AP Chemistry Comprehensive Review

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Linear

sp

Trigonal planar

sp2

Tetrahedral

sp3

Trigonal bipyramidal

sp3d

Octahedral

sp3d2

Half life of 1st order equation

t = ln2/k = .693/k

Half life for 2nd order reaction

t1/2 = 1/k[A]0

Half life for 0 order reaction

t1/2 = [A]0/2k

covalent bond

the attraction that results from two atoms sharing electrons; typically forms between non-metals

Temperature -

the average kinetic energy of gas particles. (i.e. how fast the particles move); ALWAYS USE KELVIN

ionic bond

the force of attraction between a cation (positive ion) and an anion (negative ion); typically forms between a metal and a non-metal; electrons transfer from the metal to the non-metal

Pressure -

the force of gas particles hitting against the walls of the container; Make Units Match

chemical bond

the force that holds atoms together in a compound

Isotope

A form of an element with the same atomic number but different atomic mass (different number of neutrons)

Bond Pair

A pair of electrons that are shared in a covalent bond between two atoms

Equilibrium constant

E` = (.0591/n)logK

ln k2/k1 =

Ea/R (1/T2 - 1/T2)

Rate

k[A]^n[B]^m

1st order reactions

ln[A] vs time is straight line

1st order integrated rate law

ln[A]t = -kt + ln[A]0

% Weight

mass solute/mass solution

electronegativity

measure of the tendency of an atom to pull electrons to itself in a compound; increases in the upper-right representative elements

Weak acid strong base titration curve

Higher initial pH Gradual change toward equilibrium point in buffer region Equilibrium point: pH is greater than 7 1/2 equivalence point: pH = pKa

Concentration's effect on rate of reaction

Higher=faster

Pressure's effect on rate of reaction

Higher=faster

Temperature's effect on rate of reaction

Higher=faster

Critical temperature

Highest temp at which substance can exist as a liquid

Metallic character

How easily an atom loses electrons Increases down (PELs added) Increases left (fewer valence electrons, more likely to lose them)

He could have been her ideal neighborhood cutie she purred

Hydrochloric Hydrobromic Hydroiodic Nitric Chloric Sulfuric Perchloric

HCl

Hydrochloric acid

Reaction quotient (Q)

Obtained by using initial concentration instead of equilibrium concentration

pi=mRT

Osmotic pressure equation

Molality

mols solute/kg solvent

Mol Fraction

mols solute/mols solution

m+n in rate

overall order

Henderson Hasselbalch Equation

pH = pKa + log ([A-]/[HA])

Lone Pairs

pairs of valence electrons that are not involved in covalent bond formation; electrons that cannot be bonded because they are already paired up

m, n in rate

reaction orders, derived by experiment

Electronic Geometry

refers to the arrangement of electron groups around the central atom

Volume -

how much space the gas occupies (Remember, a gas fills the volume of its container.); Use Liters

Saw horse

90, 117

Charles Law -

Direct

Trigonal bipyramidal

90, 120, 180

Octahedral

90, 180

Square planar

90, 180

Square pyramidal

90, 180

Gay-Lussac's Law -

Direct

Delta H positive

Solvent solvent interaction

SHE

Standard Hydrogen Electrode

Who was Avogadro's contemporary?

Stanislao Cannizzaro

Emulsion

Suspension of one liquid in another

Rate of reaction depends on

Temperature Concentration Pressure Catalyst Collisions

Buffering capacity

The amount of acid or base that a buffer can neutralize before its pH changes too much (when you blow out the buffer)

Periodic Law

When elements are arranged in order of increasing atomic #, there is a periodic pattern in their physical and chemical properties

Tetrahedral

109.5

Coefficients and rate of reaction

Divide by coefficient to get rate of reaction

Strong base strong acid titration curve

Downward slope, pH = 7

If Q is smaller than Ksp

No precipitate

Catalyst

No shift in equilibrium, just time of reaction

Group 18

Noble gases

Which elements have the smallest atomic radiuses?

Noble gases

Which are good insulators?

Non-metals

Cation

+ charged atom from metals losing electrons

Anion

- charged atom from nonmetals gaining electrons

Slope

-Ea/R Ea is activation energy R is 8.314 J/mol K

Rate

-delta[A]/delta time = -delta[B]/delta time = + delta[C]/delta time = + delta[D]/delta time

pH

-log[H+]

pOH

-log[OH-]

What volume of .3 M NaCl solution can be prepared from .06 mol of solute?

.2 L

Standard temperature

0` C

Standard pressure

1 atm

Linear

1 bonding pair

[H+][OH-]

1 x 10^-14

Kinetic Molecular Theory -

1) mass no volume 2) no forces exerted 3) constant, random motion 4) elastic collisions 5) kinetic energy based on temperature regardless of gas

Reverse reaction equilibrium constant

1/Kc

2nd order reactions graph

1/[A] vs time is straight line

2nd order integrated rate law

1/[A]t = kt + 1/[A]0

Bent (from tetrahedral)

104.5

Trigonal Pyramidal

107

Bent (from trigonal planar)

117

Trigonal planar

120

pKa + pKb

14

Linear

180

# of sig figs for pH and pOH

2 after the decimal

Linear

2 bonding pairs

Linear

2 bonding pairs, 0 lone pairs

Bent

2 bonding pairs, 1 non bonding pair

Bent

2 bonding pairs, 2 non bonding pairs

Linear

2 bonding pairs, 3 non bonding pairs

The vapor pressure of pure water at 25` C is 24.0 mmHg. What is the expected vapor pressure of an ideal solution of a nonvolatile nonelectrolyte in which the mol fraction of water is .900

21.6 mmHg

Trigonal Planar

3 bonding pairs

Trigonal Planar

3 bonding pairs, 0 lone pairs

V-shaped or Bent

3 bonding pairs, 1 lone pairs

Trigonal pyramidal

3 bonding pairs, 1 non bonding pair

T-Shaped

3 bonding pairs, 2 non bonding pairs

Tetrahedral

4 bonding pairs

Tetrahedral

4 bonding pairs, 0 lone pairs

Trigonal Pyramid

4 bonding pairs, 1 lone pair

Saw Horse

4 bonding pairs, 1 non bonding pair

V-shaped or Bent

4 bonding pairs, 2 lone pairs

Square Planar

4 bonding pairs, 2 non bonding pairs

Trigonal bipyramidal

5 bonding pairs

Trigonal Bipyramid

5 bonding pairs, 0 lone pairs

See-saw or Distorted Tetrahedral

5 bonding pairs, 1 lone pairs

Square Pyramidal

5 bonding pairs, 1 non bonding pair

T-shaped

5 bonding pairs, 2 lone pairs

Linear

5 bonding pairs, 3 lone pairs

Water concentration

55 M

Octahedral

6 bonding pairs

Octahedral

6 bonding pairs, 0 lone pairs

Square Pyramid

6 bonding pairs, 1 lone pairs

Square Planar

6 bonding pairs, 2 lone pairs

T-Shaped

90

2A + B <--> 3C + D

A: -2*rate B: -1*rate C: 3*rate D: rate

Electronegativity (electron affinity)

Ability of atom to attract electrons Increases up (fewer PELs, greater EM attraction) Increases right (more valence electrons; closer to full outer shell) Noble gases not included

Electron reciever

Acid

Proton donor

Acid

Neutralization

Acid + Base --> Salt + Water

NH4+

Acidic

Transition metal cations

Acidic

Define activation energy, Ea

Activation energy is the initial energy required to start a chemical reaction

Titration

Adding a strong base to a weak acid

Common ion effect

Adding common ion shifts equilibrium away from that ion (Le Chatelier's Principle)

Ag+ + SO4 2-

Ag2SO4

Silver fluorite

AgFO2

Al3+ + OH-

Al(OH)3

First group

Alkali metals

Which elements have the greatest atomic radiuses?

Alkali metals

2nd group

Alkaline earth metals

Ionization energy (ionization potential)

Amount of energy required to remove valence electrons Increases up (fewer PELs, greater EM attraction) Increases right (more valence electrons; closer to full outer shell)

Salt bridge

Anions go to anode Cations go to cathode

An ox Red cat

Anode is oxidized agent Cathode is reduced agent

Standard notation

Anode listed on left Cathode on right Zn | Zn2+ || Cu2+ | Cu

Which is the most volatile substance? A Chlorine B Fluorine C Sodium chloride D Sodium fluoride

B

Which of the following has the highest boiling point? A .2M CaCl2 B .25M Na2SO4 C .3M NaCl D .3M KBr E .4M C6H12O6

B

Trigonal Planar

BF3

Ba2+ + NO3-

Ba(NO3)2

Electron donor

Base

Proton reciever

Base

Anion of weak acid

Basic

What are alkali and alkaline?

Basic (react with water)

Strong acid and strong base on same side

Both end up neutral because they are the opposite of strong (each other)

Which gas law is involved when a balloon pops after being sat on?

Boyle's Law

Square pyramidal

BrF5

Which compound is predominantly covalent? A LiCL B Al2O3 C ClF D ZnCl2

C

Which is a strong electrolyte when dissolved in water? A Sucrose B Ethanol C Sodium nitrate D Acetic acid E Ammonia

C

Time for electroplating

C = A*s

Which of the following compounds contains both ionic and covalent bonds? A SO3 B C2H5OH C MgF2 D H2S E NH4Cl

E

The molar massas of C2H6, CH3OH, and CH3F are very similar. How do their boiling points compare?

C2H6<CH3F<CH3OH

What is the polarity of CO2 and its C=O bond?

C=O bond is polar CO2 molecule is non polar

Tetrahedral

CH4

Linear

CO2

Acid + Carbonate -->

CO2 + H2O + Salt

Alexandre-Emile de Chancourtois

Came up with telluric screw

Hemolysis

Cell explodes

Hypotonic

Cell explodes

Crenation

Cell shrivels

Hypertonic

Cell shrivels

mKi

Change in BP or FP equation

Cr2(S2O3)3

Chromium (III) thiosulfate

Stanislao Cannizzaro

Classified elements until the one essential property of atomic weight was settled

Cobalt (III) fluorite

Co(FO2)3

Glenn Seaborg

Co-discovered 10 elements Moved 14 elements below table (Actinide series; Lanthanides were already out)

Reduction

Compound gains e- Becomes more negative

Oxidation

Compound loses e- Becomes more positive

Factors part of Le Chatelier's Principle (LCP)

Concentration Temperature Pressure Catalyst

Bronsted-Lowry Theory

Conjugate pairs

Chromium (III) chromate

Cr2(CrO4)3

What is a telluric screw?

Cylinder divided into 16 parts around which the elements spiraled

More C

Decrease solubility

Enthalpy driven

Delta H negative

Entropy driven

Delta H positive

3 dimensional covalent network solids

Diamonds, SiO2

What intermolecular forces exist between molecules of carbon monoxide, CO?

Dipole-dipole attractions and london dispersion

Electrolysis

Electricity used to drive or cause nonspontaneous redox reactions to occur

Properties of nonmetals

Electrons are gained--anions Brittle

Properties of metals

Electrons are lost--cations Luster Malleable Ductile

Standard EMF

Eox + Ered

If Q equals Ksp

Equilibrium

K<1

Equilibrium lies to the left Reactants favored

Concentration increase LCP

Equilibrium shifts away (and vice versa)

Temperature increase LCP

Equilibrium shifts away from heat

Pressure increase LCP

Equilibrium shifts away from most moles of gas (and vice versa)

Le Chatelier's principle basic premise

Equilibrium shifts away from the stress

Temperature decrease LCP

Equilibrium shifts toward heat

Volatile

Evaporates easily

What are inner transition metals?

F sublevels (lanthanide and actinide series)

What is another word for "group"?

Family

Fe (II) + S2-

FeS

Charles Law -

For a fixed amount of gas at a constant pressure, the volume of the gas increases as the temperature increases.

Boyle's Law -

For a fixed amount of gas at a constant temperature, the volume of the gas increases as the pressure decreases.

Gay-Lussac's Law -

For a fixed amount of gas at a constant volume, the pressure of the gas increases as the temperature increases.

Dynamic equilibrium

Forward and backward reaction at equal rate

How do non-metals achieve a full outer shell?

Gain electrons

Condensation

Gas to liquid

Deposition

Gas to solid

Collisions' effect on rate of reaction

Good (enough energy, right orientation) favors products Bad (not enough energy, wrong orientation) favors reactants

Vertical columns

Groups

What are representative elements?

Groups 1-2, 13-18 (s & p sublevels filling and filled)

Acid + Metal reaction will produce

H2 + Salt

Bent

H2O

acid base conj. base conj. acid

HA + H2O <--> A- + H3O+

Strong acids

HCl HBr HI HNO3 HClO3 H2SO4 HClO4

Group 17

Halogens

What element groups are most reactive?

Halogens, Alkali Metals

Polyprotic acid titration curve

Have more than 1 equivalence point

Solid

Heating curve area 1

Q=mcAt

Heating curve area 1,3,5

Fusion

Heating curve area 2

Q=ml

Heating curve area 2,4

Liquid

Heating curve area 3

Vaporization

Heating curve area 4

Gas

Heating curve area 5

Catalyst's effect on rate of reaction

Heterogenous vs Homogenous

T-Shaped

ICl3

High solubility of an ionic solid in water is favored by which of the conditions? I. The existence of strong ionic attractions in the crystal lattice II. The formation of strong ion-dipole attractions III. An increase in entropy upon dissolving

II and III

Distinguish between a weak and strong acid

If a strong acid is added to water, every molecule ionizes, whereas a weak acid is only partly ionized

2.0+

In a ionic bond, the difference of both atoms' measurement of electronegativity should be...

0.0-0.4

In a non-polar covalent bond, the difference of both atoms' measurement of electronegativity should be...

more than 0.4-less than 2.0

In a polar covalent bond, the difference of both atoms' measurement of electronegativity should be...

William Ramsay

Included noble gases in the periodic table

More OH

Increase solubility

As the volume of confined gas decreases at constant temperature, the pressure exerted by the gas___________.

Increases

Strong hydrides basicness

Increases left and up on periodic table

Strong hydrides acidity

Increases right and down on periodic table

What is another name for noble gases?

Inert

ICE Matrix

Initial Change Equilibrium

Boyle's Law -

Inverse

Fe(C2H3O2)3

Iron (III) acetate

FeI3

Iron (III) iodide

At room temperature I2 is a molecular solid. What is a characteristic of I2 (s) with a correct explanation

It is not a good conductor of electricity because its valence electrons are localized in bonding and nonbonding pairs

Adding equations

K1 x K2 = K3

Equilibrium constant

Kc = ([C]^c[D]^d)/([A]^a[B]^b)

Multiply equation by factor of n

Kc^n

Kp to Kc

Kp = Kc(RT)^(delta n)

John Newlands

Law of Octaves

Vaporization

Liquid to gas

How was the telluric screw named?

O, S, Se, Te fell into a line, was named for tellurium

How do metals achieve their full outer shell?

Lose electrons

Who came up with a similar table to Mendeleev?

Lothar Meyer

Strong acid strong base titration curve

Low initial pH Large pH change Phen indicator MaVa=MbVb pH=7 at equivalence point

Mg(IO2)2

Magnesium iodate

Radius

Measured from nucleus to outermost electron Increases down (PELs added) Increases left (fewer protons to attract electrons)

MR EIRO

Metallic character Radius Electronegativity Ionization energy (ionization potential) Reactivity increases Oxidation state

What are the elements along the staircase?

Metaloids (semi-conductors) that have some metallic and non-metallic properties depending on surrounding substances

Which are good conductors?

Metals

Reactivity increases

Metals-how easily electrons are lost Non-metals-how easily an atom gains electrons

Mg2+ + PO4 3-

Mg3(PO4)2

unit of measurement represented by "n"

Moles

Ammonia

NH3

Trigonal pyramidal

NH3

Na+ + CrO4 2-

Na2CrO4

Concentration

Nernst Equation E=E`- (RT/nF)lnQ

Anion of strong acid

Neutral

Non transition metal cations

Neutral

Strong base makes

Neutral acid

Strong acid makes

Neutral base

Ni (II) + Cl-

NiCl2

Are size of K and time to reach equilibrium related?

No

Include concentrations of solids and liquids in Kc?

No

Gay-Lussac's Law Equation -

P1/T1 = P2 /T2

Boyle's Law -

P1V1 = P2V2

Combined Gas Law Equation -

P1V1/T1= P2V2/T2

Trigonal bipyramidal

PCl5

Weak acid makes

PDS Base

What do periods represent?

PELs

Horizontal rows

Periods

K2Cr2O7

Potassium dichromate

Kp

Pproducts/Preactants

If Q is bigger than Ksp

Precipitate

Kp

Pressure

Critical pressure

Pressure required to liquefy a substance at critical temperature

Weak base makes

Pretty Darn Strong acid (PDS)

K>1

Products favored Equilibrium lies to the right

Earnest Rutherford

Proposed term "proton" for positive nuclear charge Likely discovered the proton

Dmitri Mendeleev

Published a table of elements organized by increasing atomic mass Isotopes of different elements that can have the same mass and vice versa Predicted properties of 3 unknown elements (including Germanium) Stated that if an atomic weight put it in the wrong group, then the weight was wrong--corrected masses of Be, In, U

Q determines shift in equilibrium

Q=K system at equilibrium Q>K system shifts left Q<K system shifts right

Coagulation

Removal of colloid particles

Saw horse

SF4

Octahedral

SF6

Bent

SO2

What are halogens?

Salt formers Group immediately before noble gases

Covalent network solids

SiO2 and Diamonds

What combination best describes the type of bonding present and the melting point of silicon and silicon dioxide?

Silicon-covalent bonding, high melting point Silicon dioxide-covalent bonding, high melting point SiO2-covalent network solid

Why are groups placed together?

Similar electron configurations; same # of electrons in outer shell

Rate constant (k)

Slope of graph

Rate determining step

Slowest step in reaction mechanism

NaHCO3

Sodium hydrogen carbonate

Sublimation

Solid to gas

Dissolve

Solute and solvent to solution

Delta H positive

Solute solute interaction

Delta H negative

Solute solvent interaction

Buffer

Solution that resists change in pH when small amounts of acid or base are added. (Contains a weak acid or base and its conjugate ion)

Crystallize

Solution to solute and solvent

Oxidation state (oxidation number)

The charge an atom has after it gains or loses electrons

What occurs during the change from a liquid to a solid at a fixed temperature?

The particles become more ordered and heat is released

Electromotive force

The pull of the electrons as they travel from the anode to the cathode Measured by voltimeter E`, cell potential, EMF

Why were noble gases named that way?

They don't mix with the lesser elements (they don't need to gain or lose any electrons from the outer shell)

What is the law of octaves?

Through arrangements by mass, properties repeated every 8th element (failed after Ca)

SnSO3

Tin (II) sulfite

SnO2

Tin (IV) oxide

Groups 3-12

Transition metals

Johann Dobereiner

Triads-groups of 3 elements w/ similar chemical and physical properties

Rate laws are derived experimentally, not from balanced equations

True

Salts with anions of strong acids are mostly unaffected by pH

True

True or False: If you have a balloon inside a car at noon during a hot summer day, the molecules inside the balloon will increase in pressure.

True

Solubility of slightly soluble salts containing basic anion increases as [H+] increases

True!

Charles Law -

V1/T1 = V2/T2

Valence Shell Pair Electrons Repulsion Theory

VSPER theory

VSEPR

Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion Electrons don't like each other

Electrons in the outer shell

Valence electrons

4 Colligative properties

Vapor Pressure BP elevation FP depression Osmotic pressure

What type of acid or base is ammonia?

Weak Base

Henry Moseley

Worked w/ x-rays to determine nuclear charge (atomic #) of elements Research stopped when sent to WWI (British) and was killed in combat Rearranged elements to # of protons

Process for basic equilibrium problems

Write equation Write equilibrium expression ICE matrix Solve for x

Linear

XeF2

Square planar

XeF4

What are transuranium elements?

Z>92

Zinc fluorite

Zn(FO2)2

Zn2+ + CO3 2-

ZnCO3

0 order reactions graph

[A] vs time is straight line

Zero order integrated rate law

[A]t = -kt + [A]0

% dissociation/ionization

[H+]/[HA]

polar covalent bond

a bond where the electrons are not being shared equally

non-polar covalent bond

a bond where the electrons are shared equally

Polyatomic Ion

a covalently bonded group of atoms that has a positive or negative charge

Equilibrium expression

aA + bB <--> cC + dD

unit of measurement used to describe pressure

atm

mi/hr speed

delta Distance/delta time

Spontaneity

delta G = -n F E

Rate of reaction must always be positive

delta [A] = final-initial Therefore reactants must have - in front

molarity

delta molarity/delta time

Molecular Geometry

describes the three-dimensional arrangement of atoms in a molecule

H (2), Be (4), B (6), Al (6)

e lements that do not need to have an octet in a compound

VSPER theory

electron groups in the valence shell of an atom adapt an arrangement in space that minimizes repulsion between them

Normality

equivalents solute/L solution


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