AP Euro concepts
U. The efforts of Habsburg rulers failed to restore Catholic unity across Europe. Teachers have flexibility to use examples of Habsburg rulers such as the following: Charles I/V Philip II
"Like father like son". Both defeated the Ottomans. Both failed to crush Protestantism in their domains. Charles V's failures against Lutherans and Calvinists in the Holy Roman Empire. Philip II failed to stop the spread of Dutch Calvinism. Philip II also failed to "re-Catholicize" England after the Armada was "sunk" in 1588. Both Charles V and Philip II persecuted Jews and Muslims while continuing the Spanish Inquisition started by Ferdinand and Isabella (Torquemada—"you can't talk him outta anything"—go Mel Brooks).
E. Secular political theories, such as those espoused in Machiavelli's The Prince, provided a new concept of the state. How is Hugo Grotius an example of secular political theories modernized the concept of the nation state and international law?
"jus" = law judge, jury, jurisprudence all are related to "jus". Which is Latin for "law". We get many of our laws from Latin. The Romans were pagans; thus, secular. We get our concepts for law from not only the Judeo-Christian heritage but from those crazy pagan Greeks and Romans. Hugo Grotius, in response to the horrors of the 30 Years War, decided to make "international law". In regard to the "just war theory", Grotius built on Aquinas. "jus ad bellum"—the law to go to war. "jus en bello"---the law in war Told you that Latin would pay off. Of course, the losers are convicted more often than the winners. In 1945, the victorious allies tried Nazis, Japanese fascists, and Italian fascists for crimes in violation of "jus ad bellum" and "jus en bello".
O. The Catholic Reformation, exemplified by the Jesuit Order and the Council of Trent, revived the church but cemented the division within Christianity. Teachers have flexibility to use examples of the Catholic Reformation such as the following: St. Teresa of Avila Roman Inquisition Index of Prohibited Books *Council of Trent
A. The Council of Trent ("reforming" = got rid of abuses; "conservative" = kept Church doctrine) B. and the 3 I's (Ignatius Loyola, Index of Prohibited Books, Inquisition of Rome). C. Baroque art of Bernini: "St. Theresa in Ecstasy" or "Chair of St. Peter" (in St. Peter's Basilica in the Vatican City)---designed to make you feel the magnificence of the spirit of God and the passion for Catholic religion. The is Catholic Reformation mysticism!!!
P. Religious reform both increased state control of religious institutions and provided justifications for challenging state authority.
Anglican Church *Luther is willing to subordinate his Church to the secular authority *Czars take control over the Russian Orthodox faith *I dare you to think. Go ahead. It is not illegal. Who challenged state authority? *Sir Thomas More— *Lutheran Princes vs. HRE *Parliament vs. King *German Peasant Rebellion *Huguenots rebel against absolutism of monarchy *Dutch rebellion against Philip II of Spain
I. What was balance of power diplomacy? Kudos to Wikipedia.
At the core of the balance of power theory is the idea that national security is enhanced when military capabilities are distributed so that no one state is strong enough to dominate all others.[1] If one state gains inordinate power, the theory predicts that it will take advantage of its strength and attack weaker neighbors thereby providing an incentive for those threatened to unite in a defensive coalition. Some realists maintain that this would be more stable as aggression would appear unattractive and would be averted if there was equilibrium of power between the rival coalitions.[1] principle of hegemony: whenever one nation threatens to become hegemonic (dominant), other nations naturally ally together to prevent domination and maintain the "balance of power".
Z. Teachers have flexibility to discuss Mannerist and Baroque artists, whose art was used in new public buildings, such as the following:
Bernini is best used as an example of Catholic Reformation mysticism. At the Council of Trent, Church leaders encouraged artists to attract the faithful toward a emotional response to art that shows the mystical connection between humans and the other worldly. For example, Bernini's depiction of St. Theresa encounter with an "angel" is depicted through the closest metaphor at his disposal, the picture of Theresa in the midst of ecstasy, which was his closest representation of what this interaction with an angel must have been like. Like all baroque art, the viewer is invited into the artwork and encouraged to feel the art. This is not the moderation and the balance associated with the classical period of art (Da Vinci's "Vitruvian Man") in the Renaissance. This is the period of the late 16th and throughout the 17th century. The over the top and grandiose architecture of the baroque was designed to promote awe and inspiration. Monarchs like Louis XIV and the Czars of Russia embraced this type of grandness architecture to promote their concepts of "divine right" monarchy. El Greco Peter Paul Rubens Bernini
A. New Monarchies laid the foundation for the centralized modern state by establishing a monopoly on tax collection, military force, and the dispensing of justice, and gaining the right to determine the religion of their subjects. Use Henry VIII, 1534 Act of Supremacy
During 15th-16th centuries, "New Monarchs" emerged that centralized state power (Spain, England, France) under a single sovereign. A. monopoly on tax collection (used to fund the military), B. monopoly on force (police and army), C. monarchial court system (monarchs appointed judges), D. state controlled Churches or nationalized Churches (even Phlip II wanted control over Church in Spain, the Bourbons gain control over Gallican Catholic Church, Henry VIII establishes Church of England = Anglican Church, Czar of Russia controls Russian Orthodox Church). E. Henry VIII issued the Act of Supremacy in 1534. Sir Thomas More became a martyr in 1535.
Q. Monarchs and princes, such as the English rulers Henry VIII and Elizabeth I, initiated religious reform from the top down (magisterial) in an effort to exercise greater control over religious life and morality. Teachers have flexibility to use examples of state actions to control religion and morality such as the following: Spanish Inquisition Book of Common Prayer (Elizabeth I)Peace of Augsburg
Ferdinand and Isabella insisted upon religious orthodoxy in Spain and launched the Spanish Inquisition as Catholic armed forces completed the "Reconquista" by 1492. "No more Muslim, no more Jew" after 1492. Elizabeth I created a "compromise" that led to the Book of Common Prayer hoping to quell religious tensions that had haunted the reign of "Bloody Mary". The Peace of Augsburg gave princes control over the religion of their subject: principle of territoriality. Albeit, you couldn't yet be a Calvinist prince, at least legally in the Holy Roman Empire in 1555. That would have to wait until 1648.
B. Monarchies seeking enhanced power faced challenges from nobles who wished to retain traditional forms of shared governance and regional autonomy. Use the Emperorship of Charles V as Holy Roman Emperor and the Peace of Augsburg in 1555 as an example of this historical trend.
German princes for example!!! The German princes fought two wars to maintain their traditional medieval liberties (a.k.a. autonomy and sovereignty). You have heard of the Peace of Westphalia in 1648. Right!!! Who wins in the HRE (Holy Roman Empire)? Duh, the princes win. Unlike the emerging "New Monarchies" in the Spain, France, and England, the Holy Roman Empire does not establish an effective centralized nation state or empire. Instead, the local princes retain control over the military, courts, tax collection, etc in their specific domains. The Holy Roman Empire is a confederation of 360 "sovereign states". England would eventually, in 1688-89, become a centralized Parliamentary state. Under Henry VIII, in 1534, the New Monarchs were bent on becoming absolutist states.
V. States exploited religious conflicts to promote political and economic interests.
Henry VIII wanted to confiscate Catholic Church lands. Henry VIII wanted to gain control over the English Church.
T. Conflicts among religious groups overlapped with political and economic competition within and among states. Issues of religious reform exacerbated conflicts between the monarchy and the nobility, as in the French Wars of Religion.
Like in many states, there was a conflict between the lords (landed aristocrats, princes, Dukes, Marquis, etc.---fill in the title or the elite "orders" in the feudalistic hierarchy of the day) and the centralizing impulse to control taxation and the military of the monarchs. This political conflict between king and nobility would be further complicated by religious tensions, as was the case in France. Teachers have flexibility to use examples of key factors in the French Wars of Religion such as the following: Catherine de' Medici St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre Henry IV Catherine de'Medici initiated the St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre of prominent Protestant Huguenot leaders. Henri IV "Paris is well worth a Mass" converts to Catholicism to make the Catholics in France (90%) happy. Henri IV issues the Edict of Nantes to give French Calvinists (Huguenots) safe areas to practice their Protestant faith. Henri IV is a "politique" like Elizabeth I. Both practiced "religious conciliation".
K. The "Prince of Humanists", Erasmus of Rotterdam was a Northern Christian Humanist. Humanism, embodied in the writings of Erasmus, employed Renaissance learning in the service of religious reform. What is meant by the phrase, "Luther hatched from the egg that Erasmus laid"?
Luther had read Erasmus. Luther had originally been inspired by Erasmus. Luther went much further than Erasmus by advocating for a complete split with Rome. Both Erasmus and More opposed the Protestants, wanting to renew the Catholic Church by getting rid of the abuses while keeping the basic core teaching of the 7 sacraments.
N. Reformers Martin Luther and John Calvin, as well as religious radicals such as the Anabaptists, criticized Catholic abuses and established new interpretations of Christian doctrine and practice.
Lutheranism, Calvinism, and the Anabaptists took the Catholic Church to task. The disagreements became personalized. The disagreements led to war. Protestantism did not die and new religions were born with "radical" notions that challenged traditional Catholic teachings regarding: the Eucharist, clerical celibacy, justification, cult of saints, pilgrimage to religious relics, individual interpretation of the Bible, the hierarchical Church authority, and the sacraments.
L. Erasmus and Sir Thomas More were examples of the desire of Roman Catholics who wanted to reform the Church from within. How was Sir Thomas More an example of the Northern Christian Humanists?
More was a Christian moralist. More called for reform within the Catholic Church, but did not want to break with Rome. As an idealist, More stayed true to his idealism by becoming a martyr for refusing to recognize Henry VIII as the head of the Church of England.
J. Teachers have flexibility to use examples of Catholic abuses such as the following: Indulgences Nepotism Simony Pluralism and absenteeism How did abuses listed above lead to the Northern Christian Humanists like Erasmus and More, and later Protestantism?
Northern Christian Humanists despised the abuses rampant in the Catholic Church and called for an end to the abuses: sales of indulgences, nepotism, simony and absenteeism. Protestants read the criticism of the Northern Christian humanists and took the next logical leap to form a "new Church" in protest. Thus, the Protest-ant-ism of the 16th century: Luther, Calvin, Zwingli, John Knox, etc.
W. A few states, such as France with the Edict of Nantes, allowed religious pluralism in order to maintain domestic peace. But, within 100 years, the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes showed the desire of Louis XIV to have "One king, one law, one ______________." Fill-in-the-blank
One faith. Religious uniformity or religious orthodoxy was valued more than religious pluralism or religious freedom during the early modern period from 1450-1648.
F. The competitive state system led to new patterns of diplomacy and new forms of warfare. How was the "New Model Army" of Oliver Cromwell used to win the English Civil Wars (War of Religion) of the 1640's?
Professional standing armies replace mercenary armies or smaller armies. This meant that the "New Model Army" of Cromwell was the standard moving forward. This was a professional army based on "social mobility" within the ranks. The "gentry" class entered the army in England to possibly earn military distinction and "rise the class" of the family name. The new standing professional armies required an increase in tax revenue. This led to an increase in the size of government. It was also during this time that the Prussians under the Hohenzollern monarchy started to build the "Sparta of the North" after the horrendous horrors of the 30 Years War. This was the beginnings of Prussian militarism. It was this Prussian militarism that would go to war in 1870-71, 1914-1918, 1939-45 against France. In 1640, Prussia rose like a Phoenix from the ashes of the Thirty Years War largely because of the creation of a modern professional standing army. Prussia was the 22nd most populated nation, with the 4th largest army by 1750.
G. Following the Peace of Westphalia, religion no longer was a cause for warfare among European states; instead, the concept of the balance of power played an important role in structuring diplomatic and military objectives. Historians often use 1648 as an "end point" to the wars of religion that rocked Europe (Example: England had a civil war complicated by religion in the 1640's that ended with the beheading of their monarch) from 1517-1648. Which of the following nations/empires did not experience a "religious civil war" between Luther's posting of his "95 Theses" and the 1648 Peace of Westphalia? France England Russia Netherlands Holy Roman Empire
Russia was not yet a great power in 1648. But, Russia did not have a civil war over religion during the Era of Religious Wars (1517-1648). England had conflict between Puritans, Catholics, and the Anglicans. By 1700, England was mostly Protestant.
D. How does the political organization in the Holy Roman Empire after 1648 differ from the political development of France following Henri IV's (ended the French Civil War of Religion) rise to power?
Single sovereign in France under Bourbons compared to the confederation in the Holy Roman Empire which was, wait, wait, neither Holy, nor Roman, nor much of an Empire. Henri IV, "the politique", had visions of absolutism and taming the aristocracy. Henri IV created the beginnings of a centralized nation state capable of centralized taxation and with visions of gaining a monopoly on force. Holy Roman Empire was a confederacy. America had the Articles of Confederation before our present form of government. The Southern Slave Owners (a.k.a. the Confederacy during the Civil War) were also "states rights" supporters. It didn't work. Which one is a functional modern state? Uh, gee, golly, I don't know. The one that remains like, like, uh, medieval? No, not so much. The modern centralized nation state. You need to collect taxes to a central location in order to have the capacity to create a centralized army, otherwise you might get invaded by some other aristocratic guy who can unify his countries resources for war more effectively. This is realpolitik. Get it. This ain't brain surgery. France romps over the HRE because French monarchs have big armies, while HRE has 360 little armies.
H. Advances in military technology (i.e., the military revolution) led to new forms of warfare, including greater reliance on infantry, firearms, mobile cannon, and more elaborate fortifications, all financed by heavier taxation and requiring a larger bureaucracy. Technology, tactics, and strategies tipped the balance of power toward states able to marshal sufficient resources for the new military environment. What states were most successful in the period between the Renaissance and the Treaty of Westphalia in "marshaling sufficient resources for the new military environment"? The Great Power States by 1650 included some smaller states including Sweden and The Netherlands. Explain how Gustavus Adolphus can be used as an example of the advances in technology, tactics and strategies?
Sweden was the main power in the Baltic region. Gustavus Adolphus used a professional standing army to grow Sweden's power. At this time, smaller nations could compete militarily against more populated nations because of the limitations of logistics at the time. It was impossible to support an army larger than 40,000 in a battle at one time. Cannons were expensive. Cannons required taxes. Cannons required mining. Cannons required logistics. Adolphus was able to use his trained military to better Sweden's position in the Baltic. Russia would eventually emerge to defeat Sweden by 1725, but, for a time, Sweden was a major power player in the military affairs of northern Europe.
X. Teachers have flexibility to use examples of states allowing religious pluralism such as the following: Poland The Netherlands
The Dutch were more tolerant than most during an era of religious intolerance. This is rather self-explanatory. Whereas the Spanish under the Hapsburgs persecuted religious minorities, the Dutch were relatively tolerant of religious minorities that were believers.
S. Religious conflicts became a basis for challenging the monarchs' control of religious institutions. Teachers have flexibility to use examples of religious conflicts caused by groups challenging the monarch's control of religious institutions such as the following: Huguenots Puritans
The French nobility in certain areas converted to Calvinism (French Calvinist are called Huguenots) as a challenge to the centralizing tendencies of the New Monarchy in France. This was a protest at the potential for loss of traditional local control over politics during the 16th and 17th century in France. After 1598, Henri IV helped set France of the path toward absolutism with a decline in the power of the aristocracy. The Puritans came to challenge monarchial authority during the English Civil War of the 1640's. The Puritans would impose certain limitations on English life: tried to end the pubs (failed!!!), end to gambling, public festivals, public drinking, games, etc. Charles I did lose his head.
M. The Protestant and Catholic Reformations fundamentally changed theology, religious institutions, and culture.
Theology changed: individual interpretation of the Bible by Protestants; Bible as source of all Truth according to Protestants; Protestantism is the "ministry of all believers". Religious Institutions changed: religious pluralism; state churches dominated by the secular authority (Anglican Church, Lutheran Church, Russian Orthodox Church, even the Gallican Church in France) Culture changed: secularism grows, science grows, Church authority declines, traditional sources of authority declines, individualism grows, literacy grows, capitalism and work ethic encouraged by Calvinists.
C. The Peace of Westphalia (1648), which marked the effective end of the medieval ideal of universal Christendom, accelerated the decline of the Holy Roman Empire by granting princes, bishops, and other local leaders control over religion. How did "cuius regio, eius religio" in the Peace of Westphalia of 1648 impact efforts to bring centralized government to the German speaking areas of Europe?
Treaty of Westphalia in 1648 led to 158 years of political dysfunction in the Holy Roman Empire. Westphalian sovereignty—the principle of the playground to prevent war—"jus ad bellum" states are sovereign; confederation in Holy Roman Empire The ruler of the region, his religion. The Holy Roman Empire would be abolished by Napoleon, but not until 1806. In January of 1871, Prussia would conquer the rest of Germany and create the German unified state. From 1648, the Holy Roman Empire limped along for another 158 years. Ineffective and stuck in the medieval feudalism dominated by landed aristocratic interests and princes at court. The German speaking peoples of Europe are not united until 1864-1871. Neither is Italy until 1859-70.