AP European History Terms (Regis Edition)

Dante Alighieri

(1265-1321) Considered the first writer of the Italian Renaissance. Best known for his "Divine Comedy," where he journeys through hell, purgatory, and heaven.

Giotto

(1276-1337) Florentine Painter who led the way in the use of realism. Used chiaroscuro.

Francesco Petrarch

(1304-74) Invented the Italian sonnet. Founder of literary humanism, which tried to imitate classical writing styles.

Giovanni Boccacio

(1313-1375) After Petrarch, another pioneer of humanist studies; Florentine author of the witty "Decameron"

Hundred Years War

(1337-1453) The series of wars between England and France in which England lost all its possessions in France except Calais. Weakened the monarchies of both France and England.

Filippo Brunelleschi

(1377-1446) Italian architect celebrated for his work during the Florentine Renaissance. His greatest achievement is the octagonal ribbed dome of the Florence cathedral.

Prince Henry the Navigator

(1394-1460) Son of Portugal's King John I. Developed an interest in Africa and wanted to do missionary work there. Fostered development in Navigation. Portugal benefitted from the slave trade and gold strikes in Africa.

John Cabot

(1450-1498) Explored NE coast of N America for King Henry VII of England.

Bartholemew Diaz

(1450-1500) Portuguese explorer who in 1488 was the first European to get round the Cape of Good Hope (thus establishing a sea route from the Atlantic to Asia)

Hieronymus Bosch

(1450-1516) Flemish painter of the Northern Renaissance. Drew fantasy worlds that were often nightmarish. Famous work: Garden of Earthly Delight.

Christopher Columbus

(1451-1506) You know the rest.

Amerigo Vespucci

(1454-1512) Had a swag name.

John Fisher

(1459-1535) Bishop of Rochester who refused to swear loyalty to the Act of Supremacy along with Thomas More. Both were executed.

Pedro Cabral

(1467-1520) This explorer first saw the mainland of Brazil and claimed it for Portugal while sailing to set up trading posts in India.

Vasco Da Gama

(1469-1524) Portuguese explorer who sailed around Africa (Cape of Good Hope) into Inda forming a new trade route to Asia. Portugal would form many trading cities in India and Asia.

Nicolaus Copernicus

(1473-1543) A Polish astronomer espoused his belief that the Ptolemaic, geocentric system was inaccurate in his "On the Revolution of the Heavenly Bodies". Proposed the theory that the sun, not the earth, was the center of the universe.

Ferdinand Magellan

(1480-21) Sailed around the globe.

Raphael

(1483-1520) Italian Renaissance painter; he painted frescos, his most famous being The School of Athens.

Martin Luther

(1483-1546) 95 Thesis, posted in 1517, led to religious reform in Germany, denied papal power and absolutist rule. Claimed there were only 2 sacraments: baptism and communion.

Ulrich Zwingli

(1484-1531) Swiss leader of reformation and reform in general, influenced by Christian humanism. He looked to the state to supervise the church. Banned music and relics from services. Killed in a civil war.

Thomas Münzer

(1489-1525) Taught Anabaptist beliefs. Believed in overthrowing the existing political and social order. Executed in 1525.

Thomas Cramer

(1489-1556) An archbishop of Canterbury that agreed to annul Henry's first marriage in 1533.

Cartier

(1491-1557) French explorer who explored the St. Lawrence river and laid claim to the region for France

Menno Simons

(1492-1559) Münzer and JofL were the extremes of Anabaptism. He was a more moderate leader. His ideas led to the Mennonite movement, which would eventually became Amish.

Lines of Demarcation

(1493) Pope Alexander VI- a line of longitude dividing Spanish and Portugese lands. Proclamation was to solve disputes. Spain was West, Portugal was East of line. Portugal protested the small cut and gained more land in the Treaty of Tordesillas (1494)

Hans Holbein the Younger

(1497-1543) German Painter noted for his portraits and religious paintings in Gothic tradition.

Duke of Alva

(1508-1582) Sent to Netherlands by Phillip II of Spain to quell the rebellions and stop the spread of Calvinism. Ruled by terror.

Andreas Vesalius

(1514-1564) Flemish surgeon who is considered the father of modern anatomy. Wrote "The Structure of the Human Body" (1543)

Pope Clement VII

(1523-1534) A Medici pope who refused to grant Henry VIII an annulment of his marriage to Catherine of Aragon; his indecisiveness in choosing alliances led to the Sack of Rome by Charles V and marked the end of the High Renaissance in Italy.

Peter Brueghel

(1525-69) Flemish painter, Northern Renaissance. His subjects were everyday lives and landscapes. Famous work: Peasant Wedding.

Diet of Augsburg

(1530) Called by Charles V. This meeting of Protestant and Catholic reps assembled to impose a settlement of the religious divisions. Charles V wanted all Lutherans to revert to Catholicism. As a result, the Lutherans formed the Schmalkaldic League. Religious warfare ensued.

Pilgrimage of Grace

(1536) A revolt in northern England against Henry VIII's break with Rome. Easily suppressed by Henry VIII.

Creation of the Jesuits

(1540) The Society of Jesus was founded by St. Ignatius Loyola, who wrote the Spiritual Exercises. They dedicated themselves to combatting Protestantism.

William Gilbert

(1540-1603) English court physician noted for his studies of terrestrial magnetism. Father of modern electricity.

Mary Queen of Scots

(1542-1587) Catholic relative to Protestant Queen Elizabeth I of England. She allegedly plotted with Spain's Philip II to overthrow Elizabeth and reassert Catholicism in England. Elizabeth had her beheaded for her involvement in assassination attempts of Elizabeth. Her last one was with Antony Babington (1561-86).

The Council of Trent

(1545-47, 51-52, 62-63) An assembly of high church officials summoned by the Catholic Church to clarify doctrine and address reform in response to the challenges raised by the Protestant Reformation. Basically reaffirmed all Catholic beliefs. Ended absenteeism and simony. Reaffirmed indulgences but not for money. Allowed the vernacular. Increased papal authority.

Tycho Brahe

(1546-1601), Danish Astronamer who produced large amounts of astromatical data but did not subscribe to Copernicus. Other astronomers interpreted his data as confirming Copernicus' theory

Miguel de Cervantes

(1547-1616) Spanish equivalent of Shakespeare best remembered for 'Don Quixote' which satirizes chivalry and influenced the development of the novel form.

John Napier

(1550-1617) Developed a simplified table of logarithms

Edmund Spenser

(1552-1599) Author of Faerie Queen, a romantic epic. Man of the Elizabethan era.

Henry of Navarre

(1553-1610) A Bourbon who emerged as the Huguenots' leader. Became King Henry IV of France.

Act of Uniformity

(1559) England adopted a modified Book of Common Prayer. Under Elizabeth I.

Duke of Sully

(1560-1641) Chief minister to Henry IV. Reforms enhanced power of monarchy at the expense of the nobility. mercantilism. reduced royal debt. reformed tax system. Oversaw improved transportation.

Francis Bacon

(1561-1626) English politician, writer. Formalized the empirical method. Novum Organum. Inductive reasoning.

Wars of Religion

(1562-1598) Wars in which England, France, the Netherlands, and the Holy Roman Empire fought mainly about religion, but social, economical, and political questions were also involved.

Lope de Vega

(1562-1635) Prolific Spanish playwright. Best known for his dramas.

39 Articles

(1563) Parliament outlined the doctrine of the Church of England. Mostly Protestant, but used vague wording purposefully to attract Catholics. This angered some Catholics who thought it was too Protestant and some Puritans for the opposite reason.

Christopher Marlowe

(1564-1593) English poet and playwright who introduced blank verse as a form of dramatic expression. Elizabethan era.

William Shakespeare

(1564-1616) English poet and dramatist considered one of the greatest English writers. You know his works. Big on love. First Folio (1623) was the first collection of works. Elizabethan era.

Galileo Galilei

(1564-1642) Italian astronomer, mathematician, and physicist. His telescopes proved the sun is the center of the solar system and that the planets/moon move. Published those ideas in his Dialogue on Two Chief Systems of the World (1632), which was placed on the Index for openly confronting the Church. He was persecuted for supporting Copernicus' ideas.

Claudio Monteverdi

(1567-1643) Italian composer. Composed the opera Orfeo (1607) for duke of Mantua. One of the first main operatic composers.

The Duke of Norfolk

(1569) Led an unsuccessful Catholic revolt against Queen Elizabeth for her, in his eyes, too Protestant 39 Articles.

Battle of Lepanto

(1571) With support for Pope Pius V, Philip II formed an combined Spanish, Genovese, and Venetian against the Turks. Don Juan of Austria led the forces. Weakened Turk Mediterranean influence.

Johannes Kepler

(1571-1630) Assistant to Brahe; used Brahe's data to prove that the earth moved in an elliptical, not circular, orbit; Wrote 3 laws of planetary motion based on mechanical relationships and accurately predicted movements of planets in a sun-centered universe; Demolished old systems of Aristotle and Ptolemy

Ben Jonson

(1572-1637) Last Elizabethan poet. Volpone was most famous play.

Marie de Médicis

(1573-1642) Regent for Louis XIII until he was old enough to assume the throne. Dismissed Duke of Sully, which allowed the nobility to have a resurgence of power.

William Laud

(1573-1645) Archbishop of Canterbury who denied Puritan rights and tried to impose a form of the Book of Common Prayer on the Scots. Executed during the English revolution.

Peter Paul Rubens

(1577-1640) Prolific Flemish Baroque painter Known for his religious paintings, landscapes, paintings of animals, and genre paintings. "Raising of the Cross" and "Descent From the Cross"

William Harvey

(1578-1657) In his "On the Movement of the Heart and Blood in Animals" (1628), set the foundations of modern medicine

Albrecht von Wallenstein

(1583-1634) Catholic Bohemian nobleman who raised a large mercenary army of 50,000 to fight for the Holy Roman Empire during the Thirty Years' War. Brilliant general, won many battles.

War of the Three Henrys

(1585-1589) Conflict between King Henry III, Henry of Navarre, and Henry the Duke of Guise (1550-88). Henry of Navarre now emerges as King Henry VI (r. 1589-1610).

Cardinal Richelieu

(1585-1642) Man who influenced the rule of King Louis XIII. Asserted control over the nobility, removed the rights of the Huguenots, and increased French European influence. France became the most powerful country in Europe.

Nicolas Poussin

(1594-1665) French painter. Founder and greatest practitioner of 17th century French classicism. Poussin's work embodies the virtues of clarity, logic, and order.

René Descartes

(1596-1650) French philosopher; wrote Discourse on Method; 1st principle "i think therefore i am"; believed mind and matter were completly seperate; known as father of modern rationalism. Espoused deductive reasoning.

Edict of Nantes

(1598) Decree issued from King Henry IV to restore internal peace in France, which had been torn by the Wars of Religion; the edict defined the rights of the French Protestants / Huguenots

Giovanni Bernini

(1598-1680) Greatest Baroque architect, sculptor too. In 1629 became the architect of St. Peter's Basilica in Rome. Also made "The Ecstasy of St. Theresa"

Anthony Van Dyck

(1599-1641) Flemish successor and student to Rubens. Painted English royalty (James I and Charles I). Also did religious paintings.

Diego Velázquez

(1599-1660) Court Painter of King Philip IV of Spain. Known for paintings of the royal family.

The Gunpowder Plot

(1605) Guy Fawkes and other Catholics tried to kill King James I for imposing restrictions by blowing up the Parliament. Plot failed and they were executed. Increased anti-Catholic sentiment in England.

Rembrandt van Rijn

(1606-1669) Great Dutch artist of the 1600's. He painted portraits of middle class citizens, using sharp contrast of light and dark to draw attention to his focus. Did "The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Tulp" (1632) and "The Nightwatch" (1642).

Pierre Corneille

(1606-1684) French classical author. Wrote tragic dramas on the model of ancient greek tragedy. Wrote Le Cid (1637).

General George Monk

(1608-1670) General of the army of the Protectorate of England. Realized the failure of the republic and moved to restore the monarchy.

John Milton

(1608-74) English poet. Most Famous work is Paradise Lost, which tells the story of the fall of Adam and Eve.

King James Bible

(1611) New standard of English Bibles commissioned by King James

Bartolomé Esteban Murillo

(1617-1682) Spanish painter of portraits and religious subjects. Painted the history of the Franciscans.

Jean-Baptiste Colbert

(1619-1683) Economic advisor to Louis XIV; he supported mercantilism and tried to make France economically self-sufficient. Brought prosperity to France.

The Great Protestation

(1621) Document telling King James I he can't be an absolute monarch; he must ask parliament for taxes and consult them for foreign affairs. Parliament was asserting its power.

Molière

(1622-73) Wrote comedy and satire. Less strictly confined to the rules of Classicism. Delighted in showing society's hypocrisies and follies. Plays include Le Tartuffe (1644), Le Misanthrope (1666), Le Bourgeois Gentilhomme (1670), and Les Femmes Savantes (1672)

Madame de Sévigné

(1626-96) Wrote more than 1,500 letters describing Paris society and her life in the Brittany countryside

Robert Boyle

(1627-1691) Anglo-Irish chemist. Made Boyle's Law (P and V). Made distinction between element and compound

Bishop Jacques Bossuet

(1627-1704) Set forth the idea of Divine Right in his treatise "Politics Drawn From Holy Scripture."

Petition of Right

(1628) Document prepared by Parliament during King Charles I of Eng; challenged the idea of the divine right of kings and declared that the monarch was subject to the laws of the land

John Dryden

(1631-1700) English poet, dramatist, and critic. Plays include the comedy "Marriage à la Mode" (1672) and "All for Love" (1677), retelling Shakespeare's "Antony and Cleopatra"

Jean-Baptiste Lully

(1632-1687) Italian-born Frenchman. Had a monopoly of operatic production in France.

John Locke

(1632-1704) English philosopher who defended the Glorious Revolution of 1688. "Essay Concerning Human Understanding" - Argued that all humans were blank slates when born and with no innate ideas. "Second Treatise of Government" - Government power is derived from the governed, Social Contract Theory. Natural rights: "Life, Liberty, and property."

Solemn League and Covenant

(1638) Pledge of Scots to defend their religion against the actions of William Laud. Caused a revolt in Scotland

Jean Racine

(1639-1699) French author. Focused on the problem of passion, esp. in women. Tragedies include: Andromaque (1667), Iphigenie en Aulide (1674), and Phèdre (1677).

The Long Parliament

(1640 - 1653) Parliament fought back against the reign of Charles I. They fired, arrested and executed William Laud and Earl of Strafford. They declared that Parliament wouldn't be dissolved without its consent and must meet every 3 years. They also called for the ending of bishops.

The Short Parliament

(1640) Called by Charles I, He wouldnt get money until he signed the Petition of Right. Refused to, sent the MPs home.

Sir Isaac Newton

(1642-1727) English mathematician, astronomer, and physicist; invented calculus, discovered laws of light and color, formulated the laws of motion, and calculated the law of gravitation in Principia Mathematica (1687)

English Civil War

(1642-46) War in England between the Parliamentarians (Roundheads) and the Royalists (Cavaliers, supporters of Charles I). Many radicals were Puritans, New Model Army.

Pride's Purge

(1648) Removal of all moderate Presbyterian members of Parliament led by Thomas Pride, reshaping Parliament, created Rump Parliament.

The Fronde

(1648-1653) A french rebellion that was caused by Mazarin's attempt to increase royal revenue and expand state bureaucracy, caused Louis XIV to distrust the state and turn to absolutism

Cardinal André Hercule de Fleury

(1653-1743) Chief minister under Louis XV. Relatively successful in stabilizing French currency and maintaining peace in Europe. Did not face the fundamental problems facing the French monarch. After Fleury's death Louis XV served as his own chief minister.

Mary of Este

(1658-1718) Catholic second wife of James II that birthed a son which led a Whig and Tory coalition to drive James from the throne.

Treaty of the Pyrenees

(1659) Along with the Peace of Westphalia (1648), created the possibility that France could establish over Europe

Daniel Defoe

(1659-1731) , wrote "Robinson Crusoe" (1719). known as the father of the English novel. "Moll Flanders" (1722) is the tale of a London prostitute and thief.

Alessandro Scarlatti

(1660-1725) Italian composer of Opera. Wrote over 100 operas.

Prince Eugene of Savoy

(1663-1736) Most eminent Hapsburg general. Won alongside the Duke of Marlborough at Blenheim in the War of Spanish Succession.

Jonathan Swift

(1667-1745) Irish-born writer. Possibly the most famous English satirist and author of "Gulliver's Travels" and "A Modest Proposal". Showed disdain for fellow human beings.

War of the Devolution

(1667-8) Louis supported the alleged right of his fist wife to inherit the Spanish Netherlands. Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1668) awarded France several towns along the border of the Spanish Netherlands.

Augustan Period

(1670-1790) Classical period of French literature. Identified literature as a worthy cultural pursuit capable of reconciling respect for classical learning with the evolving interests and tastes of the educated middle class. Translated, imitated, and elucidated the most respectable ancient and modern authors in an outpouring of learning and literacy.

Declaration of Indulgence

(1672) By Charles II, granted free worship to non-conformist protestants. Parliament thought it was a back-door catholic move.

The Dutch War

(1672-78) Louis invaded Holland in 1672. William of Orange stopped them by opening the Dikes and flooding northern Holland. Ended in the Peace of Nijmegen. France gained the Franche-Comté.

Jethro Tull

(1674-1741) English innovator of the Agricultural Revolution, better farming methods through empirical research. Using horses instead of oxen, sowing seed w/ drilling equipment instead scattering by hand.

Duke of Saint-Simon

(1675-1755) Lived in the court of King Louis XIV and wrote memoirs over the years of 1694-1723

Robert Walpole

(1676-1745) England's first real prime minister. Served under George I and II. Believed in Statutory Neglect.

Popish Plot

(1678) 35 baseless executions and general hysteria resulting from Parliament acting on false accusation of Titus Oates that Catholic conspirators were trying to kill/replace Charles II with James of York

Antione Watteau

(1684-1721) Flemish painter in Paris, considered French painter. Leading Rococo artist. Painted delicate fantasies in pastel tones.

Revocation of the Edict of Nantes

(1685) Louis XIV revoked toleration of other religions. Religious unity, they believed, was a prerequisite for political unity. Huguenots were forced to leave France.

Johann Sebastian Bach

(1685-1750) Renowned organist and composer; spent entire life in Germany; while music director of Church or Saint Thomas in Leipzig composed Mass in B Minor; got reputation of being one of the greatest composers of all time; perfected baroque style. Made "The Bandenburg Concertos" (1721)

George Frederick Handel

(1685-1759) German composer, profoundly secular, wrote operas and for public audiences, most known for religious music (baroque). Made "The Messiah", an oratorio.

The Glorious Revolution

(1688) In order to prevent a Catholic Dynasty, the English Parliament drove out James II following the birth of his son and replaced him with the Dutch Protestant William of Orange, and his wife and daughter of James II to his first wife, Mary II. This was a relativly bloodless revolution. (excepting the Irish Rebellion in which an Catholic coalition of English-Irish-French troops led by James were butchered).

The War of the League of Augsburg

(1688-1697) Also known as the Nine Years' War. War fought under Louis XIV. Resulted in the loss of vast territory acquired by Louis XIV, secured Holland's borders and curtailed Louis' expansion into Germany.

Alexander Pope

(1688-1744) England's greatest 18th C poet. Translated the Iliad (1720) and the Odyssey (1725-26). His "Rape of the Lock" (1714) poked fun at fashionable society. His "Essay on Criticism" (1711) set forth critical standards and tastes in heroic couplets. "Essay on Man" (1734) summarized 18th C enlightened ideals

The Toleration Act

(1689) Granted freedom of worship to all non-Anglican Protestant groups in England. Catholics did not receive this right, but were allowed to worship privately

Baron de Montesquieu

(1689-1755) French aristocrat who wanted to limit royal absolutism; Wrote The Spirit of Laws, urging that power be separated between executive, legislative, and judicial branches, each balancing out the others, thus preventing despotism and preserving freedom. He thought that there was no best form of gov't, it was a case-by-case basis, but he greatly admired British form of government. Affected American Constitution and the French Constitution of 1791.

Samuel Richardson

(1689-1761) Wrote the two-volume novel "Pamela, or Virtue Rewarded" (1740) and another multi-volumed novel "Clarissa Harlowe" (1747-48). Works are excessively sentimental.

François Quesnay

(1694-1774) French economist. Quesnay was the undisputed leader of the Physiocrats, the first systematic school of economic thought. Among its tenets were the economic and moral righteousness of laissez-faire policies and the notion that land was the ultimate source of all wealth. The only tax of a country should have is income derived from land.

Voltaire

(1694-1778) Prolific French philosophe who wrote essays, letters, stories, plays, and histories. In his Candide (1759) he attacked superstition, religious persecution, war, and supported human dignity. Believed enlightened despot best form of government. Ardent Deist. In his "Letters on the English" (1733) he praised the British constitutional government. Treatise on Tolerance (1763)- Defended Jean Calas, a protestant who had been unfairly blamed and found guilty for the death of his son.

Giovanni Battista Tiepolo

(1696-1770) Famous Rococo artist known for his frescos; masterpiece and world's largest fresco is Allegory of the Planets and Continents. Decorated the Residenz Palace in Würzburg in south Germany

The War of the Spanish Succession

(1701-14) Resulted from Bourbon family's succession to Spanish throne in 1701; ended by Treaty of Utrecht in 1713 and the Treaty of Baden and Rastatt in 1714; resulted in rule of Bourbons in Philip of Anjou but Spain was barred from ever having the same ruler as France, loss of some lands, grants of commercial right to England and France. Prussia was established.

François Boucher

(1703-1770) Rococo painter. Influenced by Watteau. Painted scenes from classical mythology, pastoral scenes, and nudes. Director of French Academy.

John Kay

(1704-1764) Industrial revolution. A Briton who invented the fly shuttle. Made it possible for one person instead of two to operate a loom in textile manufacturing. It increased the output of woven material and therefore also the demand for yarn.

Henry Fielding

(1707-1754) Wrote Tom Jones, a cheerful, bawdy tale of adventure.

Carolus Linnaeus

(1707-1778) Swedish botanist that developed a system of organizing plants and animals by genus and species. Presented taxonomy system in Systema Naturae (1735)

Count of Buffon

(1707-88) Contributed to classification of animal life. Promoted the formation of zoos.

William Pitt the Elder

(1708-78) British statesman and war leader. Devised a system for winning the war against French: supply Prussia with financial aid and using that nation to keep French troops in Europe. Britian would attempt to destroy French sea power, making it easier to defeat the French in North America and India. Idea worked.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

(1712-78) Genevan philosophe who emphasized education and government Believed that the natural goodness of man was warped by society. People could be raised pure, as seen in "Emile" (1762). In "The Social Contract" (1762) advocated the individual as a member of society. Thought that the general will was always right. Ideas influenced the French Revolution (1712-1778)

Denis Diderot

(1713-1784) Philosophe in his own right. Edited the Encyclopedia.

Quadruple Alliance

(1714-33) Alliance between England, France, Netherlands, and Austria to keep peace following the War of Spanish Succession.

Peterhof Palace

(1715) Palace of Peter the Great of Russia, built in the Baroque style. Example of secular building in the Baroque, along with Versailles.

James Hargreaves

(1720-78) Industrial revolution. A Brit who invented the spinning jenny. A worker could spin a number of threads simultaneously.

Table of Ranks

(1722) Policy of Peter the Great to grant social position and prestige on the rank in the bureaucracy or military. Tried to end inherited noble status.

Sir Joshua Reynolds

(1723-1792) English painter. Produced over 2,000 historical paintings and portraits. Became first pres of the Royal Academy in 1768.

Adam Smith

(1723-90) Scottish political economist and philosopher. His Wealth of Nations (1776) laid the foundations of classical free-market economic theory, government should not interfere with economics (as they had been doing in mercantilism). Advocates Laissez Faire and founder of "invisible hand"

Immanuel Kant

(1724-1804) German philosopher, created critical philosophy from the ideas of Hume and Leibniz, ideas don't conform to world, world can only be known as it conforms to mind's structure, said morality requires belief in God, freedom, and immortality, although these can't be proved, wrote "Critique of Pure Reason"

Viscount Townshend

(1725-1767), This man developed crop rotation, and suggested that farmers grow clover in bad climates to nourish the soil and turnips to feed cattle. Man of the Agricultural revolution.

Robert Clive

(1725-1774) British general and statesman whose victory at Plassey in 1757 strengthened British control of India at expense of French. Part of 7 years' war.

Robert Bakewell

(1725-95) Agricultural revolution. Pioneer in the field of selective animal breeding. He bred animals for certain characteristics.

James Hutton

(1726-97) , Scottish geologist who described the processes that have shaped the surface of the earth over many many years

Jacques Turgot

(1727-1781), Louis XVI's controller general of finance. Tried to reform. He wanted to end the corvée. Sought to cut gov't expenditures and to abolish trade guilds, which restricted the growth of the French economy. Efforts to reduce spending were disliked by peasants, which benefitted from it. Dismissal by Louis became a symbol of the inability of the French monarchy to deal w/ its problems.

Thomas Gainsborough

(1727-1788) English painter of both portraits and landscapes. Most famous work is "Blue Boy." Rival of Sir Joshua Reynolds and one of the founders of the Royal Academy.

General James Wolfe

(1727-59) Took Louisburg in 1758 for English and died along with French commander Louis Joseph Montcalm while capturing Quebec (1759). Montreal fell in 1760.

Joseph Black

(1728-1799) Scot, proved air consisted of several gases

Jacques Necker

(1732-1804) Successor of Jacques Turgot as controller general of finance. Reversed the few reforms by Turgot and borrowed money and increased spending. Recalled by Louis XVI when things went south in 1788. Restored in power after the storming of the Bastille.

Jean-Honoré Fragonard

(1732-1806) French Painter. Student of Boucher. Court painter of portraits and landscapes.

Franz Joseph Haydn

(1732-1809) Classical composer who spent most of his life as musical director for wealthy Esterhazy brothers; visits to England introduced him to world of public concerts rather than princely patrons;wrote The Creation and The Seasons. Works include "The Surprise Symphony" (1791) and Clock Symphony (1794).

Joseph Pristley

(1733-1804) Englishman, isolated and identified oxygen

War of the Polish Succession

(1733-35) War fought when France wanted their relative on the Polish Throne (Stanisław I Leszczyński); Spain backed France and Russia + Austria objected; Russians candidate (Augustus III) wins.

Jean Bailly

(1736-1793), President of the Third Estate who administered the Tennis Court Oath; First President of the National Assembly; made Mayor of Paris after the storming of the Bastille; guillotined during the Reign of Terror.

James Watt

(1736-1819) Scottish engineer and inventor whose improvements in the steam engine led to its wide use in industry and replacement of the Newcomen engine

The War of Jenkin's Ear

(1739) Between the British and the Spaniards. Confined to the Carribean Sea and Georgia. Spanish objected to British smuggling in the New World. This small battle became a war, and soon merged with the War of Austrian Succession in Europe, and became known as King George's War in America. Britain was able to capture the French fortress of Louisbourg. France was in support of Spain.

War of Austrian Succession

(1740-1748) Prussia's Frederick II seized Silesia, violating Pragmatic Sanction, and it grew into a huge war. Maria Theresa's husband. Francis of Lorraine, received the title of HRE.

The War of the Austrian Succession

(1740-48) Prussia, France, Spain, Bavaria, and Saxony vs. Austria, GB, Netherlands Prussia's Frederick seized the land of Silesia. GB mostly was involved with colonial war against France.

Antoine Lavoisier

(1743-94) French chemist that demonstrated water consisted of several elements. Identified 23 elements, which he recorded in the "Elementary Treatise of Chemistry" (1789)

Marquis de Condorcet

(1743-94) Philosophe. Wrote "The Progress of the Human Mind" in which he developed a view of human development from a savage state to a future of harmony and international peace.

Alessandro Volta

(1745-1827) Italian Physics professor, invented the storage battery. Volt named after him.

Thaddeus Kosciuszko

(1746-1817) Led a Polish rebellion against the players of the 2nd partition b/c of their subjugation. In response, the 3rd partition happened and Poland ceased to exist.

Francisco Goya

(1746-1828) Spanish painter and printmaker, worked for the Spanish Crown, and was a member of the Romanticist movement. He painted Third of May, 1808 in commemoration of the massacres of the Spanish people during the French occupation of Iberia.

Philippe Egalité

(1747-93) Duke of Orleans. Supported democracy and did not believe in the "republic of virtue" of Robespierre. Executed for not believing in it.

Count Berthollet

(1748-1822) French chemist of the Industrial revolution. Used chlorine to speed up the time it took for clothes to bleach

Jeremy Bentham

(1748-1832) English philosopher. Fathered utilitarianism. He argued that the government should try to promote the greatest good for the greatest number of people but also that, in general, the individual should be free to pursue his or her own advantage without interference from the state, but it should become involved if an imbalance was created. Led to the creation of welfare state.

Comte de Mirabeau

(1749-1791) French revolutionary who was prominent in the early days of the French Revolution. Led the National Assembly against Louis XVI. He was a moderate, favoring a constitutional monarchy built on the model of Great Britain.

Johann Wolfgang von Goethe

(1749-1832) A German Romantic author who wrote near the end of the Aufklärung, the German Enlightenment. Goethe's morose The Sorrows of Young Werther (1774) helped fuel the Sturm und Drang movement, and his two-part Faust (1808, 1832) is seen as one of the landmarks of Western literature. Lived in Weimar.

Prince Karl von Hardenberg

(1750-1822) Representing Prussia and Frederick William III (r. 1797-1840) in the Congress of Vienna. Liked the idea of the Balance of Power to ensure stability.

Richard Brinsley Sheridan

(1751-1816) Manager of the Drury Lane Theatre. Wrote comedies like "The Rivals" (1775) and "The School for Scandal" (1777).

Charles-Maurice de Talleyrand

(1754-1838) French diplomat who attended the Congress of Vienna on behalf of King Louis XVIII and tried to speak up for the defeated country.

Black Hole of Calcutta

(1755) A dungeon (20 feet square) in a fort in Calcutta where as many as 146 English prisoners were held overnight by Siraj-ud-daula, an ally of the French. 26 made it out. Angered English

The Seven Years' War

(1756-1763) This war began with Frederick II's invasion of Saxony in order to defend Prussia. Funded by Britain, Prussia battled against Austria, France, Saxony, and Russia. Russia pulled out when Peter III came to throne (1762) and France was split fighting a colonial war simultaneously. Treaty of Hubertusburg of 1763: the nations returned to their prewar-set borders and Silesia remained under Prussian control.

Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart

(1756-1791) Austrian composer and child prodigy. Lived in the Classical era of music. He composed such works as the Jupiter Symphony and Eine Kleine Nachtmusik. Made the Opera "Marriage of Figaro" (1786).

William Blake

(1757-1827) Romantic English poet and painter/engraver. Wrote "The Lamb", "The Tiger", and "The Mental Traveller" Experience vs. Innocence

Marquis de Lafayette

(1757-1834), A wealthy French nobleman. Hero of the American Revolution and became commander of the newly created National Guard after the storming of the Bastille.

Maximilien Robespierre

(1758-94) Member of the National Convention. Led the Mountain side of the National Convention. Had the Mountains join forces with the sans-culottes, as well as joining the Committee of Public Safety. Helped France's financial situation through the concept of planned economy (setting price limits on certain products). Was a very large part of the radicalization of France, but efforts eventually led to the fall of France and take-over by Napoleon Bonaparte.

Friedrich von Schiller

(1759-1805) German Romantic. Considered the greatest of all German dramatists; wrote poetry, short stories, criticism, and philosophical and historical works; inspired his fellow countrymen to fight for liberty in the early 1800s (favorite theme is freedom); his work is characterized by idealism. Lived in Weimar.

William Wilberforce

(1759-1833) British statesman and reformer; leader of abolitionist movement in English parliament that led to end of English slave trade in 1807 and slavery itself in 1833.

Josephine de Beauharnais

(1763-1814) Napoleon's first wife who could give him more connections in Paris through her powerful position. After failing to give birth to an heir, Napoleon divorced her in favor of the younger Archduchess Marie Louise.

Essay on Crimes and Punishments

(1764) By Cesare Beccaria. Argued that barbarous punishments failed to deter crimes; certainty was a better deterrent than severity. Rehabilitation of the criminal was key.

Earl Grey

(1764-1845) Leader of the Whig Party who was PM from 1830-34. Was one of the primary architects of the Reform Bill of 1832

Thomas Malthus

(1766-1834) English liberal economist who argued that increases in population would outgrow increases in the means of subsistence in his Principle of Population (1798)

Viscount Castlereagh

(1769-1822) British Foreign Secretary. Represented England at Congress of Vienna. Generally agreed with Metternich and was in strong favor of the Balance of Power.

Napoleon Bonaparte

(1769-21) General; Emperor of France; he seized power in a coup d'état in 1799; he led French armies in conquering much of Europe, placing his relatives in positions of power. Defeated at the Battle of Waterloo, he was exiled on the island of Elba

Ludwig van Beethoven

(1770-1827) The first master of romantic music. He was one of the greatest composers in German history. He composed 9 symphonies, 5 piano concerts, a violin concerto, 32 piano sonatas, 2 Masses, and an opera. At the peak of his fame, in constant demand as a composer and recognized as the leading concert pianist his day, Beethoven began to lose his hearing. Among other achievements, he fully exploited for the first time the richness and beauty of the piano.

Lord Liverpool

(1770-1828) English statesman and Prime Minister from 1812-1827. Led a reactionary cabinet and opposed reform.

William Huskisson

(1770-1830) President of the Board of Trade from 1823 to 1827. Moved away from mercantilism and towards free trade.

William Wordsworth

(1770-1850) Wrote "We Are Seven," "The Prelude," and "The World is Too Much With Us;" English Romantic poet; joint publication of 'Lyrical Ballads' with Samuel Taylor Coleridge; motifs: wanders vs wandering, memory, vision/sight, light, leech gatherer; believed that childhood was a "magical" and magnificent time of innocence; devotion to nature; use of everyday speech and country characters

Sir Walter Scott

(1771-1832) British novelist who had a romantic vision of a feudal society. Produced Ivanhoe.

David Ricardo

(1772-1823) Wrote Principles of Political Economy (1817). Set forth the Iron Law of Wage: rise of population means rise of amount of workers, which cause wages to fall below the subsistence level, resulting in misery and starvation and a decrease in pop and workforce which began the cycle anew.

Prince Klemens von Metternich

(1773-59) Austrian minister until 1848, believed in the policies of legitimacy and intervention (the military to crush revolts against legitimacy). Leader of the Congress of Vienna. Extremely conservative. 1815-1848 is known as the Age of Metternich.

American Revolution

(1775-1783) This political revolution began with the Declaration of Independence in 1776 where American colonists sought to balance the power between government and the people and protect the rights of citizens in a democracy. Ended in Lord Cornwallis' capture at the Battle of Yorktown. Treaty of Paris of '83 sealed the deal.

George Stephenson

(1781-1848) Industrial rev. A Brit who built the first successful steam locomotive. By 1829 his Rocket travelled on the world's first railroad line from Manchester to Liverpool at average speed of 16mph. Sparked railroad construction.

Count Sergei S. Uvarov

(1785-1855) Nicholas I's minister of education from 1833 to 49. Supported the program of Official Nationality. Motto: Orthodoxy, Autocracy, and Nationalism. Encouraged conversion to Russian orthodoxy. Stated the unquestionable authority of the Tsar. Began the policy of Russification which forced minorities to adopt Russian culture.

Carl Maria von Weber

(1786-1826) Founder of German Romantic opera, Der Freischütz and Oberon; supernatural subjects with moral overtones

Samuel Cunard

(1787-1865) Industrial revolution. Founder of the Cundard LIne Shipping Compahy; provided the first regular steamboat service across the Atlantic Ocean.

Lord Byron

(1788-1824) An important British Romantic poet. His works include "She walks in Beauty" and the unfinished "Don Juan." Many consider him to embody the spirit of Romanticism. He died from an illness contracted while in Greece, where he was supporting their independence movement.

Robert Peel

(1788-1850) English home secretary from 1822 to 1827. Reduced the number of capital crimes. Reorganized London police.

Civil Constitution of the Clergy

(1789) A body of legislation passed in July 1790 that redefined the relationship between the clergy and the state in France. It allowed for the confiscation of church property formerly used to support the clergy, replacing it with a guarantee of state salaries for clergymen instead. It also stipulated that parish priests and bishops be elected just like public officials. The National Assembly attempted to enforce it by requiring the clergy to take an oath, divided public opinion of the French Revolution (1789-99) and galvanized religious opposition.

Assignats

(1789) Paper currency issued by the Constituent Assembly to pay for the confiscated church property. Declined rapidly in value and only increased the French gov't financial issues.

The Great Fear

(1789) Vast panic that spread quickly through France; citizens, fearing invasion by troops paid by either the king or nobility. In response, the peasants formed militias In an effort to stop the disorder, the National Assembly ended the privileges of the nobility and the corvée + all other vestiges of the manorial system. All french citizens were equal in the eyes of the law (August 4th).

The National Assembly

(1789-1791) A group of Third Estate delegates that broke ties with the Estates General. Drafted a constitution for France at the Tennis Court Oath. Marked the first stage of the revolution.

Declaration of Pillnitz

(1791) Prussia and Austria declared their readiness to intervene to protect the French monarchy. Caused the French to declare war on the duo. Caused the War of the First Coalition.

Legislative Assembly

(1791-1792) Dominated by radicals which were split into the Girondists and the Mountain. Girondists were from the Bordeaux region of France. The Mountain was supported by the Jacobin and Cordelier clubs.

Percy Shelley

(1792-1822) English Romantic poet. Wrote "Prometheus Unbound" which was about Prometheus, the symbol of what is good in life rebelling against Jupiter, who represented tyranny and evil. Wrote "Hymn of Apollo"

The National Convention

(1792-95) Proclaimed France a Republic. Called by the Legislative Assembly when it took the king prisoner. The mountain dominated the convention

The Reign of Terror

(1793-4) When Robespierre ruled France in the Committee of Public Safety and thousands of political figures and ordinary citizens were executed by the guillotine.

John Keats

(1795-1821) English Romantic poet. "On First Looking Into Chapman's Homer," "To Autumn," and "Bright Star, Would I Were Stedfast As Thou Art;"

The Directory

(1795-99) Established after the Reign of Terror / National Convention; a five man group (the Directors) was the executive branch of the country, chosen by the Council of Elders; incompetent and corrupt, relied heavily on army to enforce. Napoleon takes center stage.

Battle of the Pyramids

(1798) Napoleon defeated the Mamelukes in Egypt by using modern weapons; broke up the Franco-Ottoman alliance; the French didn't lose a single soldier; the French took control of Egypt. Battle of the Nile (1798) saw a British victory under Lord Horatio Nelson. French armies and Nap. had to leave egypt.

War of the Second Coalition

(1798-1801) Brought about when Napoleon was trying to break up the alliance between the European powerhouses; GB, Russia, Austria, Portugal, Naples, and Ottoman Empire vs. France. Early defeats weakened the Directory. Russia left the coalition and a campaign in Italy brought another victory over Austria; the Treaty of Luneville took Austria out of the war and the Treaty of Amiens ended the war all together, bringing peace to Europe.

Eugéne Delacroix

(1798-1863) French romantic painter, master of dramatic colorful scenes that stirred the emotions. Greatest romantic painters. Fascinated with remote and exotic subjects. Masterpiece: Liberty Leading the People

Alexander Pushkin

(1799-1837) Preeminent Russian nationalist poet and author who, through the model of his own work, provided a literary heritage for the Russian language, which spilled over into Russian opera: Eugen Onegrin, Boris Godunov.

Honoré de Balzac

(1799-1850) French Romantic novelist. Chiefly remembered for his series of 91 interconnected novels and stories known collectively as The Human Comedy which pictures urban society as amoral and brutal characterized by a Darwinian struggle for power.

Thomas Macauley

(1800-59) Englishman. Recorded Romantic national histories.

"The Genius of Christianity"

(1802) By François René de Chateaubriand, this became known as "bible of romanticism", Chateaubriand argued that essence of religion is "passion"; most important book to express sentiments of disapproval of religious policy of revolution/anticlericalism of enlightenment. Renewed traditional Catholicism.

Alexandre Dumas

(1802-1870) French romantic author. Wrote "The Three Musketeers" and "The Count of Monte Cristo"

Victor Hugo

(1802-1885) French romantic artist. Wrote Notre Dame de Paris and Les Miserables.

Louis Kossuth

(1802-1894) Hungarian statesman who led his people in revolt against the Habsburg Empire during 1848-1849. Demanded national autonomy with full liberties and universal suffrage. Defeated by an Austro-Russian Force.

Hector Berlioz

(1803-1869) Romantic composer, Symphonie Fantastique (1830) , radical composer, program symphony,

Justus von Liebig

(1803-1873) Agricultural revolution. German chemist who developed fertilizer.

Louis Napoleon

(1803-1873) Second Republic of France's President after the revolution of 1848 and became president till 1851. -Established the Second Empire and became Emperor of the French Empire from 1852 to 1871. -He led France into becoming a Democracy, and improved the economy of France

Napoleonic Code

(1804) This was the civil code put out by Napoleon that granted equality of all male citizens before the law and granted absolute security of wealth and private property. Napoleon also secured this by creating the Bank of France which loyally served the interests of both the state and the financial oligarchy The punishment for political crimes increased.

Guiseppe Mazzini

(1805-1872) Established Young Italy; another Italian nationalist, liberal secret society in 1831. The failures of the Carbonari let Young Italy rise to the fore. Desired to end Austrian and Italian tyrant control in Italy and form a democratic republic. Led unsuccessful revolts against the Austrians.

The War of the Third Coalition

(1805-7) One of the Napoleon Wars. Formed when alarmed that Napoleon might be attempting to renew France's empire in North America. (Britain, Austria, Prussia, Russia, Sweden). Britain wiped out the French Navy in the battle at Trafalgar.

John Stuart Mill

(1806-73) English Philosopher, Benthamite, wrote "On Liberty", Essay that talked about problem of how to prortect the rights of individuals and minorities in the emerging age of mass electoral paricipation. Advocated right of workers to organize, equality for women, and universal suffrage

Guiseppe Garibaldi

(1807-1882) Mazzini's best known follower.

Nikolai Gogol

(1809-1852) Russian realist writer, "The Inspector General" play, satirical attack on Russian bureaucracy; novel, "Dead Souls", condemnation of serfdom.

Alfred Lord Tennyson

(1809-1892) Englishman and Victorian poet, but captured much of the Romantic spirit in his writing. Wrote In Idylls of the King. Was fascinated with the stories of King Arthur.

Cyrus McCormick

(1809-84) Agricultural revolution. Invented the reaper. American. Major step in the application of tech to farming.

Frédéric Chopin

(1810-1849) A nineteenth-century Polish romantic composer who spent most of his career in France. He is known for his expressive piano pieces; he composed almost exclusively for that instrument. Polish nationalist.

Alexander Herzen

(1812-1870) Most prominent radical during the reign of Nicholas I. Dreamed of a socialist Russian society. When exiled for 1847-70, published "The Bell," (Kolokol) which called for reforms

Wars of Liberation

(1813-1814) Prussia and Russia make an alliance. Austria joins in and the 3 powers defeat France at Battle of Nations; The Dutch and Spanish revolted against French rule. 1814, paris captured; Napoleon surrenders and is exiled to island of Elba.

Richard Wagner

(1813-1883) German Romantic composer known for his operas, may of which dramatize myths and legends. The four operas known collectively as The Ring of the Nibelung and the single operas Tristan and Isolde are among his best known compositions.

Henry Bessemer

(1813-1898) English inventer of the Industrial Revolution. Invented the Bessemer converter, the first efficient way to create large amounts of steel in 1856 Would be improved in 1866 by William Siemens.

Guiseppe Verdi

(1813-1901) An Italian Romantic Composer who was most famous as an opera writer and whose music inspired italian unification. His famous works include Rigoletto, Il Trovatore, La Troviata, and Aida.

The Congress of Vienna

(1814-1815) representatives of the Great powers joined together to meet and attempt to restore Europe to prevolutionary order. Goals: 1. France should not be punished too severely, because Europe needed a Balance of Power. France couldnt be weakened. 2. Principle of Compensation: if one power gains then everyone should get a cut. 3. Principle of Legitimacy: The dynasties of 1790 should be maintained. 4. Countries that cooperated with Napoleon should be punished (ex. Denmark)

Louis XVIII

(1814-1824) Restored Bourbon throne after the Revolution. Came to throne after Nap. went to Elba. He accepted Napoleon's Civil Code (principle of equality before the law), honored confiscated lands and established a bicameral (two-house) legislature consisting of the Chamber of Peers (chosen by king) and the Chamber of Deputies (chosen by an electorate).

The Quadruple Alliance

(1815) Alliance formed between England, Austria, Prussia, and Russia. They agreed to meet periodically to discuss issues of concern. Laid basis for the Concert of Europe. Also they agreed to occupy France for a bit.

The Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle

(1818) Concert of Europe. France should be free from the occupation early. The idemnity had been paid. The Quadruple Alliance becomes the Quintuple Alliance with the entry of France. France, in essence, is now forgiven for Nap. and once again a player in European affairs.

Karl Marx

(1818-1883) German philosopher, economist, and revolutionary. With the help and support of Friedrich Engels he wrote The Communist Manifesto (1848) and Das Kapital (1867-1894). These works explain historical development in terms of the interaction of contradictory economic forces, form the basis of all communist theory, and have had a profound influence on the social sciences.

The Six Acts

(1819) After Peterloo. Laws passed by parliament in order to dissuade political liberal uprisings.

The Peterloo Massacre

(1819) British troops sought to stop a peaceful meeting at St. Peter's Fields in Manchester. Citizens there were favoring parliamentary reform and repeal of the Corn Laws. Soldiers killed several in the unarmed crowd and hundreds were injured.

Zollverein

(1819) German customs union that lifted tariffs from within the German confederacy. Created a sort of economic union from within the states. Sweden has special trading privileges with union and Austria is not a member because of its refusal to remove protective tariffs.

The Cato Street Conspiracy

(1820) Attempt to murder all the British cabinet ministers and Prime Minister Lord Liverpool in response to reactionary practices.

The Congresses of Troppau and Laibach

(1820-21) Revolutions weakening monarchs in Spain (King Ferdinand VII) and in The Kingdom of the Two Sicilies (King Ferdinand I) caused the meeting of the Concert of Europe. Protocol of Troppau- Russia, Prussia, and Austria assert their right to intervene in revolutions. British objected to this interventionist policy. Congress of Laibach- Gave Austria the green light to intervene in the Sicilies. Did so in 1821.

The Congress of Verona

(1822) Authorized France to invade in Spain. Britain continued to protest intervention and eventually left the Quintuple Alliance. Foreign Secretary George Canning led this opposition to intervention. He would be the cause of the Monroe Doctrine. Did not like intervention. They did not want interference with their profitable trade in Latin America

The Decembrist Revolt

(1825) Immediately after the death of Alexander, 3,000 army officers tried to overthrow the new Tsar Nicholas I's government in December. They hoped to set up a constitutional monarchy with his brother Constantine. Revolt easily suppressed by Nicholas.

Treaty of Adrianople

(1829) Danubian provinces & Serbia gain autonomy from Turks; Russia gains territory on the Danube River & the Caucasus; Turks agree to let Britain, Russia, France determine fate of Greece

Catholic Emancipation

(1829) Right to vote and to hold office granted to Roman Catholics in Britain. Jews were still oppressed. Done to satisfy the Irish.

Organic Statute

(1832) Issued by Tsar Nicholas I in response to a Polish rebellion to effective Russian control over Poland (Poland technically had autonomy). Declared that Poland was part of the Russian Empire.

The Factory Act

(1833) Tory reform. Limited the factory workday for children to eight hours and that of adolescents to twelve hours. Prohibited the factory work under nine y/o; they were to be enrolled in the elementary school that factory owners were required to establish. Big hit on the employment of children.

Municipal Councils Act

(1835) Tory reform. Established system of elected councils in cities and towns.

People's Charter

(1838) Demand of parliamentary reform by the Chartists, it called for: 1) Universal adult male suffrage 2) The secret ballot 3) Abolition of Property requirements for members of Parliament 4) salaries for Parliament members 5) equal electoral districts 6)annual parliaments elections (the only one not *eventually* accomplished)

Repeal of the Corn Laws

(1846) Tory reform. The repeal of the dreaded Corn Laws (tariff on wheats and grains) was a major victory for classical liberalism and the middle class in England. It is a good example of the new power of the middle class in British politics. (Power that was gained in the Great Reform Bill of 1832). Influenced by the Irish Famine.

Abolition of the Robot

(1848) Result of the Rev. of 1848 in Autria. Ended serfdom in Austria to satisfy the revolting peasants.

June Days Revolt

(1848) Revolt of French workers because of the closing of the national workshops by the republicans due to lack of funds

The Crimean War

(1853-1856) This war was rooted in the long-standing desire of Russians to extend its influence over the Ottoman Empire. Russia occupied Moldavia and Walachia after a sultan gave the caretaker rights of a shrine to Catholics. Shortly thereafter, the Ottoman Empire declared war on Russia and GB+France came to Ottoman aid. The siege of Sebastopol was the most important battle of the war. Russia lost it.

Max Weber

(1864-1920) German philosopher and author who founded the field of sociology. He also stressed the importance of the Protestant work ethic in industrial society.

Guglielmo Marconi

(1874-1937) Italian electrical engineer known as the father of radio. Industrial revolution.

The Second Treaty of Paris

(November 1815) France is treated more harshly: Indemnity of 700 million francs Occupation army French borders of 1790 (loses some land)

Treaty of Campo Formio

(Oct. 17, 1797) Between Austria and France, Incorporated Napoleon's ideas. Truce on continent. Austrian recognition of French annexation of Belgium, Lt bank of Rhine and Cisalpine Republic. In return Austria got Venice and Venetia. France got Ionians Islands.

Women's March on Versailles

(October 5-6, 1789) Angry mob of Parisian women stormed through Versailles demanding Louis XVI end the nationwide food shortage and that the royal family return to Paris with them. The royal family moved in Tuileries Palace.

The Holy Alliance

(Sept. 1815) Proposed by Tsar Alexander I of Russia. Suggests that Russia, Austria and Prussia uphold Christian ideals in domestic and international affairs

The Irish Famine

(Winter 1845-46) This was the failure of the potato crop in Ireland. it resulted in the repeal of the Corn Laws. the irish population was cut in half because of this famine.

Frans Hals

(c. 1580-1666) Painted portraits of everyday life that captured the spirit of the Dutch people, seen in "The Laughing Cavalier"

The Theatines

(est. 1523) Aimed to increase education and discipline in clergy

Ursulines

(est. 1535) Aimed to teach girls.

Pope Martin V

(r. 1417-31) Reestablished papal control of Rome and the Papal States. This also done by his successor Eugenius IV.

Philip the Good and Charles the Bold

(r. 1419-67), (r. 1467-77) Dukes of Burgundy, the main opposition to the power of Louis. On Charles' death Louis acquired Burgundy, Picardy, Anjou, Maine, and Provence.

Pope Nicholas V

(r. 1447-55) Established the Vatican Library, which was expanded by Sixtus IV.

Pope Pius II

(r. 1458-64) Devoted himself to preserving the ancient structures of Rome. Humanist scholar before becoming pope under the name Aeneas Silvius.

Pope Leo X

(r. 1513-21) Pope at the beginning of the Reformation. Excommunicated Luther in 1520. Luther burned the letter excommunicating him.

Pope Paul III

(r. 1534-1549) Most important pope in reforming the Church and challenging Protestantism. He sought to improve church disciple through existing doctrine, rather than making new ones. So he was a moderate reformer. He initiated the Council of Trent.

John of Leyden

(r. 1535-36) Led a radical group of Anabaptists to take control of the northwestern German city of Münster to create the reign of "saints" in what he called "new Zion" (all property was held in common. After ruling as a tyrant for a year, Münster was taken over by Catholics and JofL was killed

King Edward VI of England

(r. 1547-1553) Sucessor of King Henry VIII of England. Son of him and Jane Seymour ; during his reign, church officials moved the English (Anglican) Church towards a more Protestant view, he repealed the Six Articles and made his own 42 articles. This ended celibacy of English priests.

Pope Julius III

(r. 1550-1555) Wordly pope who revised some bad practices of the Renaissance papacy. Didn't help the issue with the Reformation. Succeeded Paul III.

Queen Mary

(r. 1553-58) (Bloody Mary). Married to Philip II, attempted to restore England to Roman Catholicism burned hundreds at the stake, including Thomas Cramer who she replaced with Cardinal Reginald Pole (1500-58). Hated by many English people.

Paul IV, Pius IV, and Pius V

(r. 1555-1559) (r. 1559-65) (r. 1566-72) Fought the Reformation via reform of the Catholic church.

King Philip II

(r. 1556-98) Son of HRE Charles V who was also Charles I of Spain. Spain at the time was the world's strongest military and naval power. Owned the Netherlands, Franche Comté, the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, Sardinia, and Balearic Islands. He annexed Portugal in 1580. Sought to use power as tool of Christianity against Islamic and Protestant powers. Owner of the Armada.

Queen Elizabeth I

(r. 1558-1603) One of the most successful monarchs in English History. She supported the arts, increased the treasury, supported the exploration of the New World, built up the military. She reaffirmed the Act of Supremacy (1559), restoring England to protestantism.

King Henry III of France

(r. 1574-89) Created a moderate Catholic faction as an alternative to Huguenots and Guise family. Overshadowed by mother Catherine de' Medici.

King Henry IV of France

(r. 1589-1610) First Bourbon king of France who made peace between the Huguenots and the Catholics.

King James I

(r. 1603-1625) First of the Stuarts. Came to the thrown unfamiliar with traditions (claimed divine right instead of emphasis on Parliament). Conflicted with Parliament and tried to get around it by proclaiming customs taxes and $ for becoming a noble. Parliament Protested. Elizabeth had neglected the qualification of the throne-Parliamentary relationship and the issue of Puritan Calvinists in a state church. These issues came up in a big way during James' reign. Tried to go around Parliament and come of friendly terms with Catholic Spain. Made people angry.

King Louis XIII

(r. 1610-43) Came to power after Henry IV was executed (very young); when he was old enough to rule Cardinal Richelieu becomes most trusted adviser; they wanted to reduce power of Huguenots so they cut off La Rochelle in 1627 to teach a lesson; cuts of power from nobles

Michael Romanov

(r. 1613-54) Elected by the Boyars (Russian nobility) as tsar. Reestablished stability after the Time of Troubles (1584-1613). Boyars haunted the Romanov dynasty and Streltsi (Moscow garrison guards) did too

King Charles

(r. 1625-49) Very inflexible, advisor was Thomas Wentworth/Earl of Strafford. Was forced to sign the Petition of Right to get money from Parliament. Afterwards, did not convene Parliament for 11 years and collected money via Ship Money.

Frederick William, the Great Elector

(r. 1640-1688) Oversaw Prussian militarism and created the most efficient army in Europe in the wake of the 30 years' war. Established Prussia as a European power. Lessened the autonomy of the Junkers (landed nobility). Created the civil service, which the Junkers filled. Was not at odds with the Junkers. Allowed religious toleration to Huguenots and Jews.

King Louis XIV

(r. 1643-1715) French king known as the Sun King. Reigned from 1643 to 1715. Cardinal Mazarin and Mother, Anne of Austria, acted as regent when Louis XIV was young.

Leopold I

(r. 1657-1705), Austrian-Hapsburg HRE who ruled over many territories. Worked to set up a permanent army after the 30 Years War, replace rebellious bohemian nobles. Stood against Louis XIV in the west, and held Hungary from the Ottoman Turks (Treaty of Karlowitz, 1699)

King Charles II of England

(r. 1660-1685) Son of Charles I and reinstated by the Restoration of 1660. Avoided conflicts with Parliament and made no attempt to restore absolutism.

Peter the Great

(r. 1682-1725) Russian tsar at the age of 10. He enthusiastically introduced Western languages and technologies to the Russian elite, moving the capital from Moscow to the new city of St. Petersburg. Put the Russian Orthodox Church under state control (Holy Synod), controlled the boyars (Table of Ranks, 1722) and streltsi. Issued Soul Tax. Did not produce a strong heir and Russia went into a dark period after his death.

King James II

(r. 1685-88) Absolute ruler; antagonized parliament and was openly Catholic. Issued the Declaration of Liberty of Conscience which granted freedom of worship to all religious denominations. Forced from throne when son was born Catholic, which led to the Glorious Revolution

Frederick I

(r. 1688-1713) Lover of the arts. Through his support of the HRE in the War of Spanish Succession, he gained the title of King in Prussia. Passed on the royal title.

William III

(r. 1689-1702) Protestant Dutch stadtholder who became king of England; joint ruled with Mary (r. 1689-1694); under their rule Bill of Rights (1689) made England a constitutional monarchy

Queen Anne

(r. 1702-1714) Daughter of James II who had no heirs, meaning that the Hanoverians (the Georges) got the throne after her. Last of the Stuarts.

Charles VI

(r. 1711-1740) HRE emperor. Leopold I -> Joseph I (r. 1705-11) -> Charles VI. Since he didnt have a male heir he issued the Pragmatic Sanction in 1713, trying to strength the case of his daughter, Maria Theresa. Upon the Death of Charles IV, Frederick the Great took Silesia in the War of Austrian Succession.

Frederick William I

(r. 1713-1740) the son and successor of Frederick I, disliked luxury emphasized austerity. Strengthen Prussia by doubling the size of its army (80k) and making it the most efficient fighting force in Europe. He also created an efficient government bureaucracy and encouraged trade and the development of new industries. He required that all parents send their children to school. Also known as "Sergeant King".

George I

(r. 1714-1727) German Protestant prince, spoke no English. Completely let Parliament have control and started the Cabinet, which was a handful of Parliament advisors. Relied heavily on this ministers to help him rule.

Louis XV

(r. 1715-1774), This great-grandson of Louis XIV. An ineffective ruler who engaged in financially-ruinous wars, including the Seven Years War in which France lost most of its overseas empire. The French nobility also began to reclaim some of the power it had lost under Louis XIV, resisting his efforts to impose taxes upon them

George II

(r. 1727-60) Knew little of the workings of the British government and relied on Walpole and Pitt the Elder.

Maria Theresa

(r. 1740-1780), This was the queen of Austria as a result of the Pragmatic Sanction. She limited the papacy's political influence in Austria, strengthened her central bureaucracy and cautiously reduced the power that nobles had over their serfs. Husband Emperor Francis I was weak and she was the effective ruler.

Frederick the Great

(r. 1740-1786) King of Prussia, known as for his enlightened policies and prudent military leadership. Won Silesia in the War of Austrian Succession, retaining it through the 7 years' war and participating in the First Partition of Poland. Widened the bureaucracy of the government, increased his power. Tolerated Catholics. Made the Bank of Berlin.

George III

(r. 1760-1820) Tried to go against the precedent of George I and II of relying on Parliament to chose ministers. Failed, affirming Cabinet responsibility to Parliament.

Catherine the Great

(r. 1762-1796) German-born Russian tsarina in the 18th century; ruled after assassination of her husband; gave appearance of enlightened rule; accepted Western cultural influence; maintained nobility as service aristocracy by granting them new power over peasantry, recognized their power in the Charter of the Nobility (1785). Obtained a warm water port for Russia.

Joseph II

(r. 1765-1790) Elected HRE on his father's death in 1765 but didnt rule alone until mother's death in 1780. Tried to govern in the spirit of the enlightened despot. Tried to modernize the instruments of government to increase power of the government over the Church.

King Louis XVI

(r. 1774-1792) Married to Marie Antoinette (1755-1793), An absolute, divine right monarch in France prior to and at the beginning of the French Revolution. However, he lacked a backbone. Executed in 1793.

Leopold II

(r. 1790-1792) HRE, succeeded Joseph II undid many of his reforms to please the nobility. The Robot and other feudal obligations remained until 1848. Successor was HRE Francis II (r. 1792-1806) / Francis I of Austria (r. 1806-1835), who continued JII's reactionary policy.

Holy Roman Emperor Francis II

(r. 1792-1806) The last Holy Roman Emperor after Napoleon ordered its dissolution. Became Francis I of Austria (r. 1806-35)

Tsar Alexander I

(r. 1801-1825) Leaned towards reform early in rule. 1808, named Michael Speransky to advise him on administrative reforms. Proposed a constitutional government and abolition of serfdom. Ideas were shut down by Alexander, too liberal. Continued Russian expansion: 1801- conquered NW persia & annexed Georgia 1809- Conquered finland 1812-Bessarabia

Tsar Alexander I of Russia

(r. 1801-25) In general agreement with Metternich and the Congress of Vienna. He did, however, push for Russian annexation of Poland that the other powers did not support.

King Victor Emmanuel I

(r. 1802-1821) Piedmontese king of the House of Savoy. Hostile to anything French because of their occupation during Napoleon. Abolished all French reforms like freedom of religion and the Napoleonic civil and criminal code.

King Charles X

(r. 1824-1830) Louis XVIII's successor and true ulta-Royalist. True reactionary-wanted to re-establish old order in France- and angered the Bourgeois in doing so. Appointed the Prince of Polignac as the Premier. Limited freedom of the people through his Four Ordinances.

Tsar Nicholas I

(r. 1825-1855) The Decembrist Revolt turned him from a conservative into a reactionary; he wanted to avoid rebellions. He enlarged the bureaucracy and strenghthened the police (the secret police became known as the Third Section); and he closely watched the people of Russia. He was not hesitant to use Russian military power to crush revolutions in Russia and abroad. Continued Russian expansion. Did do some very limited reforms: Reorganized state finances and prepared a systematic Russian code of law.

King Louis Philippe

(r. 1830-48) Citizen King/King of the French. Came to power by the July Revolution. Goals: support private property and its owners, promote prosperity, and maintain peace. Adolphe Thiers was the main man in gov't in the 1830's and François Guizot was the same in 1840's. Guizot was popular for his more conservative policies.

Pope Leo XIII

(r. 1878-1903) Wrote Rerum Novarum which criticized Capitalism and Socialism; opened the Vatican Library for historical research; his diplomatic skills helped the Church become less defensive and more willing to dialogue in the modern age.

King Louis XI of France

(r.1461-1483) Chose many advisors from upper middle class, made laws and levied taxes by decrees to reestablish royal authority. Used force to suppress revolts but preferred diplomacy in foreign affairs (got nickname the Universal Spider).

King Henry II

(r.1547-1549) was a weak ruler. His three sons and successors (Francis II, Charles IX, and Henry III) were overshadowed by Henry II's widow Catherine de' Medici. None of them could handle the Huguenots.

Marriage of Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile

1469. A dynastic merge that set up the unification of the Iberian Peninsula. Throughout reign they strengthened their own power at the expense of nobles.

Dutch Independence

1579- Spanish rule restored in 10 southern provinces (modern Belgium). 7 northern provinces form the Union of Utrecht and are led by William of Orange / William the Silent (assassinated in 1584). 1609- Spanish grant a 12-year truce. 1648- Peace of Westphalia of 1684 recognizes the netherlands.

The Peninsular War

1808 In order to get Portugal to accept the Continental System, Napoleon sent an invasion force through Spain. When the Spanish people protested, Napoleon put his brother, Joseph, on the throne. The Spanish people got angry and attacked the armies of Spain (via bands of Spanish peasant fighters known as guerrillas) the British also sent troops to aid the Spanish under Sir Arthur Wellesley (1769-1852). Napoleon lost about 300,000 men and this loss weakened the French Empire.

The Rococo Style

18th C. Style of art closely tied to the French aristocracy before the French revolution. Succeeded Baroque Art in Europe during the 18th century. It was most popular in France, and is generally associated with the reign of King Louis XV (1715-1774). It is a light, elaborate and decorative style of art.

Pietism

18th-century German movement in the Lutheran Church stressing personal piety and devotion. Also manifested in the Moravians (became the Amish)

Confederation of the Rhine

A federation of German states organized under Napoleon in 1806. French satellite state. Fell apart after Napoleon's defeat outside Leipzig in 1813 as member states abandonded the French and joined the German nationalist "war of liberation."

The Great Schism

A legit pope dies in Rome, Roman elected and moved shop, promising to return to Avignon. Another pope was elected in Avignon. Two popes excommunicated each other, europe divided. Council of Pisa resolved where Pope Martin V was elected.

Anabaptists

A member of a radical movement of the 16th-century Reformation popular in the Netherlands, Austria, Hungary, Poland, Russia, and England. Viewed baptism solely as an external witness to a believer's conscious profession of faith, rejected infant baptism, and believed in the separation of church from state, in the shunning of nonbelievers, and in simplicity of life. Played an active role in the Peasants Revolt (1524-1525)

Anarchism

A political theory favoring the abolition of state. Came from the same discontent with capitalism as the Marxists but took it to a different conclusion. Assassinated many heads-of-state (McKinley). Ex: Pierre-Joseph Proudhon (1809-1865) Michael Bakunin (1814-1874)

The Thermidorian Reaction

A reaction against the violence of the Reign of Terror. Robespierre was executed ( named after month of Thermidor); Terror began to decline and National Convention curtailed power of Committee of Public Safety Constitution of Year III created a new gov't with Council of Elders and Council of 500.

Reforms of the National Assembly

Abolished titles of nobility and the local courts (parlemants) that they dominated. New system of courts with elected judges + prosecutors. No torture. Juries employed. Local gov't re-amped. France divided into 83 departments. Laissez-faire: abolished guilds and ended mercantilism restrictions on industry and trade. Tax system restructured.

The Spanish Armada

Accession of Queen Elizabeth ended friendly terms between the Spanish and British. Phillip wanted to return the island to Catholicism and launched his Armada. The "Protestant Wind" wreaked havoc on the Spanish Armada.

Lettre de Cachet

Administrative order that authorized imprisonment or exile without trial. Expanded Louis XIV's power at the expense of the nobility.

The Sforzas

After a brief republic period following the Visconti fall, Francesco Sforza established himself as a despotic duke of Milan. Francesco was the son of a condottiere.

Second French Republic

After the 1848 revolution in France, which caused Louis-Philippe to flee, this government system was put in place by revolutionists and guaranteed universal male suffrage. Louis-Napoleon (later known as Napoleon III), nephew of Napoleon Bonaparte, was overwhelmingly elected president, and France enjoyed a period of stability and prosperity. This government was later overthrown in yet another coup d'etat.

The Enclosure Movement

Agricultural revolution. The process of taking over and fencing off lands formally shared by peasant farmers which resulted in thousands of farmers moving to the cities looking for work.

Hanseatic League

An economic and defensive alliance of the free towns in northern Germany, founded about 1241 and most powerful in the fourteenth century.

St. Bartholemew's Day Massacre

August 24th, 1572 Catharine de' Medici ordered the slaughter of several thousand Huguenots

Fort Duquesne

Became one of the principal French outposts in the northern Ohio Valley. In 7 years' war the fort was captured by British and renamed in honor of William Pitt (Pittsburgh)

Andrea Palladio

Born in 1508, was greatly influenced by Roman style. He affected the 18th C. Georgian style.

Nonjurors

Clergy who refused to swear loyalty to the Civil Constitution of the Clergy. Became bitter opponents to the French Rev.

The Commonwealth and Protectorate of England

Commonwealth: (1649-1653) Power was in the hands of a unicameral house of Parliament. The Council of State conducted the day-to-day affairs of the government. Protectorate: (1653) Cromwell makes a Parliament of 140 members, the Barebone's Parliament. This goes out in late 1653 and Cromwell becomes a dictator.

German National Assembly

Composed of lawyers, professors, doctors, officials, and businessmen, this group came together to draft a constitution for a unified Germany. They were distracted, however, whether to include Austria or not. They offer the crown to Frederick William. He rejects it, which causes the Frankfurt Assembly to disband.

Tuscan Triumvirate

Dante, Petrarch, Boccacio - first 3 major writers of Italian Renaissance & their work helped make the Tuscan dialect standard form of Italian.

Political Clubs

Debating societies of the middle class that met once a week to debate various issues. Read radical newspapers outs loud to illiterate. Include the Jacobins, Cordeliers, and the Feuillants.

Act of Supremacy

Declared the king (Henry VIII) the supreme head of the Church of England in 1534.

Ponce de León and Vasco Balboa

Dude found Florida (1513) , Dude found Pacific Ocean (1513)

Baroque

Elaborate and extensive ornamentation in decorative art and architecture that flourished in Europe in the 17th century. First Baroque church was the Church of the Gesù in Rome. Christopher Wren (1632-1723) also spread the Baroque style to Protestant churches in England.

The Brethren of the Common Life

Encouraged Christians to live simply and make religion a personal experience (Critics of the Church). Founded by Gerard Groote in Holland. Contributed to the development of Christian Humanism.

Treaties of Tilsit

Ended War of the Third Coallition; Prussia lost 1/2 its territory, Russia gains power, Napoleon's brothers recgonized as rulers of Naples, Hollland, & Westphalia Forced Prussia and Russia into the Continental System, Russian Tsar becomes an uneasy ally.

Act of Union of 1707

England and Scotland were joined in a political union known as Great Britain. Scotland would be well-represented in Parliament and would have their own established Church.

The Triple Alliance of 1668

England, Holland, and Sweden tried to prevent the expansion of France into the Netherlands.

Oliver Cromwell

English military, political, and religious figure who led the Parliamentarian victory in the English Civil War (1642-1649) and called for the execution of Charles I. As lord protector of England (1653-1658) he ruled as a virtual dictator and made strict religious rules. After death, his gov't crumbled.

College de France

Established in 1529 by King Francis I and encouraged the study of Hebrew, Greek, and Latin. Sign of humanism in France. In Paris.

Principle of Legitimacy

Established in the Congress of Vienna. Restored the rulers of France, Spain, Sardinia-Piedmont, Tuscany, Modena, and the Papal States. Not applied to the HRE because the new organization of 39 German states was much better than the 300+ before. These countries loosely joined in the new German Confederation.

Act of Settlement of 1701

Excluded Catholics from the succession to the throne and provided that after the death of Anne the crown would go to Sophia, the electress of the German State of Hanover. George I became the first Hanoverian king in 1714.

Verrazano

Explored the first shore of the new world. Came to the NYC area.

Ultra-Royalist

Extreme Conservatism, the Ultra Royalists believed in the traditional Absolute Monarch principal of "One king, one law, and one faith." A good example was Charles X, formerly known as the Duke of Artois.

The Oratorians

Founded by St. Philip Neri (1515-1595) in 1575. AKA the Congregation of the Oratory. Prayed, preached, and administered the sacrements in areas they served.

Charter of 1814

France. Passed by Louis XVIII, it recognized equality before the law, accepted the Napoleanic Code, granted freedom of the press and established The Chamber of Deputies and The Chamber of Peers.

Huguenots

French Calvinists that were a minority in mostly Catholic France. Caused religious and political civil wars in France. (Nobles supported Calvinists to go against king). 1562- War broke out and the Guise family led the Catholics and the Bourbon family led the Huguenots. Fighting was indecisive and an uneasy truce ended fighting in 1570.

Declaration of the Rights of Man

French Revolution document that outlined what the National Assembly considered to be the natural rights of all people and the rights that they possessed as citizens. Approved by the National Assembly on August 27th, 1789.

Jacobin Club

French Revolution political club. At first relatively moderate. Became more radical, demanding the abolition of the monarchy and the formation of a republic. Maximilien Robespierre (1758-1794) was one of the best-known leaders.

Feuillants Club

French Revolution political club. Conservative organization that favored limited monarchy. Silenced after the Jacobins abolish the monarchy.

Cordelier Club

French Revolution political club. Like the Jacobins, were radicals and favored the abolition of the monarchy and the formation of a republic. Leaders: lawyer Georges-Jacques Danton (1759-94), journalist Camille Desmoulins (1760-94), and physician/journalist Jean-Paul Marat (1743-93)

Corvée

French practice during the rule of King Louis XVI. Forced labor that required peasants to work for a month out of the year on roads and other public projects. Vestige of the manorial system.

Philosophes

French word for philosophers. They were critics of the Old Regime who developed new ideas about government, economics, and religion. They campaigned for human rights and reform of society. Mostly French. Focused on REASON.

The Luddites

Frustrated English workers broke into early textile factories and smashed the machinery from 1811-1816. Parliament quickly responded by passing laws making the destruction of machines a capital offense.

Treaty of London (1827)

GB, France, and Russia demand that the Ottomans recognize Greek independence. Turks resisted and were subdued in ar Navarino in that same year.

Treaty of London (1830)

GB, France, and Russia formally recognize the independence of Greece.

The Burschenschaften

Greatest challenge to the Conservative Order within Austria. These were the organized associations of students that dreamed of liberal and nationalistid ideals.

The Kingdom of the Two Sicilies

In 1442 Aragon acquired Naples. The combo of that and its older domain, Sicily, got this name.

The Oxford Movement

In the 19th C. The movement within the church of England to reintroduce many to Roman Catholic practices. Led by John Henry Newman (1801-1890).

Macadam Roads

Industrial revolution. Roads with layered stone to drain water layered with crushed rock on top, Improved roads developed by the Scottish man, John McAdam. Marked a great improvement in transportation.

Clarendon Code

Instituted in 1661 by monarchists and Anglicans-sought to drive all Catholics and non-Anglican Protestants (Nonconformists) out of both political and religious life.

The Roman Inquisition

Instrument of the Counter Reformation. Also called the Congregation of the Holy Office. Used severe methods (spying, torture, etc) to weed out heretics. Also set up the Index (prohibited books).

Christian Socialism

Intellectual movement that protested the unchristian nature of the Industrial Revolution, espceially working conditions, and advocated nonviolent solutions. Frederick Denison Maurice (1805-1872) was a major spokesman for this.

The Power Loom

Invented by Edmund Cartwright (1743-1823) in 1785, a loom operated mechanically. It speeded up the production of textiles. Created a demand for cotton that was answered by Eli Whitney's Cotton Gin.

The Mule

Invented by Samuel Crompton in 1779. Combined the Water Frame and the Spinning Jenny to use multiple thick threads at a time.

Thomas Newcomen

Invented the a steam engine in 1705 that replaced Thomas Savery's from 1698. Burned coal to produce steam, which was then used to operate a pump. By earl 1770s, many of the engines were operating successfully, though inefficiently, in English and Scottish mines to pump out water.

Richard Arkwright

Invented the water frame, a machine that produced stronger thread than Hargreaves' Spinning Jenny.

The Industrial Revolution

It began in England from the late 1700's to the middle 1800's when new power driven machines replaced hand tools. New methods and machines changed factory work and travel. Coal was used instead of wood. Steam engines powered boats and railroads.

Florence

Italy's leading cultural center during the Renaissance; important in textiles and banking. Dominated by the Medici's. Republic led by oligarchy.

The Grimm Brothers

Jakob and Wilhelm Grimm. Romantics. Known for their collection of fairy tales; Their German tales helped the growing German nationalism.

Methodists

John Wesley organized a Holy Club for similarly minded students who were known as "Methodists." He was inspired by the Pietism revival in Germany. The converts formed Methodist cells and eventually resulted in a new denomination.

The Hundred Days

Known as the period between Napoleon Bonaparte's return to Paris (20 March 1815) from his exile on Elba, and the Battle of Waterloo and Nap's finaI exile (8 July 1815).

Venice

Known for government: The Great Council elected the doge for a lifetime term but the Council of Ten ran the show. Essentially an oligarchy. Controlled trade from the east.

King George's War

Land squabble between France and Britain. France tried to retake Nova Scotia (which it had lost to Britain in Queen Anne's War). The war ended with a treaty restoring the status quo, so that Britain kept Nova Scotia). Ended with the Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748). Prussia kept Silesia, all other land gains were returned.

Magyars

Largest threat to Metternich's stranglehold over Austrian Empire. Located in what is now Hungary. Some like the journalist Louis Kossuth rallied for an independent Hungary.

Quakers

Led by George Fox, Officially known as the Society of Friends. Broke from Church of England, preache a doctrine of pacificism, inner divinity, and social equity. Most famous Quaker is William Penn (founder of Pennsylvania)

Reform Bill of 1832

Legislation passed in Great Britain that reorganized the boroughs of the MP's. Extended the vote to most members of the middle class; Definite shift towards the power in the hands of the middle class. Tory reform.

Statuto of 1848

Liberal constitution granted to the Piedmontese by King Charles Albert in the Revs. of 1848.

Test Act of 1673

Made by Parliament in response to Charles II's Declaration of Indulgence. Required all officeholders to follow the Anglican church. (Duke of York, the future James II was exempt)

Constitution of 1799

Makes 3 consuls, 1 has all power and other 2 are advisors, everyone votes yes or no, Napolean issued this as the new constituion and it established his ruling as one man. Established the Consulate. Nap made consul for life in 1802 by a plebiscite.

The First Treaty of Paris

May 30, 1814-France surrendered all territory gained since the Wars of the Revolution had begun in 1792; Great powers imposed no indemnity or reparations (after Louis XVIII had refused to pay).

Karl Sand

Member of the Burschenschaften who assassinated August von Kotzebue, a reactionary journalist in March 1819. Metternich realized the danger of the Burschenschaften and responded with the Carlsbad Decrees.

Carlsbad Decrees

Metternichs response to the Burschenschaften demonstrations. Outlawed associations like the Burschenschaften and limited academic freedom.

Carbonari

Most active liberal group that influenced many Italian radicals. A secret society calling for a unified Italy and republicanism after 1815. Led unsuccessful revolts in 1820-21 and 1831.

Nobility of the Robe

New nobles who purchased their titles from Louis XIV and in turn became high officials in the government and remained loyal to the king. Undermined the prestige of the "nobility of the sword"

Milan

Northern Italy, center of [relatively local] trade, agriculture, and the production of silk and armor.

The Battle of Waterloo

On June 15, 1815 Napoleon was defeated by a joint British, Russian, Prussian, and Austrian force under the Duke of Wellington and Field Marshal Gebhard von Blücher and forced to go into exile on St. Helena where he died in 1821.

Lazare Carnot

One of the men in charge of military of Committee of Public Safety. Ordered the "levée en masse" (conscription).

The Discalced Carmelites

Organized by St. Theresa of Avila (1515-1582) in 1562. Cloistered nuns that lived in strict observance of Carmelite rule.

Versailles

Palace constructed by Louis XIV outside of Paris to glorify his rule and subdue the nobility.

Estates-General of 1789

Parliament of three French estates called by French King Louis XVI which hadn't been called in over 150 years. Intensified by the bad harvests of 1788. 300 First Estate, 300 Second Estate, 600 Third Estate. They came bearing cahiers, a list of grievances drawn up by delegates going to the meeting of the estates general. 3rd Estate demanded that the privileges of the nobility end, as well as the corvée and the gabelle, mercantilist policies, corruption of the courts, and the formation of a constitutional monarchy. Louis XVI ordered the EG to vote by estate, the third estate would be outvoted. The Third Estate breaks away and establishes the National Assembly of France as itself.

Asiento

Permission granted from Spain to Britain to send enslaved Africans to Spain's american colonies after war of Spanish Succession. Played a role in causing the War of Jenkin's Ear. Renewed in the Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle.

Utopian Socialists

Persons who believe that people can live at peace with each other if they live in small cooperative settlements, owning all of the means of production in common and sharing the products. Early Socialists. Examples: Robert Owen (1771-1858) The Count of Saint-Simon (1760-1825) Charles Fourier Louis Blanc Auguste Blanqui

Sans-culottes

Petty laborers and laboring poor. Wore pants, not the knee breeches of the aristocracy. Became a major political group in revolutionary France.

The Partitions of Poland

Poland was ruled inadequately.3 partitions of Poland which took place in the late 18th century. It resulted in the elimination of a sovereign Poland for 123 years. The first was in 1772 by the Russian Empire, the second was in 1793 with the Russian and Prussian troops, and the third was in 1795 with the Austrian's involved as well.

Catherine of Braganza

Portugese Catholic wife of Charles II that raised popular suspicion of Catholicism along with Charles II's Catholic brother (the Duke of York).

February Revolution of 1848

Precipitated by a bad harvest in 1846 and an industrial depression starting in 1847. Resulted in the overthrow of Louis Philippe and the proclamation of the Second Republic

Constitution of 1791

Product of the National Assembly. Accepted by Louis XVI on Sept. 14, 1791. Separation of powers between the Executive, Judicial, and Legislative branches made. Limited monarchy. Legislative Assembly was the Legis. branch and limited the king. Unicameral.

The Capuchins

Recognized by Pope Clement VII in 1528, this group sought to return to the original ideals of st. Francis (break from Franciscans) and became popular. Became active missionaries and combatted Protestantism along with the Jesuits.

Reformation

Religious movement of the 16th century that began as an attempt to reform the Roman Catholic Church and resulted in the creation of Protestant churches. Started by Martin Luther.

Humanism

Renaissance intellectual movement in which thinkers studied classical texts and focused on human potential and achievements.

The Hohenzollern Family

Ruled Prussia and were a great power in northern Germany.

Invasion of Russia

Russia doesn't follow Continental System, France goes to Russia, Russians used scorched-earth policy to disable French Army from re-supplying itself. Disastrous for Napoleon.

Scientific Societies

Scientific Societies were a means to organize and spread the acquisition of scientific knowledge. Academy of Experiments, Florence, 1657 Royal Society for Improving Natural Knowledge, England, 1662 French Academy of Science, 1666 Berlin Academy, 1701

Reforms by the National Convention

Slavery abolished. Primogeniture abolished. Metric system established Ended imprisonment for debt Estates of emigré nobility confiscated French Calendar.

Revisionism

Socialist thought that disagreed with Marx's formulation; believed that social and economic progress could be achieved through existing political institutions. Ex: Eduard Bernstein

The Continental System

Started in the Berlin Decree of 1806 and the Milan Decree of 1807. Napoleon cut off all trade with Great Britain to try and make Europe more self-sufficient, an economic blockade of Britain. The Foreign Policy of Napoleon, essentially an effort to thwart English advancement by nationally prohibiting British trade with France. Many countries raised objection to it. Caused many wars, including the Invasion of Russia.

Grand Remonstrance

Summarization of the Long Parliament's political and religious grievances against the king. Outraged Charles I and led to English Civil War.

Gabelle

Tax on salt during pre-revolutionary France. Included in the Estate's list of grievances. Vestige of the manorial system.

The February Revolution

The 3 day long revolution prompted by Louis Philippe's lack of electoral reform (he stopped the Banquets). It was led by the urban poor and the working class who desired the right to vote. Louis Phillipe gives up his throne, which leads to the Second French Republic.

Rump Parliament

The Cromwell-controlled Parliament composed mostly of radicals. Proclaimed England a republic and abolished the House of Lords, the monarchy, and the Anglican Church. Ordered Charles I's execution.

The Cortes

The consultive body of Spain, equivalent of Estates General and Parliament. Met less frequently under King Ferdinand of Aragon and Queen Isabella of Castile.

New Model Army

The disciplined fighting force of Protestants led by Oliver Cromwell in the English Civil War. Allied with the Scots in 1643. Defeated the Cavaliers at Marston Moor (1644) and Naseby (1645). Scots captured Charles I in 1646.

The Old Regime

The social and political system in France (during the 1770's) that divided the French people into the three estates. Came under fire during the French Revolution.

Agricultural Revolution

The transformation of farming that resulted in the eighteenth century from the spread of new crops, improvements in cultivation techniques and livestock breeding, and consolidation of small holdings into large farms from which tenants were expelled.

War of the First Coalition

This (1792-1797) was the first major effort of multiple European monarchies to contain Revolutionary France. France declared war on Austria and Prussia. These powers initiated a series of invasions of France by land and sea, with Prussia and Austria attacking from the Austrian Netherlands and the Rhine, and Great Britain supporting revolts in provincial France. The Committee of Public Safety formed and the levée en masse drafted all potential soldiers aged 18 to 25 (August 1793). The new French armies counter-attacked, repelled the invaders, and moved beyond France. Saw the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte.

Concordat of 1801

This is the agreement between Pope Pius VII and Napoleon that healed the religious division in France by giving the French Catholics free practice of their religion and Napoleon political power. Reversed the effects of the Civil Constitution of the Clergy.

Treaty of Paris (1856)

This treaty effectively ended the Crimean War. Russia was required to surrender territory near the mouth of the Black Sea and to not keep a navy in it, and to renounce claims of protection over Christians in the Ottoman Empire. This agreement would be broken by Russia in 1870 during the Franco-Prussian War.

Treaty of Paris (1783)

This treaty ended the Revolutionary War, recognized the independence of the American colonies, and granted the colonies the territory from the southern border of Canada to the northern border of Florida, and from the Atlantic coast to the Mississippi River. British gave Tobago and Senegal to France and Florida and Minorca to Spain.

The Encyclopedia

This work, edited by Denis Diderot and published between 1751-72, contained 71,818 articles, many by the leading philosophes It was a compilation of the learning of the Enlightenment and helped spread these ideas throughout Europe

Hernan Cortés and Francisco Pizarro

Took down the Aztecs (1521). Same to the Incas. (1532)

Jacobites

Tories that remained loyal to James II over the birth of a Catholic son.

Varennes

Town where Louis XVI was captured while trying to flee France and the Constitutional Assembly (1791)

Treaty of Paris (1763)

Treaty between Britain, France, and Spain, which ended the Seven Years War (and the French and Indian War). France lost Canada, the land east of the Mississippi, some Caribbean islands and India to Britain. France also gave New Orleans and the land west of the Mississippi to Spain, to compensate it for ceeding Florida to the British.

Westerners and Slavophiles

Two major schools of reformists during the reign of Nicholas I. Both objected to the arbitrary rule of the Tsar and serfdom. Supported freedom of speech. Westerners thought that Russia should follow the example of Europe in its political, economic, and social developments. Slavophiles agreed that reform should be done but thought that Russia should reform in the context of its own traditions.

Jansenists

Very similar to Calvinists and were persecuted similar to the Huguenots under Louis XIV.

Thirty Years' War

War within the HRE between German Protestants and their allies (Sweden, Denmark, France) and the HRE and ally, Spain; ended in 1648 after great destruction with Treaty of Westphalia. Began with the Defenestration of Prague. Took place in periods: Bohemian Period, Danish Period, the Swedish Period, and the French Period.

The Medici Family

Wealthy family which controlled Florence Italy during the Renaissance. Giovanni di Bicci de' Medeci (1360-1429) established family was was succeeded by Cosimo de' Medici (1416-69) and then, skip a generation, by Lorenzo the Magnificent (1449-92). Lorenzo was a great patron of the arts (Michaelangelo).

Book of Common Prayer

Written by Archbishop Thomas Cranmer in 1549, includes the order for all services of the Church of England. Contained many Protestant beliefs.

Christian Humanism

a movement that developed in northern Europe during the Renaissance combining classical learning (humanism) with the Christian faith. Many advocated for reform of the Church.

Geoffrey Chaucer

(1340-1400) English author, representative of the English Renaissance, who wrote The Canterbury Tales, a literary masterpiece written in the vernacular. Revealed the foibles of the clergy.

Thomas à Kempis

(1380-1471) Follower of the devotio moderna (the teachings of the Brethren of the Common Life). Wrote the Imitation of Christ.

Donatello

(1386-1466) Florentine sculptor famous for his lifelike sculptures. His bronze David is particularly famous. One of the first nudes in European Art since Roman Empire.

Masaccio

(1401-1428) Florentine artist, used light and shade to achieve perspective. Developed linear persepctive. Shown in The Holy Trinity (1425). Influenced other artists of the Ren.

Lorenzo Valla

(1405-1457) Important Ren. scholar. Used methods of linguistic and historical analysis to prove that the Donation of Constantine, a document of 4th century giving pope right to rule over central Italy, was in fact an 8th century forgery. Fathered literary criticism.

Cardinal Francisco Ximénes de Cisneros

(1436-1517) Led Spanish reform by imposing strict rules, eliminating abuses in the diocese. Ultimately regenerated spiritual life of the Catholic Church. Central figure in Spanish humanism.

Sandro Botticelli

(1444-1510) Italian painter of mythological and religious paintings

Donato Bramante

(1444-1514) reconstructed St. Peter's Basilica in Rome for Julius II in the "grand manner" of the High Renaissance.

The Wars of the Roses

(1445-1485) Fight for English throne between the house of York and house of Lancaster. Henry Tutor overcame Richard III in the Battle of Bosworth Field, giving the house of Lancaster the W.

Leonardo da Vinci

(1452-1519) Italian painter, engineer, musician, and scientist. The most versatile genius of the Renaissance, came up with many ideas ahead of his time. As a painter Leonardo is best known for The Last Supper (c. 1495) and Mona Lisa (c. 1503).

Johann Tetzel

(1465-1519) The leading seller of Indulgences. Infuriated Luther.

Desiderius Erasmus

(1466-1536) Dutch humanist and theologian who was the leading Renaissance scholar of northern Europe although he criticized the Church, he opposed violence and condemned Martin Luther and the Reformation. he wrote The Praise of Folly, worked for Frobein and translated the New Testament from Greek to Latin

John Colet

(1467-1519) Made the study of the humanities popular in England. Brought humanism to England.

Niccolò Machiavelli

(1469-1527) Wrote The Prince which contained a secular method (very new idea) of ruling a country. The state existed for its own sake. In effect, the ends justify the means.

Albrecht Dürer

(1471-1528) A leading German painter and engraver of the Northern Renaissance, very expressive. Most famous work: Self-portrait.

Matthais Grünewald

(1475-1530) German painter of Northern Renaissance who ignored classicism and painted expressive and intense religious scenes,

Michelangelo

(1475-1564) Master sculptor and painter, led the way for Renaissance masters from his David sculpture and his painting of the Sistine Chapel ceiling.

Tiziano Vecellio / Titian

(1477-1576) Greatest Renaissance painter in Venice, used vivid color and movement, which was the opposite of the subtle colors and static figures in Florentine paintings. Very prolific painter.

Giorgione

(1478-1510) Pupil of Giovanni Bellini. Panted the "Tempesta" (1505)

Baldassare Castiglione

(1478-1529) An Italian diplomat and writer; in 1528 published the most famous book of the Renaissance, "The Book of the Courtier" which taught gentlemanly etiquette.

Thomas More

(1478-1535) England's greatest humanist, that revealed the complexities of man. He wrote Utopia, a perfect island of harmony that contrasted heavily with England at the time. Became lord chancellor under Henry VIII.

Ludovico il Moro

(1479-08) Greatest Sforza. Patron of the Arts.

Spanish Inquisition

(1480 - 1834) Began by Queen Isabella and Tomás de Torquemada. Targeted faiths other than Catholicism (esp. Jews and Muslims) Used the Church as an extension of royal power. F and I believed that religious unity led to political unity.

Johannes Eck

(1486-1543) Debated Luther in the Leipzeig debate in 1519. Prodded Luther on charges of being a Hussite and a Bohemian, but Luther defended the teachings of Hus. Also got Luther to declare that the papacy and the councils may err. Helped prepare the papal bull Exsurge Domine, which condemned Luther, which he distributed in Germany

Henry VIII

(1491-1547) King of England from 1509 to 1547; his desire to annul his marriage led to a conflict with the pope, England's break with the Roman Catholic Church, and its embrace of Protestantism. Henry established the Church of England in 1532.

Benvenuto Cellini

(1500-71) Goldsmith, writer, & egoist; wrote the "Autobiography" on his sexual exploits

John Calvin

(1509-1564) Swiss theologian (born in France) whose tenets of predestination and the irresistibility of grace and justification by faith defined Presbyterianism

John Knox

(1514-72) Dominated the movement for reform in Scotland. Had been taught in Geneva by Calvin.

Montaigne

(1533-1592) a major French Renaissance writer. Representative of early modern skepticism. Major work: Essays (1580)

Rabelais

(1533-92) He was a major French Renaissance writer, doctor and humanist. He is regarded as an avant-garde writer of fantasy and satire. Major Work: Gargantua and Pantagruel.

Six Articles

(1539) Defined the doctrine of the English Church under Henry VIII - followed Catholic teaching other than papal supremacy & rejected Protestant beliefs

El Greco Real name: Domenicos Theotocopoulis

(1541-1614) Spanish painter remembered for his religious works characterized by elongated human forms and dramatic use of color

King Charles VIII of France

(r. 1483-1498) Acquired Brittany but wasted $ on an invasion of Italy in 1494. King Louis XII (r. 1498-1515) would continue this unsuccessful Italian war.

King Henry VII of England

(r. 1485-1509) The first Tudor king. Eliminated royal claimant to the throne, avoided costly foreign wars, and increased royal power over the nobles.

Pope Julius II

(r. 1503-13) The "Warrior-Pope"; most involved in war and politics; personally led armies against the French and Venetians; instituted reconstruction on St. Peter's Basilica.

King Francis I of France

(r. 1515-47) Centralized monarchy and strengthened the army. He didn't call the Estates General into session and gave himself sway in the papacy in the Concordat of Bologna. Continued the unsuccessful Italian war.

King Charles I / Emperor Charles V

(r. 1516-56) The Hapsburgs and the line of HRE became intertwined, making an extremely powerful monarch. Under him, HRE grew to include Austria, Hungary, Bohemia, Moravia, Silesia, parts of Burgundy (including the Netherlands and the French-Comté), and Picardy. Don't forget the Spanish Empire (Spain+Naples+Sicily+Sardinia). Divided the empire up to Spain and Austrian Hapsburgs in his death.

King Phillip II of Spain

(r. 1556-98) King of Spain and heir of Charles V, started an age of spanish greatness, political and cultural. His goals were to strengthen his control, consolidate lands and save Catholic Christianity (shown in 1588 in his Armada).

The Peace of Augsburg

1555, Ended religous warfare in HRE. Recognized Lutheranism and allowed the princes to choose the religion of his domain. Lutheranism spread all over northern Europe.

Elizabethan Era

1558-1603. A time of optimism and energy in English history. Elizabethan era.

Diet of Worms

Assembly of the estates of the empire, called by Holy Roman Emperor Charles V in 1521. Luther was ordered to recant but he refused. Charles V declared Luther an outlaw.

Thomas Wolsey

Cardinal, highest ranking church official and lord chancellor. Dismissed by Henry VIII because the pope failed to annul his marriage to Catherine of Aragon.

Hapsburg-Valois Wars

Conflict from 1494 to 1559 between the ruling families of France (Valois) and Spain and HRE (Hapsburgs). Fought over Burgundy and Italy.

Decline of Milan

Eventually entered the Spanish Empire in 1535

The Bellini Brothers

Gentile (1429-1507) & Giovanni (1430-1516); illustrious family of Venetian painters.

Decline of Florence

Girolamo Savonarola took control of Florence in 1494 and exercised a strict puritanical rule. He was executed, but Florence's moment had passed.

The Golden Bull of 1356

HRE would be chosen by the seven princes of the empire. Known as electors.

Dissolution of Monasteries

Henry VIII began confiscating the property of the monasteries in 1538 by act of Parliament passed in 1536. By doing this he gained wealth and power over the church.

Peasant's Revolt

In 1524, the peasants demanded an end to serfdom, and led a revolt; Luther was horrified and told the princes to show no mercy (he needed the approval of the princes); the peasants felt betrayed and rejected Lutheran's religious leadership

The van Eycks

Jan (1390-1441) and Hubert van Eyck (1370-1426) were Flemish painter known for the colorful oil paintings of the 15th century. Painted the Adoration of the Lamb. Northern Renaissance.

The Printing Press

Johannes Gutenberg of Mainz made this which allowed for an massive literary proliferation

Lorenzo Ghiberti

Made those bronze doors at the baptistry in Florence, Gates of Paradise ring a bell?

Justification by Faith

Martin Luther's concept that faith alone is enough to bring salvation.

Gian Galeazzo Visconti

Member of the Visconti family (1227-1447, ruling family of Milan). Developed the city as a commercial center.

Elector Frederick the Wise

specific German noble who sheltered Martin Luther in Wartburg Castle when he was declared an outlaw by the Edict of Worms