature
Highest temp at which substance can exist as a liquid
Metallic character
How easily an atom loses electrons Increases down (PELs added) Increases left (fewer valence electrons, more likely to lose them)
He could have been her ideal neighborhood cutie she purred
Hydrochloric Hydrobromic Hydroiodic Nitric Chloric Sulfuric Perchloric
HCl
Hydrochloric acid
Reaction quotient (Q)
Obtained by using initial concentration instead of equilibrium concentration
pi=mRT
Osmotic pressure equation
Molality
mols solute/kg solvent
Mol Fraction
mols solute/mols solution
m+n in rate
overall order
Henderson Hasselbalch Equation
pH = pKa + log ([A-]/[HA])
Lone Pairs
pairs of valence electrons that are not involved in covalent bond formation; electrons that cannot be bonded because they are already paired up
m, n in rate
reaction orders, derived by experiment
Electronic Geometry
refers to the arrangement of electron groups around the central atom
Volume -
how much space the gas occupies (Remember, a gas fills the volume of its container.); Use Liters
Saw horse
90, 117
Charles Law -
Direct
Trigonal bipyramidal
90, 120, 180
Octahedral
90, 180
Square planar
90, 180
Square pyramidal
90, 180
Gay-Lussac's Law -
Direct
Delta H positive
Solvent solvent interaction
SHE
Standard Hydrogen Electrode
Who was Avogadro's contemporary?
Stanislao Cannizzaro
Emulsion
Suspension of one liquid in another
Rate of reaction depends on
Temperature Concentration Pressure Catalyst Collisions
Buffering capacity
The amount of acid or base that a buffer can neutralize before its pH changes too much (when you blow out the buffer)
Periodic Law
When elements are arranged in order of increasing atomic #, there is a periodic pattern in their physical and chemical properties
Tetrahedral
109.5
Coefficients and rate of reaction
Divide by coefficient to get rate of reaction
Strong base strong acid titration curve
Downward slope, pH = 7
If Q is smaller than Ksp
No precipitate
Catalyst
No shift in equilibrium, just time of reaction
Group 18
Noble gases
Which elements have the smallest atomic radiuses?
Noble gases
Which are good insulators?
Non-metals
Cation
+ charged atom from metals losing electrons
Anion
- charged atom from nonmetals gaining electrons
Slope
-Ea/R Ea is activation energy R is 8.314 J/mol K
Rate
-delta[A]/delta time = -delta[B]/delta time = + delta[C]/delta time = + delta[D]/delta time
pH
-log[H+]
pOH
-log[OH-]
What volume of .3 M NaCl solution can be prepared from .06 mol of solute?
.2 L
Standard temperature
0` C
Standard pressure
1 atm
Linear
1 bonding pair
[H+][OH-]
1 x 10^-14
Kinetic Molecular Theory -
1) mass no volume 2) no forces exerted 3) constant, random motion 4) elastic collisions 5) kinetic energy based on temperature regardless of gas
Reverse reaction equilibrium constant
1/Kc
2nd order reactions graph
1/[A] vs time is straight line
2nd order integrated rate law
1/[A]t = kt + 1/[A]0
Bent (from tetrahedral)
104.5
Trigonal Pyramidal
107
Bent (from trigonal planar)
117
Trigonal planar
120
pKa + pKb
14
Linear
180
# of sig figs for pH and pOH
2 after the decimal
Linear
2 bonding pairs
Linear
2 bonding pairs, 0 lone pairs
Bent
2 bonding pairs, 1 non bonding pair
Bent
2 bonding pairs, 2 non bonding pairs
Linear
2 bonding pairs, 3 non bonding pairs
The vapor pressure of pure water at 25` C is 24.0 mmHg. What is the expected vapor pressure of an ideal solution of a nonvolatile nonelectrolyte in which the mol fraction of water is .900
21.6 mmHg
Trigonal Planar
3 bonding pairs
Trigonal Planar
3 bonding pairs, 0 lone pairs
V-shaped or Bent
3 bonding pairs, 1 lone pairs
Trigonal pyramidal
3 bonding pairs, 1 non bonding pair
T-Shaped
3 bonding pairs, 2 non bonding pairs
Tetrahedral
4 bonding pairs
Tetrahedral
4 bonding pairs, 0 lone pairs
Trigonal Pyramid
4 bonding pairs, 1 lone pair
Saw Horse
4 bonding pairs, 1 non bonding pair
V-shaped or Bent
4 bonding pairs, 2 lone pairs
Square Planar
4 bonding pairs, 2 non bonding pairs
Trigonal bipyramidal
5 bonding pairs
Trigonal Bipyramid
5 bonding pairs, 0 lone pairs
See-saw or Distorted Tetrahedral
5 bonding pairs, 1 lone pairs
Square Pyramidal
5 bonding pairs, 1 non bonding pair
T-shaped
5 bonding pairs, 2 lone pairs
Linear
5 bonding pairs, 3 lone pairs
Water concentration
55 M
Octahedral
6 bonding pairs
Octahedral
6 bonding pairs, 0 lone pairs
Square Pyramid
6 bonding pairs, 1 lone pairs
Square Planar
6 bonding pairs, 2 lone pairs
T-Shaped
90
2A + B <--> 3C + D
A: -2*rate B: -1*rate C: 3*rate D: rate
Electronegativity (electron affinity)
Ability of atom to attract electrons Increases up (fewer PELs, greater EM attraction) Increases right (more valence electrons; closer to full outer shell) Noble gases not included
Electron reciever
Acid
Proton donor
Acid
Neutralization
Acid + Base --> Salt + Water
NH4+
Acidic
Transition metal cations
Acidic
Define activation energy, Ea
Activation energy is the initial energy required to start a chemical reaction
Titration
Adding a strong base to a weak acid
Common ion effect
Adding common ion shifts equilibrium away from that ion (Le Chatelier's Principle)
Ag+ + SO4 2-
Ag2SO4
Silver fluorite
AgFO2
Al3+ + OH-
Al(OH)3
First group
Alkali metals
Which elements have the greatest atomic radiuses?
Alkali metals
2nd group
Alkaline earth metals
Ionization energy (ionization potential)
Amount of energy required to remove valence electrons Increases up (fewer PELs, greater EM attraction) Increases right (more valence electrons; closer to full outer shell)
Salt bridge
Anions go to anode Cations go to cathode
An ox Red cat
Anode is oxidized agent Cathode is reduced agent
Standard notation
Anode listed on left Cathode on right Zn | Zn2+ || Cu2+ | Cu
Which is the most volatile substance? A Chlorine B Fluorine C Sodium chloride D Sodium fluoride
B
Which of the following has the highest boiling point? A .2M CaCl2 B .25M Na2SO4 C .3M NaCl D .3M KBr E .4M C6H12O6
B
Trigonal Planar
BF3
Ba2+ + NO3-
Ba(NO3)2
Electron donor
Base
Proton reciever
Base
Anion of weak acid
Basic
What are alkali and alkaline?
Basic (react with water)
Strong acid and strong base on same side
Both end up neutral because they are the opposite of strong (each other)
Which gas law is involved when a balloon pops after being sat on?
Boyle's Law
Square pyramidal
BrF5
Which compound is predominantly covalent? A LiCL B Al2O3 C ClF D ZnCl2
C
Which is a strong electrolyte when dissolved in water? A Sucrose B Ethanol C Sodium nitrate D Acetic acid E Ammonia
C
Time for electroplating
C = A*s
Which of the following compounds contains both ionic and covalent bonds? A SO3 B C2H5OH C MgF2 D H2S E NH4Cl
E
The molar massas of C2H6, CH3OH, and CH3F are very similar. How do their boiling points compare?
C2H6<CH3F<CH3OH
What is the polarity of CO2 and its C=O bond?
C=O bond is polar CO2 molecule is non polar
Tetrahedral
CH4
Linear
CO2
Acid + Carbonate -->
CO2 + H2O + Salt
Alexandre-Emile de Chancourtois
Came up with telluric screw
Hemolysis
Cell explodes
Hypotonic
Cell explodes
Crenation
Cell shrivels
Hypertonic
Cell shrivels
mKi
Change in BP or FP equation
Cr2(S2O3)3
Chromium (III) thiosulfate
Stanislao Cannizzaro
Classified elements until the one essential property of atomic weight was settled
Cobalt (III) fluorite
Co(FO2)3
Glenn Seaborg
Co-discovered 10 elements Moved 14 elements below table (Actinide series; Lanthanides were already out)
Reduction
Compound gains e- Becomes more negative
Oxidation
Compound loses e- Becomes more positive
Factors part of Le Chatelier's Principle (LCP)
Concentration Temperature Pressure Catalyst
Bronsted-Lowry Theory
Conjugate pairs
Chromium (III) chromate
Cr2(CrO4)3
What is a telluric screw?
Cylinder divided into 16 parts around which the elements spiraled
More C
Decrease solubility
Enthalpy driven
Delta H negative
Entropy driven
Delta H positive
3 dimensional covalent network solids
Diamonds, SiO2
What intermolecular forces exist between molecules of carbon monoxide, CO?
Dipole-dipole attractions and london dispersion
Electrolysis
Electricity used to drive or cause nonspontaneous redox reactions to occur
Properties of nonmetals
Electrons are gained--anions Brittle
Properties of metals
Electrons are lost--cations Luster Malleable Ductile
Standard EMF
Eox + Ered
If Q equals Ksp
Equilibrium
K<1
Equilibrium lies to the left Reactants favored
Concentration increase LCP
Equilibrium shifts away (and vice versa)
Temperature increase LCP
Equilibrium shifts away from heat
Pressure increase LCP
Equilibrium shifts away from most moles of gas (and vice versa)
Le Chatelier's principle basic premise
Equilibrium shifts away from the stress
Temperature decrease LCP
Equilibrium shifts toward heat
Volatile
Evaporates easily
What are inner transition metals?
F sublevels (lanthanide and actinide series)
What is another word for "group"?
Family
Fe (II) + S2-
FeS
Charles Law -
For a fixed amount of gas at a constant pressure, the volume of the gas increases as the temperature increases.
Boyle's Law -
For a fixed amount of gas at a constant temperature, the volume of the gas increases as the pressure decreases.
Gay-Lussac's Law -
For a fixed amount of gas at a constant volume, the pressure of the gas increases as the temperature increases.
Dynamic equilibrium
Forward and backward reaction at equal rate
How do non-metals achieve a full outer shell?
Gain electrons
Condensation
Gas to liquid
Deposition
Gas to solid
Collisions' effect on rate of reaction
Good (enough energy, right orientation) favors products Bad (not enough energy, wrong orientation) favors reactants
Vertical columns
Groups
What are representative elements?
Groups 1-2, 13-18 (s & p sublevels filling and filled)
Acid + Metal reaction will produce
H2 + Salt
Bent
H2O
acid base conj. base conj. acid
HA + H2O <--> A- + H3O+
Strong acids
HCl HBr HI HNO3 HClO3 H2SO4 HClO4
Group 17
Halogens
What element groups are most reactive?
Halogens, Alkali Metals
Polyprotic acid titration curve
Have more than 1 equivalence point
Solid
Heating curve area 1
Q=mcAt
Heating curve area 1,3,5
Fusion
Heating curve area 2
Q=ml
Heating curve area 2,4
Liquid
Heating curve area 3
Vaporization
Heating curve area 4
Gas
Heating curve area 5
Catalyst's effect on rate of reaction
Heterogenous vs Homogenous
T-Shaped
ICl3
High solubility of an ionic solid in water is favored by which of the conditions? I. The existence of strong ionic attractions in the crystal lattice II. The formation of strong ion-dipole attractions III. An increase in entropy upon dissolving
II and III
Distinguish between a weak and strong acid
If a strong acid is added to water, every molecule ionizes, whereas a weak acid is only partly ionized
2.0+
In a ionic bond, the difference of both atoms' measurement of electronegativity should be...
0.0-0.4
In a non-polar covalent bond, the difference of both atoms' measurement of electronegativity should be...
more than 0.4-less than 2.0
In a polar covalent bond, the difference of both atoms' measurement of electronegativity should be...
William Ramsay
Included noble gases in the periodic table
More OH
Increase solubility
As the volume of confined gas decreases at constant temperature, the pressure exerted by the gas___________.
Increases
Strong hydrides basicness
Increases left and up on periodic table
Strong hydrides acidity
Increases right and down on periodic table
What is another name for noble gases?
Inert
ICE Matrix
Initial Change Equilibrium
Boyle's Law -
Inverse
Fe(C2H3O2)3
Iron (III) acetate
FeI3
Iron (III) iodide
At room temperature I2 is a molecular solid. What is a characteristic of I2 (s) with a correct explanation
It is not a good conductor of electricity because its valence electrons are localized in bonding and nonbonding pairs
Adding equations
K1 x K2 = K3
Equilibrium constant
Kc = ([C]^c[D]^d)/([A]^a[B]^b)
Multiply equation by factor of n
Kc^n
Kp to Kc
Kp = Kc(RT)^(delta n)
John Newlands
Law of Octaves
Vaporization
Liquid to gas
How was the telluric screw named?
O, S, Se, Te fell into a line, was named for tellurium
How do metals achieve their full outer shell?
Lose electrons
Who came up with a similar table to Mendeleev?
Lothar Meyer
Strong acid strong base titration curve
Low initial pH Large pH change Phen indicator MaVa=MbVb pH=7 at equivalence point
Mg(IO2)2
Magnesium iodate
Radius
Measured from nucleus to outermost electron Increases down (PELs added) Increases left (fewer protons to attract electrons)
MR EIRO
Metallic character Radius Electronegativity Ionization energy (ionization potential) Reactivity increases Oxidation state
What are the elements along the staircase?
Metaloids (semi-conductors) that have some metallic and non-metallic properties depending on surrounding substances
Which are good conductors?
Metals
Reactivity increases
Metals-how easily electrons are lost Non-metals-how easily an atom gains electrons
Mg2+ + PO4 3-
Mg3(PO4)2
unit of measurement represented by "n"
Moles
Ammonia
NH3
Trigonal pyramidal
NH3
Na+ + CrO4 2-
Na2CrO4
Concentration
Nernst Equation E=E`- (RT/nF)lnQ
Anion of strong acid
Neutral
Non transition metal cations
Neutral
Strong base makes
Neutral acid
Strong acid makes
Neutral base
Ni (II) + Cl-
NiCl2
Are size of K and time to reach equilibrium related?
No
Include concentrations of solids and liquids in Kc?
No
Gay-Lussac's Law Equation -
P1/T1 = P2 /T2
Boyle's Law -
P1V1 = P2V2
Combined Gas Law Equation -
P1V1/T1= P2V2/T2
Trigonal bipyramidal
PCl5
Weak acid makes
PDS Base
What do periods represent?
PELs
Horizontal rows
Periods
K2Cr2O7
Potassium dichromate
Kp
Pproducts/Preactants
If Q is bigger than Ksp
Precipitate
Kp
Pressure
Critical pressure
Pressure required to liquefy a substance at critical temperature
Weak base makes
Pretty Darn Strong acid (PDS)
K>1
Products favored Equilibrium lies to the right
Earnest Rutherford
Proposed term "proton" for positive nuclear charge Likely discovered the proton
Dmitri Mendeleev
Published a table of elements organized by increasing atomic mass Isotopes of different elements that can have the same mass and vice versa Predicted properties of 3 unknown elements (including Germanium) Stated that if an atomic weight put it in the wrong group, then the weight was wrong--corrected masses of Be, In, U
Q determines shift in equilibrium
Q=K system at equilibrium Q>K system shifts left Q<K system shifts right
Coagulation
Removal of colloid particles
Saw horse
SF4
Octahedral
SF6
Bent
SO2
What are halogens?
Salt formers Group immediately before noble gases
Covalent network solids
SiO2 and Diamonds
What combination best describes the type of bonding present and the melting point of silicon and silicon dioxide?
Silicon-covalent bonding, high melting point Silicon dioxide-covalent bonding, high melting point SiO2-covalent network solid
Why are groups placed together?
Similar electron configurations; same # of electrons in outer shell
Rate constant (k)
Slope of graph
Rate determining step
Slowest step in reaction mechanism
NaHCO3
Sodium hydrogen carbonate
Sublimation
Solid to gas
Dissolve
Solute and solvent to solution
Delta H positive
Solute solute interaction
Delta H negative
Solute solvent interaction
Buffer
Solution that resists change in pH when small amounts of acid or base are added. (Contains a weak acid or base and its conjugate ion)
Crystallize
Solution to solute and solvent
Oxidation state (oxidation number)
The charge an atom has after it gains or loses electrons
What occurs during the change from a liquid to a solid at a fixed temperature?
The particles become more ordered and heat is released
Electromotive force
The pull of the electrons as they travel from the anode to the cathode Measured by voltimeter E`, cell potential, EMF
Why were noble gases named that way?
They don't mix with the lesser elements (they don't need to gain or lose any electrons from the outer shell)
What is the law of octaves?
Through arrangements by mass, properties repeated every 8th element (failed after Ca)
SnSO3
Tin (II) sulfite
SnO2
Tin (IV) oxide
Groups 3-12
Transition metals
Johann Dobereiner
Triads-groups of 3 elements w/ similar chemical and physical properties
Rate laws are derived experimentally, not from balanced equations
True
Salts with anions of strong acids are mostly unaffected by pH
True
True or False: If you have a balloon inside a car at noon during a hot summer day, the molecules inside the balloon will increase in pressure.
True
Solubility of slightly soluble salts containing basic anion increases as [H+] increases
True!
Charles Law -
V1/T1 = V2/T2
Valence Shell Pair Electrons Repulsion Theory
VSPER theory
VSEPR
Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion Electrons don't like each other
Electrons in the outer shell
Valence electrons
4 Colligative properties
Vapor Pressure BP elevation FP depression Osmotic pressure
What type of acid or base is ammonia?
Weak Base
Henry Moseley
Worked w/ x-rays to determine nuclear charge (atomic #) of elements Research stopped when sent to WWI (British) and was killed in combat Rearranged elements to # of protons
Process for basic equilibrium problems
Write equation Write equilibrium expression ICE matrix Solve for x
Linear
XeF2
Square planar
XeF4
What are transuranium elements?
Z>92
Zinc fluorite
Zn(FO2)2
Zn2+ + CO3 2-
ZnCO3
0 order reactions graph
[A] vs time is straight line
Zero order integrated rate law
[A]t = -kt + [A]0
% dissociation/ionization
[H+]/[HA]
polar covalent bond
a bond where the electrons are not being shared equally
non-polar covalent bond
a bond where the electrons are shared equally
Polyatomic Ion
a covalently bonded group of atoms that has a positive or negative charge
Equilibrium expression
aA + bB <--> cC + dD
unit of measurement used to describe pressure
atm
mi/hr speed
delta Distance/delta time
Spontaneity
delta G = -n F E
Rate of reaction must always be positive
delta [A] = final-initial Therefore reactants must have - in front
molarity
delta molarity/delta time
Molecular Geometry
describes the three-dimensional arrangement of atoms in a molecule
H (2), Be (4), B (6), Al (6)
e lements that do not need to have an octet in a compound
VSPER theory
electron groups in the valence shell of an atom adapt an arrangement in space that minimizes repulsion between them
Normality
equivalents solute/L solution
