AP Comp Pol Study Guide

Policy Outcomes (Iran)

Incoherent policies - this incoherence as a result of the multiplicity of policymaking bodies has prevented the system from becoming totalitarian, since the overlapping spheres have made centralised control of public life impossible ! - example: Music p.491 Spreading Progress and Prosperity - chief complaint of rev´s was that the Shah´s policies failed to benefit the majority of Iranians...while the Republic has focused mainly on improving the lot of the poor only - state educational system is good, despite limitations (medals, high and rising literacy rates) - alarming birth rates have been reduced: multifaceted policy of facilitating birth control, distributing all forms of contraception and free sterilisation ("only two children, be they boys or girls") - health care o villages have small clinic staffed by paramedics and physicians o degree of availability is respectable, although the quality may not always be - improvements of countryside o paved roads connecting all towns and many villages o many villages now have clean water and electricity - economically o state efforts to create a welfare state financed by oil income o most Iranians struggle o growing middle-class à higher expectations - Recognition... o Most do not give the gov´t credit, rather the natural development of a country rich in oil o It is argued that with better planning, more competent management and an acceptance to end the Iran-Iraq war in 82, the situation would be better still o Iran´s overall macro-economic performance has fallen behind newly developing countries in Latin America or East Asia, and the per capita growth rates have not kept pace with emerging eco powers like china or india o Volatile indicators... 1980s: depression due to war, sanctions, high birth rates, and deficient eco policies early 1990s:gradual improvement of in per capita GDP due to rise in oil prices late 1990s: nevertheless unemployment remains high and continues to increase, and the growth rate of eco is not enough to absorb growing pop

Presidents that can be removed from office

Russian,

Civil Service (GB)

"servant" top civil servants formulate, revise and advise on policy work for whichever party lower civil servants clogs Hierarchy: o servants o specialists o Undersecretary o Minister of State o Cabinet o PM Strength: unstoppable machine Weakness: may be inflexible, lazy, complacent and non-competitive

Judiciary (Nigeria)

After indep, well-established system including court system and thriving legal profession in British tradition Fed and state courts are integrated into a single system of trial and appeal courts Traditional authorities maintain their greatest influence in judicial powers 10 northern states maintain sharia courts Indep judiciary has survived, even through military regimes that rule by decree even under the Abacha regime, which showed no inclination to respect any semblance of legal system autonomy

Pariamentary vs. presidential gov't (Nigeria)

As a British colony, came into independence with a parliamentary system 1963: redesignated a republic president with ceremonial powers and parliamentary system with prime minister as head of gov't 1979: Second Republic modelled on US presidential model : President indep elected against 2-house National Assembly at federal level, with governors and legislatures at state level 1989/1995: presidential aspects maintained 1999: indep elected president and dual chamber Nat Assembly at fed level, with governors and single-house legislatures at state level • Speaker of house presides over House of Reps • President of Senate, in line of presidential succession agfter vice president, presides over Senate • Each of 36 states has 3 senators • pOp determines the number of constituencies in each state for a total of 360 reps • senators and reps serve 4 year terms and are elected • legislators do not often have previous leg experience • 60 standing committees in each chamber with jurisdiction over diff issues • Exec Branch introduced fed budget and other major pieces of legislation president´s party currently enjoys a majority in both chambers There remains a lack of trust "zoning" arrangement

Petroleum (Nigeria)

Bloody civil war from 1966-70 brought a halt to oil exports 1970s: petroleum production began to boom the source of Nigeria´s hard currency shifts dramatically from agri products to petroleum since the 70s, petroleum has accounted for over 90% of export earnings... country's economy became distorted by the great disparity of value bween petroleum and the traditional agricultural products young workers began flocking to cities and oil fields 1979: oil revenues peak 1982: glory days of seemingly limitless oil revenues end abruptly production of crude oil suddenly drop from 2.1 million to 0.9 million barrels per day !!! & oil export revenues fall accordingly because Nigeria had become so dependent on oil revenues for imports and large-scale dev projects, it fell behind in its debt payments 1986: further fall in oil prices country pushed into severe recession from which it has never recovered

the national party congress (China)

Comm party constitution vests supreme authority in this Too big and meets to infrequently to play a significant role in political decision-mkaing 5-year intervals in meeting, one-two weeks main functions: • to ratify important changes in broad policy orientation already decided by more important smaller party structures • to elect the Central Committee

Religion (Nigeria)

Each of the groups had traditional religious institutions and beliefs before the arrival of Christianity and Islam some, like the Yoruba, have maintained these The missionaries brought their religion with formal education in the southern regions The Christian denominations themselves tend to be geographically and ethnically concentrated Roman Catholic Igbo; Baptist Yoruba of Ogbomoso; the Evangelical Church of West Africa in Igbomina and Kwara State, etc. Around half of Yoruba are Muslim Christian proselytising was barred from the north The muslim Hausa bring their religion with when they move south this movement is offset by the establishment of churches in northern cities by immigrants mainly from south During the colonial period....missionaries built and staffed the majority of schools the current north-south education gap (which affects political awareness, attitudes towards civil rights, etc) itself derives from the prohibition of missionaries in the north An overlay of religion on ethnicity intensifies north-south cultural split the sharp north-south divide is blurred by multiple ethnic identities but is focused by the Christian-Muslim dichotomy because fundamentalist elements in both Christianity and Islam have found it unacceptable to live in a pluralist society, those seeking basis for political stability in Nigeria must be sensitive to finding a balance between the two major faith groups EX: great distress in south when, in 1986, President Babangida proposed that Nigeria join the Organisation of the Islamic Conference (OIC), a group of more than 50 predominantly Muslim countries formed in 1970

Federalism (Nigeria)

Many pol decisions are not made at national level federal system was established when Nigerian gained indep. in 1954, and Eastern and Western regions gained self-governing status in 1957 and the North in 1959 = very decentralised fed system Constitution of 1960: explicitly federal, dividing responsibilities between federal gov't and 3 regions constant in 1963, 1979, 1989 constitutions too = considerable devolution of power to leaders of the 3 major ethnic groups 2 attempts to impose a unitary system: • 1966 first coup • 1990 aborted coup all levels of gov't derive the largest portion of their revenues from national oil monopoly, distributed through the national gov't control of Nigeria by military gov'ts for 29 of 43 years of independence South have argued for greater state or regional autonomy some southerners even call for separate military forces for major regions Defining state and local gov´t boundaries will continue to be a central issues 1979 civilian rule : 716 local gov'ts = place a heavy burden on a country with limited financial and human resources since local gov'ts had little potential for generating revenue, they were unable to provide the services demanded by local pop 1983 military gov´t : 301 local gov´ts number began to grow again, and now at the "grass-roots" there are 774 LGAs !! state-level politics has often been dominated by local ethnic rivalries have led to expansion of number o states (3 to 4 colonial regions, civil war in 1967, increasing number of states) recent fed gov'ts have tried to calm this struggle with Nigerian version of affirmative action based on Nigeria's "federal character" various regions (and thus ethnic groups) are guaranteed a proportionate share of federal positions !!!! Nigerian national football team is not selected with attention to geographic representation !!!! both 1979 and 1989 constitutions describe a 3 level federalism local governments • uniform structure and common functions for local gov't • thus, local govts don´t reflect the diversity of local cultures present in the country, nor is experimentation possible • little more than local administration of federal policy unlikely to change b/c do not have own independent sources of revenue • 1981: 10% of federal revenues and 10% of state revenues to localities now: 20% of fed revenues recent growth of the public sector employment in public service is an indicator of the growth of gov't since 1999, competition among states for the distribution of fed revenues is acute in two arenas: • disagreements bween president and Nat Assembly over amount of money that should be returned to oil-producing areas ("derivation formula") • controversy between states and fed gov't in a series of Supreme Court decisions in 2002 concerning states' entitlement to offshore oil revenues and fed gov'ts right to exempt certain expenses from funds distributed under the derivation formula

Non associational groups (Nigeria)

Nonassoc interest groups Kaduna mafia, shadowy in its definition = network of powerful northern leaders who are said to maintain strong influence over military and Nigerian politics // northern intelligentsia, better educated than most has lost its influence for now Ethnic divisions in country have prevented the formation of any national -level farm organisations groups only at regional level and only engage in local cooperative activities Farmers' activities are mianly of the anomic protest variety (spontaneous and unorganised) or take the form of clientelism Country's ethnic divisions also reflected in military wide ethnic diversity among the officers creates many complex disputes The role of a vital civil society as a balance to political authority was played by a range of interest groups in the wake of General Sani Abacha´s seizure of power in Nov 1993 trade unions and unions of academic staff at secondary schools and unis engaged in a series of strikes against the Abacha regime strike stimulated an increase in world prices of raw crude oil and in pressing shortages in refined petroleum products in Nigeria An org, the Associaton for a Better Nigeria, formed under Babangida, went to court to seek an injunction against certification of 1993 election this assoc, like others, represented those in the country who profited from existing arrangement and were not eager for a new constitutional regime, and so continued their vocal support of the Babangida and Abacha regimes

The parliament (GB)

Parties vote as a bloc to ensure confidence enforced by whip • Chief whip = guy who makes sure they´re all in line • Whip = weekly document to tell party offciials how to ovte Functions: • Establish pol reputations • Dialogue • Publicise issues • Compromise on/amend bills • Criticise Whitehall • Speak for MP´s constituency (reps. Of England) Structure: • House of Commons (646) o Select committees to oversee ministries and establish a base of expertise o 19 oppostions days o question time each week • House of Lords (704 unelected) o 1/8 inherited o titles bestowed for achievement o Church of England o 1/3 Lab, 1/3 con, 69 LibDems o functions: deliberation on controvrsial issues advice on technical issues o power: can delay the passing of bills, but cannot stop legislation

Illegitimacies (GB)

Pment is an ineffective check on the PM Whitehall Network Secrecy Poublic Infor Act of 2005 blah blah Civil servants leak documents may support any party in power

Patron client network (Nigeria)

Powerful Nigerian pol figures are able to mobilise support through personal "connections" with subordinates, who may themselves serve in a corresponding role of "patron" for a yet-lower set of "clients" = clientelism Those who are not represented by formal assoc may be able to take advantage of their connections to achieve political ends, particularly at the local level The pattern of personal c ontacts is ingrained in the culture Resting on these patron-client networks in Nigeria is a patronage system in which a ruler or official gives a public office to an individual client in return for his loyalty in delivering pol support at some lower level

The cabinet (GB)

Senior ministers from Commons or lords appointed by PM (about 100 ppl) "yes men" PM usually appoints/coopts rivals Before a cabinet gov´t, now a prime minsterial gov´t 6 departments (get shuffled) • External affairs • Economic affairs • Law (lord chancellor) • Social services (health, social security, media, ed, sport) • Territorial (env, food , housing) • Managing gov´t business (Chief Whip in H of C, Offices of Deputy PM) Ministers: • Initiate (select) policy • Responsible for actions of civil servants • Dept´s ambassadors • Not experts in dept. • Ministers often compete with one another for scarce resources

Associaltional groups (Nigeria)

Trade unions • Collectively Nigerian Labour Congress (NLC) and its 17 affilitated unions • By Sector o groups representing the petroleum workers can have an immediate impact on nat economy and thus have the potential for greater pol influence (strike of 1994 by National Union of Petroleum and Gas Workers, NUPENG) o because of their immediate impact on gov't, the Nigerian Union of Local Government Employees, NULGE, are especially influential o politicised = Nigerian Bar Associaton, Nigerian Medical Association, Nigerian Union of Journalists gov'ts periodically force the dissolution of these by arresting their leaders Universities: political activism • Faculty & Students strikes, protests etc. BUT campus pol activities have not had the impact on policy that parallel actions of, say, petroleum workers has had • military gov't have tried to marginalise their role in country • the National Democratic coalition (NADECO: predominantly Yoruba org strong in southwest only) & the Campaign for Democracy are especially influential amongst students: grouping of civil rights and democracy activists

Government as a network

Whitehall is a small village No const move fast The War of leaks

the supreme people's procuratorate (China)

central prosecutorial agency sits at the top of a hierarchy of procuratorates extendign down to the county level, each resposible to a local people´s congress and the procuratorate above responsible to NPC Functions: • act as a bridge between public security agencie and the courts • supervise criminal investigations, approve arrests, and prosecute cases • investigation and prosecution of official corruption

5 tiered hierarchy (China)

first four have local gov´t structures o provinces (Beijing, Shanghai, Tianjin, Chongqing) directly administered by central gov´t o prefectures/cities coordinate activities between gov´t at provincial and county levels o counties o townships o villages "autonomous mass organisations of self-gov´t", not part of the formal state hierarchy

the state council (China)

in lawmaking, it is the center of gov´t activity composed of the premier, who is head of gov´t, and his cabinet (vice-premiers, state councillors, ministers, auditor general, and secretary general) premier: Wen Jiabao has its own Standing committee (meets twice weekly) draft "implementing regulations" (as laws may be general and imprecisely expressed) under: gov´t ministries and commissions the bulk of legislation is drafted by specialised ministries and commissions under the direction of the cabinet of the State Council

the supreme people's court (China)

judicial authority formally responsible to NPC

The Secretariat (China)

party departments (led by General Secretary of CPC) • manages the set of bureaucratic structures of the party • provides staff support for the Politburo • transforms Politburo decisions into instructions for subordinate party departments local party congresses and local party committees

Duties of the Supreme Leader of Iran

set overall policies of state appoint key figures • head of Judiciary • half of members of the Council of the Guardians • Expediency Council • Director of state radio and television broadcasting monopoly • Commanders of military forces (ex. Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps, etc.) Oversees numerous parastatal economic foundations and organisations that were formed after revolution out of expropriated companies belonging to previous eco elite • Mainly for Charity (Foundation of the Disinherited and War Injured, Martyr´s Foundation) • Also Some Major holding companies that benefit from state resources and subsidies without being accountable to and regulated by elected gov´t à Khamenei has used these "non-profit" orgs as a means to distribute patronage

The prime minister (GB)

"first among equals" primus inter pares FUNCTIONS wins elections campaigns through media figurehead system of patronage: • personal loyalty • co-option silence opposition with favour (e.g. Blair- brown) • Representativeness appoint black Welsh woman • Competence Parliamentary performance • 30 min Question Time Creating and Balancing Policies • Foreign affairs • Intermestic affairs PM IS NOT A PRESIDENT Indirect elections elected by party Less formal No term limits Can dismiss cabinet members easily Legislation usually enacted Apex of Authority: no opposition, no states, no judicial review, no const

The Constitutional court (Russia)

(19 members: nominated by president but subject to confirmation by Fed council) a. Determine whether acts of leg/exec are un/constitutional b. Determine whetehr regions are violating law/presid decree

Informal powers of the Russia President t

) presid and go´vt divide exec responsibility b) gov´t, headed by PM, is responsible for eco and social policy c) pres directly oversees the mistries and bodies concerned with coercion, law enforcement, and state security (the "power ministries") ex. Foreign Ministry, Ministry of Defense, of Internal Affairs, Federal Security Service (formerly the KGB), etc. d) president and staff set overall policy in foreign adn domeestic domains, while gov´t develops specific proposals to carry it out -> gov´t answers to president, not pment

Presidential Elections (Iran)

- 1980: first presidential election à lay Islamist Abolhasan Banisadr (he was impeached and dismissed a year later though, and his successor was killed shortly after in a bomb attack, along with his prime Minster) - The following four elections had predictable results (close companions of Khomeini were elected) and, thus, the participation rate went steadily down - 1997: Rafsanjani could not run again (respected constitution!!!); everyone expected Nuri, Speaker of Pment, to win, but instead Khatami, a moderate cleric, won a landslide victory by appealing minorities, university students and active members of society "greater cultural openness and personal freedoms) - Ahmadinejad´s victory à dubious elections, but his message did appeal to the poor whose concerns had not been addressed by the cultural liberalisation of the Khatami years

Local Elections (Iran)

- 1999: first time Iranians went to the polls to elect city, town and village councils (reformists won over most) - 2003: reduced participation since many realised ultimate power rests with unelected (conservative) bodies, while, ironically, it was the freest elections of Iran´s history!

Accomodative party system

: has mixed characteristics of a certain kind, both consensual and conflictual. Examples: Austria and Lebanon: after WWI, suspicious groups - socialists and Catholics in Austria, and the Christians and Muslims in Lebanon - worked out understandings to make stability possible.

Indirect Taxes

: include sales and value-added taxes, excise taxes, and customs duties. Their distributive effects depend on who purchases the relevant commodities and service

The Russian Federal Assembly (Parliament)

- Under Putin "rubber stamps" - Tasks/Powers: o approval for any bill to become law o confirm the president´s nominee for Prime Minister (if, upon 3 consecutive votes, Duma refuses to confirm the nomination, the president must dissolve Duma and call for new elections) o may vote to deny confidence in gov´t (if a motion of no confidence is carried out twice, the president must either dissolve pment or dismiss gov´t) - the legislative process : three readings

Sovereignty

: independent legal authority over the population in a particular territory based on recognized right to self-determination. Sovereignty rests in those who have the ultimate right to make political decisions

Religion and Religious states (Iran)

- by Western standards, Iranians are very religious, whereas by Islamic standards, they are above all nationalistic - religion and religious practice have played a more divisive than unifying role - religion permeates daily, educational, professional, personal and official life - with the death of Khomeini and the appointment of less religiously erudite and charismatic Khamenei, public discussions (even between ordinary people) regarding the relationship between religion and politics have emerged - several groups and religious associations cater to the spiritual needs of people of diff regional, ethnic, and class backgrounds, and these informal meetings act as grassroots and independent forums for religious practice, "escaping" the watchful eye of clerics affiliated with the regime - Khomeini´s pol innovation of clerical-led gov´t has reconfigured "church"-state relations o Job opportunities and income are available for clerics in the judicial system and in ministries o Their presence has declined over the years (e.g. in parliament) o They find the new regime to be intrusive (authorities try to monitor teahcing in the seminaries) - While in theory the mosque and state are perfectly aligned, the state can, in practice, neever be sure that the seminaries are producing appropriate clergy for the gov´t or to socialise Iranians in the official doctrine - Mosque and state have continuoed to be distinct entitites despite the infusion of religion and seminarians into the constitution of the state

State policymaking institutions not mentioned in the constitution (Iran)

- councils not mentioned in const and established for the express purpose of formulating state policy in a particular field further limit the role of elected officials - Supreme Council, set up by Khomeini in 86, perpetuated policies unleashed during Cultural Rev, its tasks being... o The determination of state policies in realms of culture, edu, and research o "the spread and reinforcement of the influence of Islamic culture in all areas of society" - has supremacy over pment and is approved by Leader

Institutionalised forms of interest articulation and aggregation: voting (Iran)

- elections are regularised but do not provide complete pluralism or ensure a shift in power and policies (powers of the rep institutions are quite circumscribed) - function as an act and measurement of regime legitimacy and, secondarily, as a means for citizens to express their interests by selecting candidates with specific policy positions (election turnout, rather than candidates, is more important - higher in presidential elections than pment ones) - pol parties have played no major role à factions that contend for power and influence have not formed a clearly defined party system that serves to represent and aggregate interests (instead, groupings of members of pol elite become active during elections punctually, without direct and formalised links to citizenry = Islamic Iran Participation Front or Society of Combatant Clergy

Parliamentary elections (Iran)

- for the purpose of pment elections, Iran is divided into multimember constituencies (Tehran being the largest with 30 MPs) - each voter can write down the names of as many candidates as there are seats in a constituency - winner must receive over 50% of total vote to be elected - If a constituency has more seats than candidates with 50% of vote , a second round is held among the runners-up to determine remaining MPs, the number of candidates being twice that of the seats remaining - In the absence of parties, candidacies tend to be endorsed by a number of diff pol, religious and cultural associations (difficult to say the popularity) - In the first elections of the 80s, some National Front, LMI and regionalist candidates were elected to Pment, but since 1984 only candidates committed to velayat-e faqih have been allowed to run - 1984-88/1988-92: Radicals (second and third Pment) - after Khomeini´s death the conservative-dominated council arrogated the right to vet candidacies, and proceeded to invalidate the candidacies of most radicals - 1992-1996/1996-2000: fourth and fifth pments dominated by conservatives (with pragmatist supporters of Rafsanjani forming the minority) - 1997: with the victory of Khatami in the presidential election, many reformists suddenly became candidates and gained around 70% of vote, unknown to the Council (these were moderated radicals of the 80s who now understood the importance of fair elections and pol pluralism and whose state-centric approach was de-legitimised by fall of communism in SU, and also Muslim intellectuals who adopted a more liberal approach to religion) - 2004: Council of Guardians disallowed many reformist candidates, which reduced somewhat electorate participation

Economic policymaking and consequences (Iran)

- founders of Republic and the new elite that staffed ministries and parastatal orgs have differing views on best approach to foster eco growth and dev o state-centered approach to dev à dominated policymaking through pment, ministries, and institutions like the Construction Jihad o liberal approach to dev placed greater emphasis on private sector à market mechanisms dominated policymaking circles thanks to the end of the Iran-Iraq war and the global rise of neo-liberal dev agendas in the wake of the demise of the SU - late 1980s: general eco recession and poor performance of economy in comparison to 60/70s à Rafsanjani and Khatami admin endeavored to restructure Iran's eco by... o selling state-owned assets o lifting trade restrictions o encouraging private and foreign investment o introduce greater transparency and competition - Consequences.. o Iran´s trade regime has been liberalised, with ministries and procurement boards playing smaller role o Private banks and industries have begun to develop and take advantage of incentives to export goods o Deregulation of economy has led to hardship and therefore faced opposition o Economic insecurity and inflation à hurts state employees and those relying on state subsidies o Inequality and inconsistency borne out of the parallel eco controlled by eco foundations and parastatal orgs (with autonomous and privileged access to resources and markets) - Ahmadinejad à pro-welfare and anti-inequality message

Institutionalised groups and professional organisations (Iran)

- groups based in state orgs have more corporate identity and a greater ability to shape policy (like controlled interst group systems), rather than the less-developed pol parties - military and security forces like the Islamic Rev Guard Corps and Basij (volunteer mobilisation corps) have more political influence à prominent arms of state which rep their interest in various fields and policymaking areas and influence economy through their business subsidiaries, although initially only established to mobilise support for regime, and, being in direct comm with Leader, have the ability and opportunity to influence policy - host of associations supposed to rep the interests of labour, business, professional groups and industrial sectors serve more as a means for state officials to manage these corporate entities than as vehicles of interest articulation/agg (evolution in last election though, different candidates, political competition in elections) - neighbourhood councils and guild assoc´s that emerged during the revolution years to tend to the citizens´ needs have eventually become integrated into patron-client system à now are either mere appendages of state officials or means for the state to penetrate society = no clear separation between interest groups and gov´t officials - gov´t has encouraged workers, merchants and students to establish Islamic assocs in universities, factories and guilds as principal means of int agg - 1990s: genuinely autonomous assocs did emerge, rep sidelined strata of society (students, secular intellectuals and women´s orgs of both secular and reformist Islamist persuasion) à Shirin Ebadi: first woman judge under the Shah, lost her job following the revolution, protested during this time

Demonstrations and public protests (Iran)

- many social groups have turned to civil disobedience to express their grievances - 1978-1979: recent revolution serves as a model for protesters to use public collective action as a means to make their claims - 1990s: protested against privatisation policies, non-payment of wages (or low salaries/incomes amongst, say, teachers and gov´t pensioners), unequal distribution of wealth and local authority in certain provinces (ethnic groups - Kurdish activists), selling of state-owned factories...blocked main expressway from Tehran to industrial Karaj - most dramatic à in uni´s by students... o student org´s staged sit-ins to protest author measures by the regime o 1999: challenged closure of prominent reformist newspaper o 2003: protested sentencing of outspoken intellectual who'd questioned clerical rule o Basij and police violently suppressed the dems and prevented the escalation of the protest - Although not altogether passive, Iranian society is unable to unite or coordinate these disparate groups à social atomization of contemporary Iran - Given the pervasive use of patron-client relations and lack of trust amongst Iranians, collective action and alliance building is difficult - These noninstitutional forms of politics reflect the lack of efficacy of inst politics and the belief of many that their pol voice can only be heard in this way

The military (Iran)

- military conscription has been essential for creating national unity amongst young men - with four to five million Iranians serving in the armed forces during the eight-year war with Iraq, many families were directly affected by the war, and various commemorations have acted to foster emotional bonds between the war generation and its predecessors - politically though the war has been divisive à part of ruling establishment questions the policy to continue the war even after Iraqi army was driven off - Iran´s military includes the Islamic Rev Guard Corps and the volunteer corps (Basij) which have become distinct institutions with separate and growing pol influence o Rev guards gaining seats in parliament and in 2005 a former member won the presidency ! o These institutions are largely autonomous from regular army and police force, are under direct supervision of Leader, and have acquired significant eco holdings

Mass Media(Iran)

- plays both a unifying and divisive role in socialising Iranians - state monopolises radio and TV - one of major means to transmit the official doctrine and mobilise Iranians for elections and rallies across country - head of Radio and TV Org is directly appointed by Leader, it has also, thus, in the recent years, reflected the interests of the conservative wing of the regime - lately, as satellite TV has grown and dishes become cheaper, anti-regime Persian language programming from abroad and foreign news outlets (CNN and BBC) have provided greater diversity for the viewing public (the state has tried to outlaw private use of satellite dishes) - the printed press has been the most diverse and fascinating form of media in post-rev Iran - in the first decade, newspapers and journals became increasingly uniform in their coverage, but a growing number of independent newspapers and magazines have appeared, reflecting the thoughts and critical views from intellectuals on right and left and more republican and more authoritarian wings of regime - flourishing non-state press and burgeoning investigative journalism constituted the backbone of Khatami´s election victory and underpinned the popularity of the reformist movement - young journalists presented a new political language and offer and produced cleavages within establishment - since 2000, the conservative-controlled Judiciary has employed authoritarian backlash against the reformist movement by clamping down this press, causing journalists to turn to the Internet

Education system (Iran)

- principal "agent of socialisation" for creating good Islamic citizens out of young Iranians - one of the first institutions to be Islamicizsed by new regime - curriculum: include heavy dose of religious studies, yearly classes on the Islamic Revolution, and an increased number of mandatory Arabic language courses - textbooks rewritten to present a state-sanctioned history of Iran, highlighting their ole of clergy in "popular uprisings" and erasing/distorting role of nonreligious forces (leftist or liberal nationalist parties), and presented the Pahlavi monarchy as equally and continually oppressive and immoral - textbooks also depicted the state's image of the family, veiled women, etc. - Also received revolutionary doctrine in the form of reciting chants and poems praising the greatness of Khomeini and the regime, while denouncing the Iraq regime and the "imperialists" (US) - Islamist activists and scholars also cleansed the universities of counterrevolutionary elements by reviewing both faculty and curriculum o University campuses being the epicenter of anti-regime activism, the Cultural Revolution closed all universities for three years (80-83) o When reopened, strict entrance requirements were established, including religious examinations, to give greater opportunities to those that supported regime o Veterans and relatives of those who participated in revolution and Iran-Iraq war were allotted special quotas in all universities o Established new institutions to create a new set of technocrats and teachers to staff ministries and universities o "Islamic Open university" à autonomous campuses all over country to provide higher ed to Iranians living outside centers (recruitment) o new fields: "Islamic Economics", "Islamic sciences

Non Institutional forms of interest articulation and aggregation (Iran)

- principal means of interest agg is clientelism and forging of relationships between pol figures and citizens through patron-client networks - exchange of pol loyalty and support for access to resources such as subsidies, hard currency, subcontracts and secure gov´t jobs - Republic has distributed larges subsidies to ensure the loyalty of large portions of pop (e.g. food, medicine, gasoline and electricity - regressive) à undermines pretensions of inst impartiality and meritocracy that are essential to equal citizenship and participation

Interest Articulation and aggregation (Iran)

- representation has thus been highly fragmented, fluid and contentious, although not fully pluralistic, competitive and democratic o most institutionalised forms have been regular presidential, pment, and local elections o least inst form but probably most prevalent and effective is the use of personal ties and patron-client relations

Nonassociational social groups (Iran)

- socially and politically important groups without corporate representation = o bazaari merchants have always played a central role in pol episodes (from Constitutional Revolution of early 1900s to Islamic Revolution of late 1900s) have developed a sense of solidarity because they ensure socially embedded and crosscutting relations economic power and close relationship with ulema state's dominion of economy and its homogeneity has undermined bazaari eco interests since the revolution o and war veterans, "martyrs" and relatives of such... represented by various orgs and pol groups, but none have been able to address the everyday demands of their constituents state efforts to provide them with goods and suppress challenges to raise their socioeco standing have not always worked adequately or efficiently to their needs some veterans have aligned themselves with the reformist faction, calling for greater pol participation and freedoms, while others have accused the regime of abandoning the wartime principles of self-sacrifice and justice growing complaints that the memory and respect for war generation have faded, while they have not been sufficiently provided for à voice heard: participated in production of war films and ultra-conservative newspapers documents/articles

Multiple Powers Centers (Iran)

= institutions created by the revolutionaries to supplement the activities of the traditional state institutions, with which they share overlapping responsibilities

Basij (Iran)

= pro-regime volunteer organisations to monitor and contend with pol activities of students and faculty and mobilise students for pro-regime activities on campuses

State policymaking institutions mentioned in the constitution (Iran)

- those who determine what contradicts Islam and what doesn't have a preponderant voice in setting policy à the Leader - the first Leader (Khomeini) often used his authority to determine state policy by issuing religious edicts, or fatwas à occasionally, these broke with established rel tradition (allowed the consumption of caviar, permitted the playing of chess without gambling or betting, and relaxed the rules of music and TV programming) - 1988: tired of having to intervene in gridlock between pment and council, Leader amended the doctrine of velayat-e faqih (guardianship of the jurisprudent) which gave the state, and thus himself, the authority to override religious law when expedient - Expediency Council: o inst where most vital policies are decided à nuclear program and foreign negotiations o 2005: Rafsanjani managed to extract a letter from Leader granting the E Council broad supervisory powers over all 3 branches of gov´t o still rivalries amogn inst over policymaking powers now that both presidency and pment are dominated by conservatives - National Security Council: added official institutional structure which included heads of the 3 branches of gov´t, top military comm, the foreign minister, the minister of info, and a few other figures named by Leader à highest policymaking body in matters of foreign and security policy which includes the struggle against "Western cultural aggression" - Council of Guardians: no major policymaking role, but have sometimes attempted to introduce legislation - Extensive powers of the Leader and the existence of such unelected decision-making bodies such as the Guardians, the Expediency Council, and the National Security Council, limit the policymaking role of the elected officials (pmen and president)... o Parliament: largely emasculated as a policymaking body by the unelected bodies previously mentioned o President (gov´t) and parliament have a large impact on some things in particular: state budget, the provision and regulation of social and welfare services, and territorial admin. (includes redrawing provincial borders)

Recruiting the political elite (Iran)

- under the shah...small class of ed and secular Iranians who demonstrated personal loyalty to monarch won their offices, whom the Shah monitored carefuly to avoid the rise of potential rivals à passive and dependent nature of pol elite - under the Republic, pol elites were based on revolutionary pedigree, independently of class or background, thus resulting in younger, less cosmopolitan, more provincial (less from the capital) and more middle/lower-class members - number of employees in public sector has increased greatly (31% of total employment) due to... o the requisites of war effort o state-led eco development program o rev agenda to restructure and Islamicise society from above - initially clergy were trained in the seminaries in Najaf and Qom where Khomeini and his students taught during 60/70s - Khatami attempted to institutionalise pol reform and encourage active participation by civil society à counteracted by the "Haqqani circle", composed of conservative figures who happen to be alumni of the Haqqani seminary in Qom (Judiciary, council and security apparatus included) - nonclerical parliamentarians and ministers tend to emerge from educational and military institutions (attend Islamicised universities, took part in think tanks/research centers, enroll in Islamic Rev Guard Corps and Basij like Ahmadinejad) - the regular army, navy and air force haven't had much influence in politics, mostly civilian - "kinship ties" à relatives of gov´t officials have used their family ties to gain access to the state (used as mean for rent seeking and personal enrichment): ex. marriage is often used to cement pol alliances and create bonds between prominent families

Nation

: a group of people with a common identity; self-identification of a people. Nations do not necessarily have their own state or independent government. Example: Cataluna

state

: a political system that has sovereignty

political systems

: a set of institutions such as parliaments, bureaucracies, and courts that formulate and implement the collective goals of a society or groups within the system. Political systems are mainly involved in the making of authoritative public decisions.

Regulatory state

: a state resembling a reassessed version of a welfare state in which many economic sectors have been deregulated. Regulatory states have evolved in all advanced modern societies in response to the growing complexity of modern life.

Gross National Happiness

The Centre for Bhutanese Studies in Bhutan is working on a complex set of subjective and objective indicators to measure 'national happiness' in various domains (living standards, health, education, eco-system diversity and resilience, cultural vitality and diversity, time use and balance, good governance, community vitality and psychological well-being).

Is Iran a Democratic System (Iran)

YES - elected offices: presidency and parliament - Leader chosen by an elected body (Assembly) NO - Leader on an unlimited term - Authority of President and Pment circumscribed by unelected bodies - Leader with vast powers who appoints head of Judiciary and commanders of police, army and Pasdaran (Islamic Rev Guard Corps), and therefore controls the coercive apparatus of the state (rather than Pment or presdient)

Formal and informal powers of the Russia President

a) "head of state" b) "guarantor of the constitution" c) commander-in-chief of the armed forces d) oversees large presidential administration which... - supervises fed gov´t - keeps tabs on regional gov´ts - informally manages relations with pment, the courts, big business, the media, pol parties, and major interst groups e) oversees many official and quasi.official supervisory and advisory commissions

Russian Security Council

a) chaired by president b) internal (suppress ethnic regions) and external security (foreign policy ex. Iran)

Russian State Council

a) comprises heads of regional gov´ts b) take care of local gov´ts c) keep Presid. On top/ensure that he is always dominant institution in pol system, but, thus, consequently undermine the authority of formal institutions d) provide policy advice and feedback

political participation (Mexico)

a. . There were few legal restrictions on what people could do. i. The Mexican constitution grants the basic freedoms of a liberal democracy and universal suffrage for everyone over 18 yrs old. ii. Yet the regime has definitely suppressed numerous strikes and protests iii. Civil Society has noticeably grown during the past few decades.

political culture (Mexico)

a. Political Culture in Mexico is hard to understand in two aspects: i. Analysis based on individual attitudes about authority and the regime have not yielded useful descriptions of Mexican Culture itself. ii. Secondly, Political Culture in Mexico has not been as important as those in Britain or the US in determining what is politically acceptable. iii. The economic and social changes helped to make Mexico more democratic. iv. Mexico has a strong sense of nationalism. 1. There is a common language 2. Mass culture 3. History from which only a few non-Spanish speaking Indians are excluded. 4. Share a common religion-unifying force bridging all subcultures. v. Mexicans believe the regime to be legitimate. vi. The revolution of 1910-1917 is a source of pride, revolution is associated with good things. vii. Mexicans tend to have less respect for either democracy of human rights than people in all major parts of the world except post communist countries. viii. Mexico is known for male dominance in all areas of life, women play a minor role in Mexican politics. ix. Women comprise 30% of the workforce x. They are demanding more social, economic, and political equality. xi. Mexican society is known for strong patron client relations known as camarillas. The PRI depends heavily on patron-client networks extending down from the party elite to vote-mobilizing organizations all around the country. xii. There are 4 distinct Mexican political subcultures 1. 10% are categorized as non Spanish speaking Indians. Who are not active in politics. 2. "Subjects" people who are reasonably aware of what the government is doing, bet are not very interested in the system, they tolerate the system. 3. Then there are people who strongly support the PRI and the system as a whole, some still believe in the revolution. 4. Last, is a group emerging who is ANTI-PRI, there is growing support for other political parties

the evolution of mexican politics (Mexico)

a. Political evolution in Mexico has similarities to that of other South American countries, except for the role of the US in Mexico's economy b. The Colonial Era i. The Spanish were not very effective colonial administrators and were never able to secure their rule throughout the country. ii. Late in the 17th century they tried to take a more harsh control of the colonies, thereby antagonizing the growing Mexican born elite

Thinking about mexcio

a. The Basics i. Not commonly considered to be one of the Newly Industrializing Countries, Mexico's economy is ranked ahead of Russia's 1. Their middle class is similar to those in the US. 2. Some believe Mexico to be one of the World's 15 leading industrial powers. 3. Until the recent oil price drop, their economy had been growing at an average of 6.5% each year until 1980 4. After 1980 the economy declined until 1994 when the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) went into effect. 5. Inflation soared, leading to more poverty ii. 50% of Mexicans do not have access to fresh drinking water or even toilets. 1. Only 10% have a telephone or a Television 2. Unemployment is quite low, this contributes to the high number of immigrants fleeing to the US. 3. Since NAFTA the amount of poverty grew from 17 to 26 million. 4. Their economic issues are due to their massive debt. a. Mexico barrowed heavily during the 1960s and 1970s on the assumption that is could use oil revenue to pay back the banks and governments, but after the oil crisis of 1979 their debts reached more than $100 billion, by 2004 the debt stood at $159 bullion (almost 17% of their total GNP)

the mexican state

a. The Mexican State has two main objectives i. Firstly the way the State operates under the PRI and their changes since Fox, Fox has not brought much change. ii. Secondly, the material on the Mexican shows that constitutional theory and political reality are often not the same. 1. The Mexican state has not been like the American 2. The Constitution is not a sham document. 3. The system has been turned into a semi-authoritarian state. b. Non-reelection and Presidential Domination i. Similar to the Soviet Union, the real policy making power is in the hands of a select few. ii. The principle of non-reelection means that a new president faces inexperienced members of congress and state officeholders. iii. The Constitution gives the president considerable leverage. 1. He is allowed to initiate legislation (virtually all bills of importance originate from the executive branch) 2. He can issue decrees 3. Transfer funds 4. For the first year and a half the president organizes his team. 5. The last two years his attention turns to his successor a. It is still unclear who Fox will nominate b. Determines who gets the PAN nomination

Kuznet's Curve

explained by the fact that in the early stages of modernization, the large sector of traditional farmers tends to be left behind as industry and commercial agriculture begin to grow. Dependency ratio - proportion of those outside the workforce to those in the working-age population.

A failing presidency (Mexico)

a. Vicente Fox's victory in the 2001 presidential election marked a turning point in Mexican politics, he was the first president elected in 70 years who was not a member of the PRI party (Institutional Revolutionary Party). b. Amalia Garcia member of the PRD (Party of the Democratic Revolution) she was elected governor of the northern state of Zacatecas. i. She is the first female leader of the PRD party ii. Won due to the female vote. c. Poverty, Mexico is in no way as poor as Nigeria. i. 10% of all adults are illiterate ii. 16% of Mexicans love on less than $1 a day. iii. A large percent of children wont live to be 5 years old. iv. The gap between the rich and poor has widened since the implementation of market-oriented reforms. d. The impact of the U.S. i. The Mexican government no longer consults the US for major decisions. ii. However the US still exerts substantial influence 1. At least 10 million of them have moved to the US e. Fox's controversial presidency i. From 1927 until 2000, the PRI did not lose one presidential election. 1. They sometimes won the elections fairly, other times they controlled the vote. 2. PRI able to control Mexico because of their elaborate patron client network a. They ran a system best known for their corruption b. Many hoped that Fox's term would mark a new ear however they have been disappointed. ii. Fox never had the majority in either house of the congress, consequently he had a hard time passing legislation. 1. Many though he lacked experience 2. Others thought that he was trying to lay the groundwork for his wife (Martha Sahagun) to run

The Supreme Court (Russia)

crimes, civil laws, appeals

the supreme commercial court (Russia)

ensures free trade cut down on corruption trade unions

Permanent body NPC Standing Committee (China)

exercise legislative functions • Reside in Beijing • Meet regularly throughout year • Serve as working leg assembly • Prepares the agenda for annual NPC plenary session • Exercises all but most formal powers of NPC • "rubber stamp" assembly? o Yes Maoist years Traditional Practice of unanimous approval Only twice has there been an actual failure to pass legislation submitted to NPC (Law on Public Demonstrations and the Enterprise Bakruptcy Law) o No More assertive now Greater role in law-making Response to the extreme institutiona nihilism of the Cultural Rev. Dissenting votes/disapproval of gov´t failure to control corruption 1989: circulated a petition to amongst Standing Committee to call an emergency meeting of NPC to exercise its constitutional power to repeal martial law

History (Uncut) (GB)

o 1215 Magna Carta limits king john´s power o 1485 Tudor monarchy efforts to centralise o 1534: Henry VIII breaks from catholic church Church of England o 1688: Civil War: Parliamentary victory weaker monarchy o Industrial Rev: empire sold surpluses for raw materials discontent o Queen Victoria surplus used for institutions aimed at reforming society, affected by ind and urb created welfare state to improve regions deteriorated by industrialisation state-supported capitalism, state-led health/welfare system o 20th century: 1900 Labour founded 1906 liberal gov´t pensions and unemployment insurance 1918: universal suffrage public spending as % of GDP increased lost its position and empire, won two world wars o 5 eras of post WWII: During WWII • Churchill´s all party coalition • Full employment and food rationing no division • Nationalisation • NHS costly Conservative reaction of the 50s/early 60s • Chruchill, Eden and Macmillan vowed to maintain welfare state, stimulate market reforms, end rationing and transitioin to peacetime economy Labour...If we must (late 60s and 70s) • Harold Wilson and Labour combated stagnation with activist reforms • Efforts failed, England devalued pound, asked for IMF loan • Conservative Edward Heath --- 2 risks o Confronted striking United Mineworkers o Called for election of 74 lost house and, then, majority) • Harold Wilson james callaghan Thatcherism & Major (80s, half of 90s) • Strong gov´t: strengthened o role of PM o role of central gov´t o police and defense forces o Goal: slash welfare result: increased spending and role of gov´t o A conservative movcement of her own • Lef was in-fighting a mess, constant disagreement, lost blue-collar members • Resigned in 92: o Aggressive and overly-assertive o Pissed off her cabinet o Anti-european isolated o Public disapproval failed to win electorate o Didn´t believe in consensus • Major 1992 o Thatcherite views o No charisma or iron-fist o More moderate centrist o Sex Scandal o Economic recession Blair´s Third Way 1997 • Socialist cooperation, fellowship, economic equality and individuality • Bring forth the best elements of capitalism and socialism • Advocates socialism and believes in privatisation, business and capitalism • Enjoyed a lengthy economic boom period time of surplus (not necessarily thanks to him) • Been able to provide additional public revenues without raising taxes better schools, hospitals, defense, etc. • Centralised power into his own hands • Devolved power to Scotland and Wales • Interesting relationship with EU • Aligned with GB´s foreign policy (war) • Curtailed civil liberties since 9/11 • Media spin doctor • Labour won again in 2005, will probably be gone by 2007

An institutional revolutionary party (Mexico)

i. 1940 Mexico has had 11 presidents. ii. After the reforming Cardenas, conservative Avila Camacho then Miguel Aleman in 1946. iii. Aleman's first priority was economic growth. "trickle down theory" he assumed that if they had a better economy, than it would provide for more money for the people, than they would have better life qualities. iv. 1958 Next 3 presidents were more liberal: Adolfo Lopez Mateos, Gustavo Diaz Ordaz, and Luis Echeverria. v. Echeverria limited spending on food and housing and opted to increase government control. vi. Mexico experienced turmoil in 1968, under Echeverria two economic problems began to mount in the 1970s. 1. Growth slowed, dept accumulated, and the pesa had be devalued. 2. The effects of the post- OPEC slump had begun to wear off due to: vii. Lopez Portillo was able to improve wages and other reforms which kept costs down. He also improved middle class benefits and increased foreign investment. 1. Yet his model government collapsed during his final year due to the drop in oil prices. 2. This caused the government to cut their spending, unfortunately their debts continued to grow. 3. The government had no choice but to ask for loans from the Monetary Fund. viii. In 1982 in the midst of the debt crisis the PRI nominated Miguel de la Madrid. 1. Most candidates of the PRI party were recruited from the military or the interior ministry 2. But Madrid represented a new kind of candidate dubbed as "tecnicos" due to their knowledge in business or economics. 3. In the middle of Madrid's term the PRI party lost dominant control of the electorate as the conservative National Action Party (PAN) grew rapidly. ix. 1988 Carlos Salina de Gortari was nominated, however he won only through fraud and deceit.. He endorsed new market-oriented policies. x. 1994 Ernesto Zedillo won his election fairly 1. He dealt with another economic crisis, which required even more foreign loans. 2. Due to this his popularity plummeted. xi. 1997 the PRI only won 48% of the seats during the congressional elections. xii. 2000 Fox was elected handily.

The revolution (Mexico)

i. By the early 1900s Diaz's rule had sparked some opposition mainly from the peasants on the countryside. ii. Some groups were headed by Zapata (Ocean's 13 movie) iii. Even liberals were beginning to get frustrated with Diaz. iv. The tensions catalyzed during the 1910 presidential election Madero easily won the nomination of his newly created Anti-Reelectionalist Party however towards the end of the campaign Madero was arrested, and Diaz won of default. v. By 1916 Carranza Zapata and Villa were all forming massive armies of Landless peasants, they forced president Wilson to recognize his government, that fall elections held to choose a new constitutional assembly which brought the bloodiest siz years of the countries to an end

debt and development (Mexico)

i. Decrease in oil prices has been detrimental to economy ii. The Government has done little to stop the decline iii. Early Success 1. The Government saw public ownership as providing it with more leverage over the economy. 2. Taxes were kept low, Tariffs were kept high iv. The Crisis 1. The economic boom began to slow during the 1970's 2. The mismanagement of key industries became a problem. PEMEX for example employed three or four tomes the number of workers it needed. 3. There was massive population growth 4. In 1987 Mexico was a leader in the world debt crisis 5. The government assumed that the oil decline in the 80s would be temporary so they did not lower their prices, however by 1982 the economy was on the verge of a collapse. v. Reform 1. Crisis lead to two shifts: a. The election of Miguel de la Madrid b. And his governments agreement to debt reduction plans demanded by the country's public and private creditors. 2. Madrid began negotiations about debt repayment with the IMF, the world bank, northern governments and private banks. a. The US insisted that Mexico open their economy to more foreign investment. b. This did help the economy c. Foreign investors are attracted to Mexico due to their low minimum wages i. There has been a 50% decline in wages ii. 40% of the workforce is unemployed iii. 40% of the population suffers from some form of malnutrition

US_Mexico relations

i. Ever since 1821 the US has been very influential in Mexico, they affect the way the Mexican people live 1. Mexican Foreign policy involves far more that its relations with the US. 2. But Mexico does not influence the US to the same degree 3. Recent relations have been fairly peaceful ii. With the consolidation of the PRI regime, the US has withstood direct intervention in Mexican affairs. iii. Mexico frequently criticizes US policies. iv. There are 4 key themes in Mexican Foreign Policy 1. Mexican Rhetoric under the PRI was nationalistic. 2. In the Estrada Doctrine of 1930, Mexico committed itself to opening and maintaining diplomatic and other relations with all countries. 3. From a US perspective Mexico has pursued a somewhat left-wing foreign policy. 4. There is a strong undercurrent of wariness regarding the US both in Mexican public opinion and in its foreign policy. v. Immigration 1. Top issue between the two countries. 2. Became a serious problem after WWII 3. There have been four major crackdowns from the US: 1947, 1954, 1964, and 1986 4. Despite efforts to minimize immigration there continues to be a steady flow of immigrants coming to the US. 5. Mexicans believe that the US does not note the benefits they receive from immigration vi. Drugs 1. US has a serious drug problem due to Mexico 2. US tried to cut supply and blamed Mexico 3. There is now a considerable cooperation between policymakers and enforcement

corporatism and corruption (Mexico)

i. Mexican politicians have never stressed individualism or the need to give people access to the decision making process, instead they emphasize a group mentality ii. The government "legitimizes" organized interest groups iii. Corruption 1. Recent presidents have tried to cut down on corruption 2. In the past half century elites have took about $90 billion from their foreign bank accounts and investments, thus furthering Mexico's debt 3. There is an unwritten rule that no member of the top elite can be indicted.

Council of Guardians (Iran)

o 1979 constitution: separate body for ensuring the conformity of legislation with Islam o consists of six members of ulema (appointed by Leader) and six lay but Muslim lawyers (nominated by Head of Judiciary, himself appointed by Leader) and approved by Pment) o Functions Determining Compatibility of laws • 6 ulema à determine compatibility of laws with Islam • whole council à determine compatibility of laws with constitution "supervises" the elections to Assembly of Expert, presidency, and parliament • can vet candidacies • uses this power to limit citizens' choice at elections by not allowing candidates of whose views it disapproves • Majles tried in 1991 to strip the council of this power, but the Council declared it incompatible to constitution

The PRI and its hold on power (Mexico)

i. Mexico has sometimes been classified as "semi democratic" ii. Elections have been fairly competitive iii. The PRI is not the standard democratic political party, it does not have main goals. 1. Instead the PRI is an elaborate network of camarillas enrolling 15 million members, There patron and clients are drawn to politics less by the ideological views and more by their desire for power and wealth. 2. The PRI rarely discusses political issues, their votes are usually bought. In the 2000 election their candidate's poster said they would receive money for their votes. iv. Federal Elections Commission (CFE) is responsible for counting and validating election returns, the CFE was "influenced" by the PRI, thus making it very easy for them to manipulate the ballots. 1. Electoral Fraud became a serious issue. 2. Since then elections have been conducted more honestly, but the corruption has yet to disappear. 3. In the 2000 election the PRI lost partly because the previous president did not handpick his successor, the party nominated Labastida. 4. Labastida had little success with the economy of the rebellion in Chiapas. v. The PRI provides benefits 1. Gave Mexicans usable benefits 2. More than 2 million families benefited from the land redistribution 3. Government sponsored health programs 4. By tying themselves with the poor they were able to reduce the amount and severity of the protest

the federal system (mexico)

i. Mexico is a federal system officially. 31 states each state has a governor each municipality has a mayor and a municipal court 1. These states have little power because the PRI is dominant 2. The opposition controls 15% 3. The president can remove governors or mayors from office

Independence (Mexico)

i. The 13 colonies gained their independence because the British were preoccupied in the North and were too busy to send resources to Mexico to hold their power. ii. The battle for independence because in 1810 when the Creole priest Miguel Hidalgo Castillo first proclaimed Mexican independence and raised an army of more than 100,000 men, yet his forces were obliterated by Guanajuanto, but his forces were never completely defeated. iii. For more than 100 years Mexico endured crisis after crisis, including their economic crisis. In order to solve their problems they needed help. iv. Later in 1876, Porfirio Diaz was campaigning for the residency, this marked the longest period of Mexican dictatorship. Diaz however did bring 30 years of political stability to Mexico, due to this stability foreign investment grew, numerous railroads were built.

other parties (mexico)

i. The PAN 1. Until the 1980s there was only one major opposition party the National Action Party (PAN) 2. Fox is one of the most charismatic leaders. 3. In 2003 they only won 23% of the congressional vote. ii. The PRD 1. Unable to have strength in the 1990s 2. They nominated Andres Manuel Lopez for the 2006 election.

the military (Mexico)

i. The PRI has curbed the political power of the Military, the military frequently intervenes in Mexican politics 1. The original PRI politicians were formerly generals. 2. There is now some concern about the military though not with any threat of a coup, they are known to be corrupt

the people, the pri, the civil society (Mexico)

i. The PRI works out their internal problems ii. There are numerous organized groups, one of the new ones since the late 80s is the Women's Movement 1. Popular Feminism a. Works closely with poor middle class women in both cities and countryside's. b. They protest against abortion, violence, and unequal pay.

Cardenas and his legacy (Mexico)

i. The US 1929 election hit Mexico extremely hard, provoking new demands for economic reforms. Party leaders urged for there to be a populists leader for the next election 1. In 1934 Minister of War, Lazaro Cardenas was elected. a. He had the ability to reach out the masses. b. He blamed Mexico's problems on capitalism c. Brought agrarian reform, distributed land to about 15,000 villages and 25% of the population benefited from his reforms. d. He nationalized oil, placing them under the control of the nationalized PEMEX firm. e. However he was not a revolutionary f. During his presidency he established the Confederation of Mexican Workers (CTM). 2. Problems occurred during the second half of his term, the reforms caused some tension in Mexico and there were sparks of another uprising. 3. As a result Cardenas slowed down his pace, as his term ended he finished his activities in government (unlike China, in Mexico once they leave office, they are DONE

Big Brother is watching (Mexico)

i. The US never colonized Mexico, however the US exerts more influence on Mexico than any other country does. ii. They are economically dependant on each other. iii. 2/3 of Mexican exports are sent up north to America. iv. Americans are concerned with the growing amount of illegal cocaine and marijuana transported into the states from Mexico

congress and legislative process (mexico)

i. The constitution established a bicameral legislature roughly parallel to the American System ii. Members of the Chamber of Deputies are elected for 3 year terms iii. Members of the Senate are elected for 6 years (elections are staggered) iv. Congress acts as a rubber stamp for legislation 1. Seeing as they only serve for one term it is impossible for them to develop expertise 2. The PRI members of Congress were subservient to the president, who selected all the nominees

institutionalising the revolution (Mexico)

i. The new constitution of 1917 has structured political life ever since, sparing Mexico of widespread violence. ii. Unfortunately many presidential candidates were assassinated before they took office. iii. Yet by the 1920s the basic principles were set: No president could serve for any longer than their 6 year term

Key questions (Mexico)

i. The only certainty is that the era of PRI political domination seems to be over. 1. Why did the PRI stay in power for so long? 2. Given their winning history, how did Fox win? 3. How much have those reforms addressed Mexico's poverty? 4. How have the past few decades affected Mexico-US relationship?

Expediency council (Iran)

o 1988/9: Khomeini set this body up to relieve him of the role of ultimate arbiter when a protracted stalemate arose o over thirty members appointed directly by Leader and chosen mainly from among top state and gov´t officials (heads of three branches of gov-t, key cabinet members and military leaders, ulema members of Council, and other ulema) o 2 Functions: arbitrate in cases where Council and Pment disagreed (legislative gridlock), and has the const mandate of advising the Leader in formulating overall state policy

the cabinet the beauacracy and the judiciary (Mexico)

i. The president can appoint members to positions all over the state ii. The society is based on the patron client relations (Almost all members in office owe their position to someone higher in the hierarchy) iii. The Minister of Defense is the most important position 1. He is responsible for internal security 2. The administration of elections 3. Everyone rises up in the ranks due to their personal connections iv. Fox 1. Wanted to minimize patron client relations, opted to fill his cabinet with political buffs, but they weren't part of the PAN, they had difficulty because the majority of the governmental employees are members of the PRI 2. They have a substantial civil service v. Supreme Court 1. Almost never overrules an important policy under the PRI (because even the Judiciary is subject to presidential control) 2. Judges are officially appointed for life 3. They sometimes resign at the end of a six year term, thus allowing the new president to place his members in their spots.

Diversity (Mexico)

i. Very diverse country, rugged country. ii. Has multitudes of mountains, deserts, and jungles, only 12% of the land is arable. iii. Mexico has natural resources: minerals and petroleum. 1. Mining has paid a key role in the industry 2. The discovery of resources put Mexico into one of the world's leading oil and natural gas producers. iv. Most of the Mexican population are mestizos (part Indian and part white)

Russian State Duma

lower house of pment (450 seats) - Combined single-member district representation (first-past-the-post, plurality rule) and party-list proportional representation now all party-list - Party factions dominate its proceedings - Powers o Originate legislation except for certain categories of the Fed Council o Can override the Fed council by a two-thrids vote and send bill directly to president, who will sign it, or refuse it and send it back with a proposed amendment o May pass bill with president´s amendment by a simple absolute majority, or may override president´s veto, with a two-thirds vote o Elite recruitment into exec branch

the effects of history (Nigeria)

o "Old Societies and New States" (Clifford Geertz) o cultures that compose Nigeria have ancient roots there are "many" Nigerias or, rather, distinct pol cultures with precolonial origins and varied colonial experiences o Precolonial Events: "Africa had its empires also" • there were peoples who at the village-level developed complex systems of limitations on their rulers (as politically sophisticated as those who built empires) • they interacted in trade, cultural diffusion, and war for many centuries • their belief systems were complex there was no single Nigeria a century ago • in some areas, they were organised only at the village or extended family level (Igbo) • in other areas there were kingdoms and states • some groups subjugated the peoples around them empires o Kanem-Bornu (11-14th centuries) o Oyo Empire (13-18th centuries) o Fulani Empire (19th century)

The people and the make up of GB

o 1 Crown, 4 nations United Kingdom of Great Britain • England • Scotland o Act of Union (1707) o Devolution referendum (1997) 74% for Scottish Pment o Labour-Lib Dem coalition • Wales o 1535 Henry VIII o Referendum Cardiff Assembly • NI 6 counties of Ulster o Cleavage religion o IRA o 1998: Good Friday Agreement power sharing UK is a Union o Multiracial england Colonies Non white pop has increased Cultural Identity: garden salad vs. Melting pot Few (15) non white MPs out of 646 total o Insularity and involvement Brits noneuropeans Commonwealth Special relationship with the US Invisible services London banking structure connected to the rest of the world EU member in 73 Permament member of Security Council

Interest Articulation (Nigeria)

o 2 aspects of poll influence... Organised interest groups : unions and trade assoc and religious bodies these offer the most vigorous expression of societal indep from a gov't EX: even during military regimes, orgs such as Nigerian women's Union have maintained indep existence, even as their pol influence was reduced More informal channels of participation through individual relationships "clientelism"

political cultrure and legitimacy (GB)

o 3 theories 1. Trusteeship it is the gov´ts job to govern 2. Interest Group gov´t as Great balancer of interests, classes, etc. major socioeconomic groups (rather than indiv) as units of powers parties and pressure groups (more authoritative) 3. Individualist votes cast by indiv, not business or interest groups represent the ppl, not the groups e.g. Lib Dems o High Legitimacy Elections Checks and balances • Question time • 3 branches pol parties parliament (HC elected - debate) market of interest groups history and tradition noblesse oblige (leaders do the best - best and brightest) common law is flexible civil service values liberty and freedoms MEDIA relative homogenity eco. Experimentation GUANGOs low pol.crime rate recruitment processes unitary state: TERRITORIAL JUSTICE strong exec. Power ministerial system civil society

The communist system (China)

o Chinese system is executive-led gov´t, but with an important difference having to do with the role of the Comm PArty o exercises direct leadership over gov´t and legislative functions o party leaders discuss and offer "hopes" to NPC for the forthcoming session, including suggestions about the "tone" o party control over candidate nomination (usually only one candidate anyway) even though NPC supposedly appoints the president, vice-president, premier, and cabinet members o only ever allowed some freedom on elections to the NPC standing Committee o Party leaders have veto power over all legislation of consequence o All important laws, constitutional amendments, and political laws submitted to the NPC or its Standing Committee must have prior approval by the party center

President (Iran)

o Elected by universal suffrage every four years o Requirements Has to be a Twelver Shiite and male Does not necessarily have to be a cleric, but usually is (Prs. Ahmadinejad is a lay/non-ulema, but he is, however, of the "war generation", who sacrificed their lives in the revolution) o Until 1989: largely ceremonial office; exec branch headed instead by a prime minister chosen by parliament o After 1989: constitutional revision à office of prime minister abolished and presidency became an exec one o Duties/privileges Heads executive branch (except in matters reserved to leader), signs bills into law once approved by legislature, and appoints members of cabinet and provincial governors, subject to parliamentary approval o Impeachment: Can be impeached by parliament Leader will then dismiss him

Ethnic and religious associations

o Ethnic and Religious Assocs First formal assocs had an ethnic base • SOUTH associational life is most active o Igbo Federal Union/Igbo State Union o Egbe Omo Oduduwa : young, urban Yoruba professionals o Ibibio State Union, Edo National Union, etc minority groups • NORTH o Individual clientelist ties are stronger...assoc of even the ethnic type have played less of a role o Home to an Islamic "mystic brotherhood", the Tijaniyya, which is mainly influential among lower-class Hausa Muslims and is looked on with suspicion by reps of orthodox Islam their existence blurs the distinction bween "modern" assoc and "traditional" institutions • MOSOP (Movement for the Survival of theOgoni People) founded by Ken Saro-Wiwa speaks for the Ogoni people whose land is now occupied by Shell Oil drilling rigs • Religious institutions especially durable and resilient...however, intergroup conflicts, mainly bween christians and Muslims, have reduced the effectiveness of relig assoc in articulating concerns to gov't o Formal institutions = churches, Koranic schools o Leadership roles = bishops, pastors, mallams o Voluntary denominational assocs

Political socialisation (GB)

o Family o Gender o Education more universities/higher college rate university grads often Labour too o Class (income, ed, prestige) reduction in blue collar work, no working class anymore, housing factor in voting (blocs) o Mass media (BBC relatively impartial, get revenue from license-fee paid by each TV-owning household

Political Participation (Nigeria)

o From voting to participation in the terribly violent civil war of 1967-1970 o Estimates for voter turnout are in the range of 40 to 60% in some earlier elections, an impressive level for a majoritarily poor and illiterate populace explanation is found in the prevalence of patron-client systems o Interest in elections rose again (after a decline during the long transition to civilian rule) with the return to civilian rule in the presidential election of Feb 1999, turnout was around 52% o Other forms of participation violence, from the use of "thugs" by pol parties in both republics to the confrontations with police in Lagos, and in the challenges to Abacha's seizure of power violence by the state (although less than in other authoritarian regimes) (failed) coups Biafran civil war 1969-1996

Fulani people (Nigeria)

o Fulani court officials rose against the Hausa in early 19th century o They were ardent Muslims who found the Hausa leaders lax in their faith and decadent o Usman dan Fodio (Fulani scholar and preacher) inspired a religious and pol revolt against the Hausa kings denounced taxes o Fulani Empire controlled most of the north until British defeated it in 1903 o Sokoto retains its role as the Muslim capital of Nigeria today

Nigeria in the world

o Has the pop and resource base to be a regional power (potential) but has played a minor role in the continent's politics with their relatively large army and oil potential, some West African govs might be jealous and keen to see it divide (supported Biafra during civil war) relations among these ex-French colonies are also strained due to French support of Biafra o West Africa under Nigerian leadership is partaking in the worldwide movement toward free-trade zones did take a leading role in establishing the Economic community of west African states (ECOWAS)in 1975 hoped to bring Nigeria closer to other WEst AFrican countries while countering French influence in the region 16 Weest aFrican govs signed the Treaty of Lagos o Generosity & Contributions commitment of substantial military capacity, especially in supplying leadership and majority of troops for ECOMOG (the ECOWAS-sponsored peacekeeping force in Liberia) success = armed conflict halted and elections held has participated in wider-ranging UN operations what about the problems at home though ?!?!?! o FRance Plays most prominent role in WEst AFrica Their promotion of closer eco ties with Nigeria has upset Nigeria's French-speaking neighbours o The West Western support returned with enthousiasm upon Obasanjo's inauguration - Prospects for development o Frustrations are deep and enduring o Nigeria's highest priorities are eco security and the rule of law o The relationship bween the economy and the state is abig problem needs a vigorous private sector o Nigerians have a reputation for entrepreneurship the challenge is to reduce gov role to that of providing necessary infrastructure and public welfare safety nets so that Nigerian entrepreneurial initiative can thrive o Problem: Corruption of values p358 o Economy overwhelmingly dep on oil and state's resources controlled by regime interactions amongst military are thus extremely important o Substantial progress has been made in : water, housing, electricity o Nigeria is gradually becoming a service-oriented country, and Obasanjo has embarked on the privatisation model, but it will take a while before ppl adjust

Hausa-Fulani people

o Hausa and Fulani cultures have become intertwined Hausa is the primary language of both Now the dominant culture of the north: Hausa-Fulani Descendants of Hausa-Fulani kingdoms (Islamic title: emir) continue to hold court in the major cities of northern Nigeria

party system and electoral choice (GB)

o Multiplicity of choices General election MUST occur every FIVE years elections can be called in the meantime by the PM 3 or more candidates contest each constituency first past post (most votes, not majority necessarily) wins anomalies most votes, do not win most seats 3 parties in England, 4 parties in Scotland and Wales, and 5 in NI Labour and Consv do Not dominate the ballots (since 1974, 75% of vote; in 2005, only 67% of vote!) Disproportional representation Lib Dems are geo spread out A PR system would need coalition building o Control of Party org Pol parties: machines Labour party leader chosen from an electoral college comprised of Labour MPS, constituency party members and trade unions Conservative party members elect their leader: choice between two candidates chosen by consv MPS o Party images and appeals Image is all less ideo., more consensual Many bills adopted with interparty agreement Inherited issues

organising groups interests between groups and gov't (GB)

o Mutual and complementary goals Info exchange Mutual evaluation Mutual influence o Organising for Pol Action in Civil Society Civil Society storng in britain b/c of... • Confed of British Industries • TUC Civil society vs consumer society (unite pressure groups in the face of rising individualism) Inside pressure groups (non-controversial, advance their case in quite negotiation) Outsider pressure groups (unable to negotiate, demands are inconsistent with the gov´t Pacifists, ten d to turn to media to articulate interests) o Keeping Pressure groups at a distance Tripartite relationship fo business, unions and pol reps consensus seems impossible Unions hav elost power (less than 1/3 belogn to ) Marketise, create a distance and assert independent authority of the Crown Unions frustrated at being out of Whitehall loop, but ed and health care prof, who rely on gov funding, are even more so

Key structures NPC (National People's Congress/ China's legislature) (China)

o NPC (National People´s Congress, China´s legislature) Delegates elected for five-year terms by delegates in provincial-level congresses and the armed forces NPC delegates assemble once annually for a plenary session of about two weeks Chinese are overrepresented (ratio of rural to urban Chinese per NPC delegate is 4:1) Extensive powers • Amendment of constitution • Passage and amendment of legislation • Approval of eco plans and gov work reports • Appointment of top state and gov leaders Drawbacks: • Not credible • Too large • Meets too infrequently and briefly

structure of gov't (GB)

o No const = no bill of rights o EU Convention of human rights 1999 o No judicial review outsourcing to private companies udicial committee on Privy Council can resolve disputes about interpertation of act of Pment o If courts rule against exec, Pment can annul it o Queen elisabeth nonpolitical o Power resides in Crown symbology,t radition, loyalty, myth o Government whose? o Whitehall = executive agencies o 10 Downing st = blair´s residence o parliament = commons and lords o Westminster = neighbourhood of gov´t

Hausa Identity (Nigeria)

o Northern half of country o Engage in subsistence agriculture and live in rural villages o Sizable Hausa communities all over Nigeria, where they carry on trade and commercial activities while maintaining kin and client relationships with home regions o Muslims o Organised as a series of emirates each of major cities in north is the seat of an emir (British indirect rule) o Retain great influence in their localities & Hausa prominence in national policitcs

political recruitment (Nigeria)

o Northerners have dominated leadership of country under both civilian and military rule o In early years of independence, a military career lacked prestige o Balewa gov't recruited uni graduates into officer ranks = resulted in...introduction of large numbers of educated Igbos into officer ranks & politicisation of army o Because from 1983-99 military controlled country : an officer's commission has come to be seen as the most regular path to pol power o First period of military rule...although there was serious profit-taking on the part of many military leaders, none of them expected to have long-term pol careers o Second period of military rule...produced a gradual change in perspectives of some military officers o Abacha regime faced massive resistance and was able to rule only on basis of force, at least in south o Politics in Nigeria is still largely a game of money the retired military, business group, and some retired civil servants dominate the elective positions while a few academics have pol appointments like minister, commissioner and foreign service o Nigerian unis produce large numbers of trained public administrators an appropriate educational level had come to be expected in the civil service (permanence of civil service) o Recruitment at local and state levels exclude "strangers" some exceptions: where "strangers" are sufficiently numerous, they many run and win, but regulations have expressly limited candidacy to indigenous candidates o Overriding characteristic of recruitment into pol or administrative office is the efoort to faithfully "reflect the federal character of Nigeria" to fill positions to have a gov't that is an ethnic microcosm of the locality or state it controls o In the past, appointments of military personnel to gov't posts also reflected country's "federal character" o Ethnic politics are still very much dominating the politics of Nigeria Obasanjo has made use of the zoning structure, which breaks Nigeria into six divisions for the purpose of appointments and the distribution of infrastructures the minority (especially in Delta oil-producing regions) would want more functional roles in gov't : oil-producing regions have often usurped laws and frictions developed bween them - thus it was broken up (oil-producing regions have often been neglected by other administrations)

political participation and recruitment (GB)

o Participation high (?) o Recruitment Civil service MP Cadets Ministerial Gofers Geographical overrepresentation of london o Cabinet ministers Not necessarily residnet of constituency represented 100 jobs MUST be an MP first Get headlines, debate, show loyalty, Lack expertise, learn on job 2 years o higher civil serants best and brightest specialist knowledge dead weight or backbone=? Yes Men and Can Do guys 2 types: • pol advisers • specialists

Political culture and subculture (Nigeria)

o Pol culture: heterogeneous and complex o Variety of religious beliefs: Christian and Muslim proselytising efforts o Divisions based on social class on diff experiences of urban and rural dwellers o Political implications of ethnic identity, religious beliefs, social and economic status, contact with urban life, and civil society

Turning to the market (GB)

o Privatisation justified... Eco efficiency Pol ideologuy Service - competition Short-term financial gain o Once privatised, hard to republicise o Costs or regulñating vs owning o Comes down to public safety, health and $ - From Trust to Contract o Next Steps Initiative : contract out tasks to independent agencies responsibilities of delivering central gov´t services such as prisons o "outsourcing" in business world - Why Public Policy Matters o Average household can expect cradle to grave serive (ed, health and pension) o Public employees 20% of British labour force depends on gov´t o Taxes Revenues dpend on income taxes, SocSec taxes 40% is top rate of taxation 65% spent on ed, health care and SS sin taxes on cigs, alc, and gas "stealth" taxes on rise

IGBO identity (Nigeria)

o Southeast o Market agriculture with farmers growing palm products, rice and yams o Adopted Western culture with enthousiasm o Aggressively sought advancement in modern commerce and civil service o Emigrated widely throughout country less concerned with maintaining separate communities where they are strangers ("stranger" = a person living outside his or her "home" community) o Employed on the basis of their edu and modern skills o The Biafran experience and civil war left long-term mistrust bween Igbos and other Nigerians

Yoruba identity (Nigeria)

o Southwest & Lagos (former federal capital and major urban center) o Traditionally subsistence farmers cocoa and palm products o Share a common language, traditional religion and myths of origin still, divided into number of indep and warring kingdoms: now, have separate identities o Long tradition of commerce & are prominent in trade networks and markets throughout West AFri o Institutions that balanced power bween an oba (king) and lineage chiefs o Obas lost legitimacy eventually their influence now varies greatly, but is generally less than that of northern emirs o Highly stratified society complete with kings o Receptive to missionaries and their schools o Intermediate position bween change-resistant Hausa and innovative Igbo

the head of state (China)

o The President of the PRC o Purely ceremonial office o Hu Jintao (succeeding Jiang Zeming) top leader of Comm Party org head of the Central Military Commission (leadership of Chinese military forces)

Parliament (Iran)

o Unicameral parliament à Majles o Comprises about 290 members elected by universal suffrages for 4 year terms o Requirements for Members Have to be Muslims 5 MPs to represent Christians (3), Jews (1) and Zoroastrians (1) o Duties/Privileges Law-making powers à legislative output must not contravene the constitution or Islam, as determined by Council Has the right to investigate affairs of state Can Approve or reject presdient's cabinet appointments May interrogate ministers and subject them to votes of no-confidence Forum where policies are discussed and proposals aired, and where some state officials are taken to account

centralized authority and decentralized delivery of policies (GB)

o Unitary state o Territorial justice the same standards of public policy must apply to all citizens o Centralised system of authority one of highest degrees of control in EU o Ministers focus on "high" politics of foreign affairs and eco manag, while bureaucracy deals with "low" level implementation o The Treasury ultimately decides what is pol possible o Devolution to nations, decentralisation to local gov´ts o Local gov´t is subordinate to central, as it has the power to write laws determining what officials do or spend, or even abolish local authorities completely o However, local units are responsible for adminitering ed, health care, sanitation, crime manag, housing 1/5 of pubnlic expenditure o Inspectors and auditors supervise local authorities o Local elections... 4 year terms low pol turnout o in old days, working class towns would be Labour, agricultural areas and suburbs would be Consv o no local income tax, although some locales have raised "rates" to fund a local initiative o greatest test to unitary state : NHS o Passing the Buck... Guangos = appointed by Cabinet ministers range of orgs to which gov´t has devolved power (quasigov´t) Advisory committees = drqw on expertise of indiv and orgs involved in programs fro which Whitehall depts are nominally responsible (agriculture expert team) Administrative tribunals = quasi-judicial bodies that make expert judgments, more quickly and cheaply ex. Council of Tribunals (also a quango)

Nigeria is a megastate (Nigeria)

o claims over one-fifth of the people in Africa o has the world´s largest black population o natural resources: petroleum o substantial standing military force o 45 universities contains a large proportion of Africa´s centers of learning and research o embodies much of the variety of African political experience within its borders: large-scale emirates of the north small kingdoms and village-level republics of the south o experienced different versions of colonial rule were administered by Britain o culture: divided by ethnicity and religion, especially between Christians and Muslims o history since independence includes: coups, countercoups, civil war, and a renewal of democracy o a sick giant economy in shambles provision of public services has broken down

current policy challenges (Nigeria)

o ethnic, regional, and religious divisions have intensified o has existed for only 42 years political actors have already started suggesting breaking up country into a weak federation or even completely independent states if pol power cannot be distributed o adjusting to changes... 1999 return to civilian rule Obasanjo elected president later, a new democratic leg was also elected 2003: Obasanjo reelected return to constitutional rule being tested by Nigerians' frustration over the failure of their potentially wealthy country to provide basic human needs, ed, potable water, reliable transport and communications, and corruption-free politics o income levels per capita are barely a tenth of income in the US or Europe o ranked 148 out of the 178 nations in the United Nations' Human Development Index ! o second worst amongst 102 nations in the 2002 Corruption Perceptions Index developed by Transparency Intl. o the gov't has struggled to move Nigeria in a new direction o Defining state and local gov´t boundaries o depleted treasury, a bureaucracy in need of retraining, ethnic and religious conflict, eco stagnation, and widespread corruption o attaining economic security and establishing rule of law o problematic relationship bween economy and state (pg 357) economy is overwhelmingly dependent on oil and the states' resources controlled directly by the regime solution = vigorous private sector and reduced gov't involvement (so that entrepreneurial initiative can thrive) corruption of values (p358)

The Hausa people (Nigeria)

o formed city-states in northern Nigeria (1000-1200 AD) o came under the influence of Islam (15th century) o mosques and Koranic schools flourished (16th century

Yoruba and Bini people (Nigeria)

o formed kingdoms between 12-15th centuries at Oyo, Ife and Benin o the kingdom of Oyo subdued its rivals in the 17-18 centuries o developed intricate methods of limiting power of rulers the Alafin (ruler of Oyo) was chosen by a council of chiefs, the Oyo Mesi, who could force him to commit suicide if they felt that he was exceeding his powers, although one of the council members had to die with him o successors of the Yoruba kings (obas) continue to act out symbolic leadership roles in many cities in southwestern Nigeria

(Supreme) Leader (Iran)

o highest authority in Islamic Republic o unlimited term o combines religious and temporal authority in accordance with the theocratic principle of velayat-e faqih o for his succession, the constitution provided for popularly elected Assembly of Experts elected every ten years by universal suffrage consisting of ulema chooses leader from among most learned ulema theoretically more powerful than leader à can elect and dismiss him (if he proves unworthy of or unable to assume responsibilities of his office) candidacies to Assembly are subject to approval of Council of Guardians, whose members are partly chosen by leader, thus maintaining his supremacy in practice first: Khomeini (high-level member of ulema and charismatic political leader) 1989: Assembly chose Ali Khamenei (president for eight years but low-level cleric) to be new leader à created split between state and "church", questioning his religious authority

The British (Nigeria)

o immediate cause for interest in West Africa was trade in slaves coastal groups began exchanging captives for goods with European trading ships (16th century) o wars ensured a plentiful supply of captives Nigeria lost some of its most ablebodied inhabitants during those three centuries of relations between Africa and Europe o 1807: British parliament outlaws slave trade British navy replaces British slave ships and begin to cut off trade (fully eliminated by 1850) o trade was converted to other goods & British consuls began intervening in local politics (favouring those who would give them commercial advantages) o The British succeeded in obtaining treaties of British protection and trade along the coast

local governments people's court

o judicial authority at local level o responsible to the people´s congresses at their respective levels and courts above them

politburo standing committee (China)

o the inner-circle of the Politburo o no more than a half-dozen leaders o meet once weekly o meetings convened and chaired by the party general secretary the top party leader, Hu Jintao

Direct taxes

personal and corporate income taxes and taxes on capital gains and wealth, directly levied on persons and corporations (tend to be progressive as well).

United Russia

pro Putin Party that holds two-thirds of the seats in the Duma

Income and wealth inequality

uneven distribution of wealth - in one country, one region may suffer from poverty and hopelessness while other parts experience growth and improved welfare. Politics may be affected by division of wealth. Example: China's citizens' current economic situation greatly varies from the urban to the regional areas, which creates cleavages in China's politics

Russian Federation Council

upper house (178 seats) - represents each of Russia´s 89 fed regions on an equal basis - avoids forming partisan groups - "instrument of federalism" every constituent unit of the federation is represented by two reps (thus, small ethinic, national terr are greatly overrepresented) - Powers o Consideration of legislation: can only pass it, reject it, or reject it and call for forming an agreement commission comprising members of both houses to iron out differences//Must approve bill with a) simple majority if president´s amendments are accepted, or b) a twothrids vote if presiden´t amendment is overridden o Approves presiden´t s appointments o Approves/vetoes President´s decrees

Abacha (Nigeria)

• 1996 creation of new parties • 1997 all 5 parties certified for local elections nominated Abacha for presidency

Abubakar (Nigeria)

• 1998 announced the dissolution of five parties, the nullification of local and state elections, and a new start toward democracy with freely formed parties and a promise to hand over power to an elected president in 1999 !!! • Independent National Electoral Commission created to supervise electoral process • 1998 - 9 parties certified 3 only survived local elections candidates of these were not necessarily of the ethnic group dominant in them

Political Parties (Nigeria)

• PDP People's Democratic party • APP All People's Party • AD Alliance for Democracy in practice, it turned out to be a 2-party system...AD and APP negotiated to present a single candidate • PDP = Obasanjo won with 62.8% declared the winner by the Independent National Election Commission (INEC) created by the Abubakar regime • APP = Falae o 2003 elections Obasanjo ran again APP had renamed itself the All Nigeria People's Party ANPP and selected Buhari, a former military ruler PDP increased its majority in both houses of Congress and won most governorships; OBasanjo was reelected by landslide

Presidential of Nigeria

• President & Vice President & Council of State o The Military and Police, Federal Ministries, Federal civil service, revenue allocation system, federal commissions o Local Government Authorities ( & Traditional Authorities) State Governors, deputy governors, state commissioners, state civil service State legislatures, House of Assembly

National Assembly of Nigeria

• Senate (109) • House of Reps (360

Obasanjo (Nigeria)

• Southerner, Yoruba • Former military ruler • Nigeria´s third attempt at democracy • Must deal with depleted treasury, a bureaucracy in need of retraining, ethnic and religious conflict, eco stagnation, and widespread corruption • His party holds majority in National Assebly • Faced impeachment campaign in 2002 • 2003 elections were the first civilian conducted elections in two decades apart from some complaints of irregularities, they were said to be "free and fair" 20 of the 30 parties registered contested for the Presidency// Obasanjo's PDP did very well in all Senate, House, and Presidency elections

Judiciary of Nigeria

• Supreme court & Court of appeal & Federal high courts o State courts & High court & Sharia court of appeal & Customary court of appeal (Lower courts & Magistrate

Discipline Inspection Commission (DIC) (China)

• a specialised rule adjudication org / disciplinary system • enforce standards of conduct for party members (including ideological, political, and organisational standards as well as party rules prohibiting various sorts of "inappropriate practices") • initially, it helped restores pol and org order to the Party, after damagae to party discipline during and after Cultural Rev. • Investigate party members engaged in official corruption, and recommend disciplinary actions (ranging from "warning" to expulsion from party)

central committee (china)

• chinese political elite: collection of the most powerful several hundred pol leaders in the country • all members hold important positions • elections for members: secret ballot, rarely offer choice though among candidates (centralism prevails) • functions/roles: o determines the number of congress delegates and procedures for the NPC election o exercises the powers of the congress between sessions o approves changes in policy or leaders at the pol center o bureaucratic and regional elites on the committee ensure that the "party line" is realised in practice o elects the Politburo, its Standing Committee, and the party general secretary

the politburo (China)

• the core political decision-makers in China (concentrated power at the top) • the top pol elite, usually no more than two dozen leaders, most of whom have responsibility for overseeing policymaking in some issue area • determines official candidates for Central Committee membership before the congress meets

Democracy

"government by the people"; a political system in which citizens enjoy basic civil and political rights and in which most important political leaders are elected in "free and fair" elections which are accountable by law. Example: Sweden

Oligarcy

"rule by the few"; a government ruled by a small group of people in which important political rights are withheld from the majority of people. Example: the communist elite of the USSR were oligarchs

Police state

: a state which regulates more intrusively and extracts resources more severely. Most oppressive forms of police states have been associated with totalitarian ideologies. Examples: Nazism, fascism, communism

Externalities

: a type of market failure that occurs when some economic activity has costs that were not accounted for. Examples: pollution from factories, waste dumps, prisons, etc. Specifically: Chernobyl

Associational groups

: groups that operate to express demands and support political contenders such as political parties. Note that associational groups can occasionally wield sufficient resources to become contenders in their own right. Example: the Labour Party historically rested on the unions' ability to develop coherent policy positions and mobilize the votes of their members (who were formally represented in the party) to support those positions

Bureaucracy

: large contemporary organizations with a system of public administrations. All the members below the chief executive in charge of implementing government policy According to Max Weber, bureaucracies make decisions based on fixed and official rules and regulations, and are structured in a hierarchical command structure. Decisions are made on the basis of standard operating procedures. Each position has formal and specialized educational or training requirements, and officials are appointed to hold career positions. They have permanent jobs, meaning they tend to be inflexible

Democratization

: movements in history towards democracy. Example: After WWI and WWII, there were movements towards democracy, the most recent being in 1974, involving Southern Europe, East Asia, Latin America, Eastern Europe, a number of African states, and the successor satellite states of the Soviet Union.

Non-associational groups

: rarely well organized interest groups with episodic activity. Based on common interests and identities of ethnicity, religion, occupation or kinship. No formal organization and in fact no sense of themselves as being members of a group, but are regarded by others as if they were a formal group. Ex- soccer moms, NASCAR fans

Majority Coalition systems

: systems where parties establish open pre-electoral coalitions so voters know which parties will attempt to work together to form a government

Inputs

: the political system receives inputs from domestic and international environment and attempts to shape them through its outputs. Example: Education and domestic economy

Big MAc Index

An example of one measure of PPP is the Big Mac Index popularized by The Economist, which looks at the prices of a Big Mac burger in McDonald'srestaurants in different countries. If a Big Mac costs USD$4 in the U.S. and GBP£3 in the United Kingdom, the PPP exchange rate would be £3 for $4. The Big Mac Index is presumably useful because it is based on a well-known good whose final price, easily tracked in many countries, includes input costs from a wide range of sectors in the local economy, such as agricultural commodities (beef, bread, lettuce, cheese), labor (blue and white collar), advertising, rent and real estate costs, transportation, etc

Gross National Product

The difference is that GNP includes net foreign income (the current account) rather than net exports and imports (the balance of trade). Put simply, GNP adds net foreign investment income, unlike GDP. o In contrast to GDP, GNP is a measure of the value of the output produced by the "nationals" of a region. GNP focuses on who owns the production. For example, in the United States, GNP measures the value of output produced by American firms, regardless of where the firms are located.

European Quality of life survey

The survey, first published in 2005, assessed quality of life across European countries through a series of questions on overall subjective life satisfaction, satisfaction with different aspects of life, and sets of questions used to calculate deficits of time, loving, being and having.

cross-cutting cleavage

a group of people who agree with each other on one issue may disagree with each other on a different issue

Marketization

a state's re-creation of a market in which the concept of free markets and private profit incentives prevail rather than that of a government-managed economy. Example: Thatcherite policies in Britain

Patron Client network

a structure in which a central officeholder, authority figure, or group provides benefits to supporters in exchange for their loyalty.

Political structures

agencies that help the government to perform its functions. There are six types of political structures: political parties, interest groups, legislatures, executives, bureaucracy, and courts

Political goods

areas upon which people may value the performance of governments

Proportional representation

category of electoral formula aimed at securing a close match between the percentage of votes that groups of candidates (grouped by a certain measure) obtain in elections and the percentage of seats they receive (usually in legislative assemblies). PR is a democratic principle rather than an electoral system in itself. It is often contrasted to plurality voting systems, where disproportional seat distribution results from the division of voters into multiple electoral districts, especially "winner takes all" plurality ("first past the post" or FPTP) districts

Democratic Corporist interest groups

characterized by a much more organized representation of interests. i. A single peak association normally represents each societal interest ii. Membership in the peak association is often compulsory and nearly universal iii. Peak associations are centrally organized and direct the actions of their members iv. Groups are often systematically involved in making and implementing policy

Pluralist Interest groups

characterized by several features that involve both how interests are organized and how they participate in the political process i. Multiple groups may represent a single societal interest ii. Group membership is voluntary and limited iii. Groups often have a loose or decentralized organizational structure iv. There is a clear separation between interest groups and the government

Interest Articulation

citizens and social groups expressing (articulating) their needs and demands (interests) to the government

Anarchists

communitarians; people who see societies as close-knit, egalitarian communities and are of the opinion that governments and power corrupt such communities. Anarchists see an alternative in voluntary cooperation and natural communities. Example: Somalia's current political status practically leaves the country to be carved up by factions and war lords, creating anarchy.

Political terror tactics

deliberate assassination, armed attacks on other groups or government officials, and provocation of bloodshed

Interest aggregation

demands expressed by the citizens are aggregated, or combined into policy

legitimacy

determines whether citizens believe that they ought to obey laws or see no reason to obey laws. Legitimacy is the foundation for successful political process

Majoritarian 2 party system

dominated by 2 parties or have 2 substantial parties and election laws that create legislative majorities for one of them. Examples: the United States or Britain

Rent seeking

efforts that individuals/groups/etc. exert in order to reap benefits created through government intervention in the economy (rents). Rent seeking occurs when people try to use the government for private gain (corruption).

policy implementation

enforcing a policy

welfare state

engages in distributive activities to provide for health, education, employment, housing, and income support of its citizens; for this reason, it taxes more heavily. Welfare states are found in prosperous and democratic societies and originated in Germany

Purchasing Power Parity (PPP)

exchange-rate calculation is controversial because of the difficulties of finding comparable baskets of goods to compare purchasing power across countries. o To adjust GDP to reflect the actual cost of living in various countries, the World Bank and other financial institutions use GDP-PPP (Purchasing Power Parity), which uses a "market basket" of items "not traded on international markets.

Federal systems

federal systems are in between the extremes of a confederal state and a unitary state - examples include Germany, India, Russia, Mexico, etc. Most states in the world, however, are unitary.

Civil Liberties

freedoms that protect the individual from government and set limits for the government so that it cannot abuse its power and interfere with the lives of its citizens. Basic civil liberties include freedom of speech, religion, etc. Example: the Bill of Rights details and guarantees various civil liberties

Separation of powers

generally separates the power of the government into three branches: the executive, legislative and judicial branch. Separation of power can prevent the injustices that might result from an unchecked executive or legislature

Anomic Groups

generally spontaneous interest groups that form suddenly when many individuals respond similarly to frustration

public goods

goods with two defining characteristics: 1. if they are provided to one consumer, they cannot be withheld from anyone else. 2. a person's enjoyment/consumption of these goods does not detract from anyone else. Examples: clean air, national defense

Night Watchman state model

governments that provide basic law and order, defense, and protection of property, but little else (such as education).

Large "n" studies (statistical studies)

have a sufficient number and variety of cases to enable the researcher to examine the relationships between the variables (which are the dimensions or the parameters on which the cases differ.)

Multiparty system

have combinations of parties, voter support, and election laws that ensure that no single party wins a legislative majority. Examples: Germany and France

Political Socialization

how individuals form their political attitudes, and thus, collectively, how citizens form their political culture. It is a process which involves families, schools, communications media, churches, and all the various political structures that develop, reinforce and transform attitudes of political significance in the society

Controlled interest groups

i. There is a single group for each social sector ii. Membership is often compulsory iii. Each group is normally hierarchically organized iv. Groups are controlled by the government or its agents in order to mobilize support for government policy (the most important one)

Institutional groups

important interest aggregators given that they are formal groups (political parties, military, bureaucracy, church) that represent interests. They have other political or social functions in addition to interest articulation. Example: non-political institutional groups can also become involved in political processes, like the Roman Catholic Church, businesses, etc. In authoritarian countries, the following all have significant roles in interest articulation: education officials, party officials, jurists, officers in military services, government bodies representing other social units

Process Functions

include interest articulation, interest aggregation, policymaking and policy implementation and adjudication

Libertarians

individuals who believe that society is made up of individuals with fundamental rights which need protection; unfettered individuals, free to make their own choices and join the groups they choose, who want property rights, freedom of speech, and protection of associations; people who believe that the main problem with the government is that the more it takes on, the more prone it is to violate basic rights

Agents of political socialization

institutions and organizations that influence political attitudes. They may involve either direct or indirect socialization. Types of agents of political socialization: the Family, Schools, Religious Institutions, Peer Groups, Social Class, Gender, Mass Media, Interest Groups, Political Parties, Direct Contact with Governmental Structure

Gross domestic Product GDP

is a basic measure of a country's economic performance and is the market value of all final goods and services made within the borders of a country in a year. It is a fundamental measurement of production and is very often positively correlated with the standard of living

Structural Functionalism

is a paradigm which addresses what functions (purposes) various elements of the political system perform in regard to the entire system. Functionalists believe that one can compare political systems to a living organism, in that both a society and an organism are made up of interdependent working parts (organs) and systems that must function together in order for the greater body to function.

Policy Adjudication

making formal legal decisions about the legality of the implementation of a policy

Totalitarian system

nations where governments restrict the rights and privacy of their citizens in a severe and intrusive manner. All totalitarian systems are authoritarian, but most authoritarian systems are not totalitarian. Examples: Nazi Germany, the Soviet Union

Civil Society

nongovernmental, voluntary society of organizations. People with common interests form groups.

Political SubCultures

occur when a country is deeply divided politically. The citizens may have sharply different points of view on at least some critical political matters, such as boundaries of nations, or the nature of the regime

Single member district plurality election rule

often called "first-past-the-post" given that in this system the winner need only finish ahead of the others but not win the majority of the votes

governments

organizations of individuals who are legally empowered to make biding decisions on behalf of a specific community. Governments execute authoritative and coercive control. Example: United Russia

Performance

outputs of a political system

Small "n" studies (case studies)

permit investigators to go deeply into a case, identify the particularities of it, get the clinical details, and examine each link in the casual process

Personal interest contacts

personal contacts such as family or legislators that people use to articulate their interests through

cumulative cleavage

pit the same people against each other over many different issues

Symbolic policies

political speeches, holidays, rites, public monuments, and statues, and the like. Used by governments to exhort citizens to desired forms of behavior, often to build a sense of community or to celebrate exemplary conduct

competitive party system

primarily try to build electoral support

Channels of political process

process by which interest groups reach key policymakers: • legitimate/constitutional channels of political process • illegitimate, coercive access channels: direct action, for individuals and groups who feel that they are otherwise ineffective

channels of political process

process by which interest groups reach key policymakers: • legitimate/constitutional channels of political process • illegitimate, coercive access channels: direct action, for individuals and groups who feel that they are otherwise ineffective

Political Culture

public attitudes toward politics and their role within the political system

Fundamentalism

radical, literal interpretations of any religion that are often a defensive reaction against the new scientific and modern values. Many fundamentalists seek to raise conservative social, moral, and religious issues to the top of the contemporary policy agenda

Inclusive governing party

recognizes and attempts to coordinate various social groups in the society. It accepts and aggregates certain autonomous interests, while repressing others and forbidding any serious challenges to its own control. Examples: Africa- Kenya and Tanzania recognize the autonomy of social, cultural, and economic groups and try to incorporate them, rather than control and remake them; Mexico's Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI) was successful until its recent transition

Political communication

refers to the two-way flow of information through the society and through the various structures that make up the political system

Authoritarian party systems

seek to direct society (also known as noncompetitive).

Post-Marital values

social equality, environmental protection, cultural pluralism, and self-expression.

Protests

spontaneous gathering of people outraged by the same things - direct action to articulate their interests.

System

suggests an object has moving parts, interaction with a setting or an environment. Example: Democracy

Distribution

the distribution of money, goods, and services among the population

Civil service

the experienced and expert personnel officials in bureaucracies The top executive members of the "frontbench" members in Parliament (England

Extraction (of resources)

the extraction of money, goods, persons and services from the domestic and international environments

Outputs

the implementations of the political process

Conflictual party system

the legislature is dominated by parties that are far apart on issues or are reluctant toward each other and the political system. Example: Weimar Germany

policymaking

the often dirty process of writng laws

Consensual party system

the parties commanding most of the legislative seats are not too far apart on policies and have a reasonable amount of trust in each other and in the political system Examples: in the United States: Democrats and Republicans; in Norway and Sweden: socialists, center, liberals, conservatives, and small communist groups

Outcomes

the results of political activities which result in new inputs

external sovereignty

the right to conclude binding agreements with other states

internal sovereignty

the right to determine matters involving one's own citizens

Political recruitment

the selection of people for political activity and government offices.

Policy functions

the substantive impacts on the society, the economy, and the culture. Policy functions include regulation of behavior, extractions of resources (taxes) and distribution of benefits and services

Regulation of(human behavior)

the use of compulsion and inducement to enforce extractive and distributive compliance or otherwise bring about desired behavior. It is the exercise of political control over the behavior of individuals and groups in the society.

Ethnicity

those human groups that entertain a subjective belief in their common descent because of similarities in physical type and/or customs, or because of memories of colonization and migration. There are five sets of traits which contribute to ethnicity: physical similarities, language, norms against intermarriage, religion, and negative historical memories

ethnicity/ethnic groups

those human groups that entertain a subjective belief in their common descent because of similarities of physical type or of customs or both, or because of memories of colonization and migration, regardless of whether or not an objective blood relationship exists

Government Efforts

what the government does vs. the actual outcome of the efforts

political cleavages

when a political system is affected by more than one cleavage/dividing factor

Conflictual Political Cluture

when citizens are sharply divided, often on both the legitimacy of the regime and solutions to major problems

Consensual Political Culture

when citizens tend to agree on the appropriate means of making political decisions and to agree on the major problems facing the society and how to solve them.

nation state

when national identification and the scopes of legal authority largely coincide. Example: Spain

Interdependence

when one political system is dependent on another political system and they are both affected by each other. Example: US and China

Direct political socialization

when political socialization involves the explicit communication of information, values, or feelings toward politics. Example: Civics courses in schools, religious indoctrination by fundamentalists, etc

Indirect political socialization

when political views are inadvertently molded by our experiences. Example: A child's relationship to parents or teachers may affect the future adult's response to authority

Military Government

with its control of instruments of force, and in the absence of a strong constitutional tradition, the military can be an effective contender for power. After WWII, parliamentary and democratic systems were put into place in most Third World countries; however, in many countries the lack of effectiveness and authority led to the replacement by military governments

3 types of citizens in apolitical culture

• Participants: citizens who are actual or potential participants in the political process. • Subjects: citizens who passively obey government officials and law but do not vote or actively involve themselves in politics. • Parochials: citizens who are hardly aware of government and politics. May be illiterates, rural people living in remote areas, or simply people who ignore politics and its impact on their lives