AP Human Geography: Unit 7.1 & 7.2

assumptions of the model

-terrain was flat (he was looking at the northern european plain in germany) -there are no barriers to transportation to the market -the soils and other environmental conditions are the same everywhere (homogenous physical environment) -that social customs and government policies do not influence the attractiveness of certain products -that everyone is trying to maximize profits. -all land had similar site characteristics and was of uniform quality (although he recognized it could vary in topography) -it is an "isolated state" it is self sufficient and has no external influences -there's one market with no competition

distribution of livestock ranching

-western USA/canada (cattle) -brazil/argentina (cattle) -south africa (sheep/goats) -central asia (sheep/goats) -australia (sheep/cattle)

subsidy

a form of government sponsored financial aid to support an industry, program, etc; designed so that the government can influence crop production and stabilize the price of crops

agriculture policy

a government created policy that makes it more favorable to grow certain crops (subsidies and protective tariffs)

commodity chains

a network of labor and production processes beginning with the extraction or production of raw materials and ending with the delivery of a finished commodity

malnutrition

a prolonged unbalanced diet that does not allow your body to receive proper nutrition; in less developed countries it is common to have a diet based on staple grains and little else; while eating grain is fine, not having other foods available could lead to malnutrition

agribusiness

a trend where large corporations buy and control many different steps in a food processing industry; an encompassing term for business that provides a vast array of goods and services to support the agricultural industry; a set of economic and political relationships that organize food production from the development of the seed to the retailing and consumption of the agricultural product

dogtrot house (middle atlantic)

adapted from the "saddlebags" style; aka "breezeway" house, dog-run, possum-trot; found in poorer rural areas; originated in the southern appalachian mountain region; distinguishable by an open breezeway through the center of the house off of which opens to the rooms allowing cross ventilation

food production and alteration of the landscape

agriculture requires humans to change their physical surroundings; also contributes to the cultural landscape of a region

aquaculture

aka fish or shellfish farming refers to the breeding, rearing, and harvesting of plants and animals in all types of water environments including ponds, rivers, lakes, and the ocean; researchers and aquaculture producers are farming all kinds of freshwater and marine species of fish, shellfish, and plants; produces food fish, sport fish, bait fish, ornamental fish, crustaceans, mollusks, algae, sea vegetables, and fish eggs *typically a nucleated village*

irrigation

allows farmers to grow crops in areas that lack adequate or reliable precipitation; while some forms of irrigation are simple, some irrigation is more complex and expensive

ranch house

although not one of the three major housing types it is important to note as it is an example of maladaptive diffusion; evolved in california in the 1920's; diffused eastward (first through the sunbelt, then to other regions); designed for balmy climates and outdoor living; not suitable for the harsh eastern climates

farm crisis

an event or situation that dramatically decreases farm profits such as frosts, prolonged winters, droughts, floods, too much product on the market, over-working of land (dust bowl), high oil prices (petroleum is used in many facets of farming from machine fuel to making plastics for products), war

pastoral nomadism (subsistence agriculture)

animal herds moved from one forage area to another in cyclical migration pattern; usually in arid climates too harsh for crops; usually combined with some cultivation

upright and wing house (new england)

another adaption to the new england home; includes variations in the location of the front entrance, chimney, and size of the wing relative to the main lobby

animal waste

antibiotics and growth hormones from livestock feces may change the organic content of soils or pollute groundwater

transportation (factors affecting the location of food processing facilities)

as shown in von thünen's model, this is a huge factor in determining where a crop field/facility will be placed; if crops are perishable or if they aren't determines how they will be shipped (if they need special care like refrigeration or not, what type of vehicle they will be shipped in, etc)

cattle ranching/livestock ranching

associated with lands that are often too harsh for raising crops; found along with nomadic herding and pastoral nomadism are also in climates not applicable for crops and in less developed countries; extensive

new england

box shaped with a roof; no porch; found in the northern part of the united states; include the garrison house, the saltbox house, and the georgian style house

organic farming (debates over environmental, cultural, and health impacts)

can benefit the environment but only have modest impacts on the majority of the world's people and places has little effect on the production of staple foods concerns over standards and sustainability pricing out of smaller farms due to subsidies favoring large farms more diverse ecosystems due to lack of synthetic pesticides

river/aquifer depletion

can result from excessive pumping of groundwater; may lead to reduction of water in streams and lakes

hunger crisis

cataclysmic food shortages with natural or human causes

landforms

certain types of agriculture depend on the landform. what landforms are not likely to support agriculture? mountains and deserts have poor soil and present difficult environments, physically, for humans to raise crops and animals, but places with large, flat, open areas of land are likely to support agriculture

koppen-geiger climate zones

classifies the world's climates on the basis of temperature and precipitation -humid equatorial/humid low-latitude (south america, africa, india, southeast asia, indonesia) -dry (western USA, southern south america, north africa, southwest africa, central asia, western china, australia) -humid temperate/warm mid-latitude (eastern USA, southeast south america, south africa, europe, eastern china, east/southeast australia) -mediterranean (mediterranean sea, southern california) -humid cold/cool mid-latitude (canada/northern USA, russia, scandinavia) -cold polar climate (antarctica, northern russia and canada, greenland) -highland climate (major world mountain ranges)

food chain

composed of five connected sections: -inputs -production -processing -distribution -consumption

global supply chain

consists of the continuous buying and selling of goods and services; covers all the steps it to get a good/service from the supplier to the consumer

effects of agribusiness on small family farms

contracted out to larger corporations; farmers have a guaranteed market and assured price as long as their product is uniform and meet the delivery timeline of the processor; poor farmers in less developed countries unable to afford the investment needed for the crops (seeds, fertilizer, tools, etc) are not able to keep up and many times leave rural areas to urban areas

hybrid seeds

created by cross pollinating two different but related plants in order to create a plant variety that would stand up to a farmer's micro-climate (weather, soil, predator insects, etc); the issue is that the second generation of these seeds will not yield the same results, thus farmers are dependent on the producer of these seeds

importance of distance to market

critical because as this increases, production costs remain constant, transportation costs increase, and locational rent decreases

root crops

crops reproduced with roots/cuttings from plants; began first, before seed crops 14,000 years ago in southeast asia

seed crops

crops reproduced with seeds; began first in fertile crescent 12,000 years ago, marking beginning of agriculture; slow diffusion (4,000 years for it to reach south england from the middle east)

global impacts

deforestation, draining wetlands, desertification, and irrigation can all result in global consequences, destroying the natural environment

agriculture

deliberate tending of crops and livestock for food, fuel, or feed; as mechanization increases, number of workers decreases

environmental influences on agricultural regions

determine what crops grow where

maladaptive diffusion

diffusion of an idea or innovation that is not suitable for the environment it diffused to; it has negative side effects and does not work in the region it diffused to. It is not practical in the area it diffused

mixed farming

does not depend on the success of a single crop but instead uses a wide variety for both animal and human consumption; north american and european growers use their land intensively; asian and latin american farmers work their land extensively; the settlement pattern associated with mixed farming would be dependent on where you live or if it were for commercial or subsistence agriculture *varies depending on where you live but is usually linear*

diffusion of plants and animals

earliest centers: southeast asia, southwest asia, central america, mesoamerica, west africa; diffusion of crops was greatly accelerated by worldwide trade and communication networks established with mercantilism and colonialism

center pivot irrigation

easy to spot due to the giant moving sprinklers and tell-tale circular field patterns easily viewable from above; most associated with commercial agriculture and are found in more developed countries

second agricultural revolution

enclosure system; crop rotation; seeds and breeding stock were improved; farming implements were improved (the use of heavy plow meant marginal lands could now be cultivated); horse collar improved; methods of soil preparation, fertilization, crop care, and harvesting improved; technologies improved (the seed drill enabled farmers to avoid wasting seeds and planting in rows)

agricultural industrialization (factory farms)

focus on raising the maximum number of animals possible on a given piece of land; over 99% of farm animals in the U.S. are raised in these, which focus on profit and efficiency at the expense of animal welfare

transhumance (subsistence agriculture)

form of pastoral nomadism; stock is moved to lowlands in winter and highlands in summer

pastoralism

found in climates too harsh for agriculture; men move about with the animals and the women/children stay behind; practiced in the great plains of north america, bolovian highlands (middle/south south america), tibetan plateau and mongolia (central and southeast asia), african sahel (most of sub-saharan africa), northern norway highlands (northern europe and russia), european alps (southern coast of europe along the mountains) *typically a round or nucleated village*

linear village

found in low lying areas along rivers or levees; villages may be oriented along waterways (rivers/levees or roads)

terraces

found in mountainous areas where very little flat land exists; create fields on steep terrain; gravity irrigation; reduced soil runoff; physically demanding labor

shifting cultivation (extensive agriculture)

found primarily in tropical or subtropical zones; farmers clear land and plant on it; usually forest land cleared by slash-and-burn; soil nutrients are lost, so farmers move to another

fair trade

giving farmers fair market prices for their products provides a decent living wage and guarantees the right to organize the goal of fair trade is to create safe working conditions, provides a decent living wage, and guarantees the right to organize; this is done through equitable and direct trade

orchards (US agriculture)

grow along west coast and some places in the east coast (washington, ohio, california, michigan, new york, virginia, florida, georgia, south carolina, and texas); pretty small agricultural production region

cash cropping

growing a crop for export; dispersed settlement patterns around cash cropping; one isolated farmhouse surrounded by large plots of land for farming and then another isolated house; may also see linear settlement patterns (associated with long lots) that come out from a river source or road as all farmers need access to the road or river *typically a dispersed or linear village*

ranching (extensive agriculture)

growing crops and livestock in open area

tobacco (US agriculture)

grows in midatlantic region (kentucky and virginia); VERY small production region

soybeans (US agriculture)

grows in midwestern states and in coastal regions by the atlantic ocean; similar to corn, but smaller

corn (US agriculture)

grows in midwestern states and in coastal regions by the atlantic ocean; similar to soybeans, but a larger production area; grows in wisconsin, nebraska, south dakota, and kentucky where as soybeans don't grow in those areas

cotton (US agriculture)

grows in southern regions (texas, arkansas, alabama, tennessee, louisiana, mississippi, georgia, south carolina, california, and arizona); smaller region of production

rice (US agriculture)

grows in southern regions (texas, arkansas, louisiana, and california); very small region

double cropping

harvesting two crops on the same field in a given year; allows land to be more productive; it's important to grow crops that compliment each other so that they use different minerals in the soil; can help farmers grow more food for themselves or to sell; reduces the acreage of fields required for agriculture; complimentary crops can actually improve soil if crop #1 can replenish nutrients used by crop #2; double cropping has the potential to exhaust soil quickly if not done properly

saltbox house (new england)

has an asymmetrical gable roof covering a shed or lean-to addition to a house giving it extra room on the first floor (a lean-to is a structure added to an existing building with racers "leaning" against another wall)

aquaculture (debates over environmental, cultural, and health impacts)

has provided about 30% of the total fish harvest in recent years; it is the fastest-growing sector of the world food economy there are concerns over: water pollution from fish waste transfer of disease to wild fish genetic damage to wild fish from escaped fish that have been genetically altered

quinary category of economic activity

high level decision making ex: research, higher education, executive decision making

luxury crops

high value cash crops that are not part of a staple diet

government policies (factors affecting the location of food processing facilities)

if a processing facility can get a low loan or low taxes in an enterprise zone (land set aside by city governments, to attract businesses), they might be persuaded to move to a certain town; subsidies and policies like these can influence location of crops and food production facilities

feedlot

in these places, animals are fed so that they can recover from their transportation from farm/ranch with the goal of reaching the maximum weight possible before being sold; produce high levels of animal waste and stink

quaternary category of economic activity

information services; exchange of money/goods, information

horticulture and fruit farming

intensively cultured, high value luxury crops; food crops, flowers, and ornamental plants; nutrition and aesthetics

subsistence irrigation

involves physically carrying water in buckets or using rudimentary canals

charleston single house (middle atlantic)

known as a "single house" because of the single row of rooms in the front and back

truck farming

large scale commercial farming for long distance consumers; grow mostly fruit that need warmth and cannot tolerate frost; ship their produce around the country and beyond taking advantage of modern infrastructure and refrigerated/frozen shipping techniques

plantation

large tropical land holdings that specialize in growing and partially processing a single cash crop (ex: coffee, banana, sugar, tea, cacao, spices, tobacco) with the use of unskilled or semi-skilled labor; made great fortunes for their colonial owners; will have a dispersed settlement pattern as you will see large homes isolated from one another by vast amounts of farmland *typically a dispersed village*

commercial agriculture

large-scale farming and ranching operations that employ vast land bases, large mechanized equipment, factory-type labor forces, and the latest technology; producing goods for sale in market; most dominant today globally

plantation agriculture (intensive agriculture)

large-scale farming where crops are grown for widespread commercial sale

georgian style house (new england)

largest of the new england home types; a full 2 story structure with 4-5 rooms on each floor; has up to 10 rooms with a lobby entrance and symetrical gabled roof

debt for nature swap

lending countries agree to eliminate a portion of debt if a borrowing country agrees to preserve their natural environment OR environmental organizations agree to pay a portion of debt if a borrowing country agrees to preserve their natural environment; represent an innovative funding strategy that provides a long term solution to the problem; through these agreements, governments are able to write off a proportion of their foreign held debt and instead direct payments into funds to support domestic conservation initiatives. Since 1987, they have generated over $1 billion for conservation in developing countries; rather than sending more dollars to service foreign debt, they enable governments to invest local currency in preserving their natural resources to benefit the long term growth of their country; taken part between debtor countries and individual governments as well as commercial institutions

the americas (agricultural hearth)

maize, potato (Peru)

forestry

managing and replenishing timber has become the standard practice in regions of the temperate zones, but not in the tropics, where slow-growing hardwood forests are rapidly being destroyed *no village*

modernized traditional

materials and layout have been changed; there might now be multiple bathrooms, two car garage

extensive pesticides/fertilizer use

may be present in groundwater or change the organic content of soils due to herbicides and pesticides

agricultural production regions

mediterranean agriculture- mediterranean zone shifting cultivation- humid equatorial pastoral nomadism- humid equatorial, dry, cold polar climate, highland climate

hunting and gathering

men hunted game and fish; women collected berries, nuts, and fruit; today approximately a quarter million people still survive by hunting and gathering; some remaining hunter/gathering societies are: spinifex of australia's great victorian desert, the sentinelese in india's andaman islands, and the bushmen of botswana and namibia

cattle (US agriculture)

midwestern usa and some, but less in areas like southern usa and western usa

pigs (US agriculture)

midwestern usa; some along the southeastern coast

africa (agricultural hearth)

millet/sorghum

eat local food movements

minimizes the distance between production and consumption; helps preserve local and small-scale farmland; reduces fossil fuel consumption, air pollution, greenhouse gas emissions; supports the local economy

value added specialty foods

more money is received by the farmer value-added products are defined by USDA as having: a change in the physical state or form of the product (such as milling wheat into flour or making strawberries into jam) the production of a product in a manner that enhances its value (such as organically produced products) the physical segregation of an agricultural commodity or product in a manner that results in the enhancement of the value of that commodity or product (such as an identity preserved marketing system)

nomadic herding (extensive agriculture)

most expensive (greatest amount of land area); moving animals from place to place for grazing land; found in arid regions not suitable for crops

fishing

most likely be associated with a nucleated settlement as the fishermen live in the nearby village *typically a nucleated village*

crop rotation

moving crops between fields, allowing fields to rest

effects of commercial farming and agribusiness on cultivation regions

multicropping is replaced with monoculture; land is cleared and vegetation is lost in areas to facilitate agriculture and trade; erosion can be a problem as well as increased use of chemicals in the soil; due to movement towards commercial monoculture farming there is a loss of food security as there is no longer a variety of native crops for consumption

mixed crop/livestock systems (intensive agriculture)

multiple crops on same land; livestock system uses feedlot; many plants/animals per area of land

primary category of economic activity (location factors)

must be located close to the resource

quinary category of economic activity (location factors)

need for similar skills in the workforce, similar needs for ancillary industries, medical services need labs/support industry, availability of investment capital (tend to cluster)

quaternary category of economic activity (location factors)

needs access to good telecommunications infrastructure and a suitable workforce

secondary category of economic activity (location factors)

needs to be accessible to the resource, a source of energy, the market, and an appropriate labor force

modified traditional

new building materials are used (tin room, windows, door); there is no change to the original structure or layout of the house (found in the regions of africa, southwest asia, south asia, southeast asia)

organic farming/agriculture

no genetic modifications free of pesticides free of antibiotics, free of synthetic hormones, no artificial fertilizers, must feed on completely organic crops, can bring higher prices than non-GMO, but is more costly to grow

wheat (US agriculture)

north, midwestern usa; central usa; some along the east coast

climate

not all climates will support crops; some crops also require specific climactic characteristics to grow successfully; these characteristics would include temperature, precipitation, and length of growing season

first agricultural revolution

occurred in fertile crescent 12,000 years ago, with seed crops; occurred in areas of plenty, where people had time to experiment and didn't have to worry about food constantly; resulting changes: plants and animals changed (artificial selection), irrigation near rivers formed, storing grain, increased population of settlements

overfishing

occurs when there is no limit to fish harvesting; not enough fish left over to replenish the population; species become endangered, fish stocks and businesses go down, and then total annual catch declines

four over four house (middle atlantic)

one room deep: four upstairs, four downstairs; constructed from locally quarried stone or brick; door on the outside of the upper level probably to get bedroom feather mattresses out for spring cleaning

distribution of agriculture

only 2% of all americans are engaged in farming; half of all families in less developed countries depend on farming to sustain them

tertiary category of economic activity

part of the service industry connecting producers and consumers and facilitating commerce/trade

interillage

planting between rows of crop plants already prepared for the growth of crops

primogeniture

practice in which all land passes to the oldest son; results in larger plots of land; common in northern europe and areas of northern european colonization (americas, southern africa, australia, new zealand)

deforestation

process of clearing forests for raising plants and animals both of which need open areas; consequences of large scale deforestation are difficult to reverse (slash and burn)

draining wetlands/wetland destruction

process of draining wetlands to create fields and pastures

primary category of economic activity

products closest to the ground; the harvest or extraction; less developed countries have a high percentage of people in primary economic activities ex: agriculture, ranching, hunting and gathering, fishing, forestry, mining, and quarrying

tertiary category of economic activity (location factors)

proximity to market; needs to connect consumers and producers

subsistence agriculture

refers to growing only enough food to sustain yourself/family; some farmers today who practice this may periodically sell a small quantity of their crops as well; subsistence agriculture is found in remote areas of south and middle america, africa, and south and southeast asia; around the world most villages will have a nucleated/clustered settlement pattern if they rely heavily on this type of argiculture *typically a round or nucleated village*

green revolution

refers to the changes in agricultural production with so-called miracle seeds (high yield varieties), especially wheat and rice; the hope was that it would increase production in the developing world

modern

reflects the advanced technology, practicality, comfort, affluence, suburbanization; most common in the united states and more developed countries

increased chemical and mechanized farming

replacement of human farm labor with machines (tractors, combines, reapers, pickers, ect) and the application of synthetic fertilizers (herbicides, fungicides, and pesticides) to the soil to increase yields; became widespread in the US in the 1950's, diffused to europe in the 60's, and the periphery in the 70's

southeast asia (agricultural hearth)

rice along yangtze river, pig, buffalo, chicken

drip irrigation

running small hoses along the ground that seep water at the base of crops; very little evaporation occurs with this type irrigation, but it is expensive; most associated with commercial agriculture and are found in more developed countries

high yield seeds

seeds that were bred to respond to fertilizers and produce an increased amount of grain per acre planted; the introduction of hyv's led to the reduction in the varieties of seeds being used in many areas of the world; with the use of these new hyv's also came the increased use of fertilizers as well as increased use of irrigation in many areas

categories of economic activity

shows how production of goods is organized and employment structure of region

shotgun cottage (tidewater south)

single shotgun cottage- the name comes from the idea that if you shot a shotgun through the front door it would pass through each room and then out the back door; these homes are typical in areas that have scarce land; simple and inexpensive; slave quarters and freedmen's homes found in the south double shotgun cottage- requires less land per living unit than singles and is used extensively in poor areas

market gardening

small scale farms that sell to local customers; large diversity of crops grown on a small area of land; labor is done manually; fruits, vegetables, and flowers

market gardening (intensive agriculture)

smaller scale farming of fruits/vegetables where farmers sells to local community

soils

soil types are important to determining what crops, if any can grow in a certain area; most regions of the world have some type of soil but not all soil is conducive to agriculture; types of soil are not distributed evenly through out the world; humans can manipulate the soil with irrigation and fertilizer to make soils more productive but it is very expensive

regional appellations

some foods are associated with a local or regional name for the product these place-names bring higher prices at market; you can be sued for using the regional appellation on a product not actually produced/created in that region due to international trade agreements

markets (factors affecting the location of food processing facilities)

some foods, mainly specialized crops, need to be located close to this in order to ensure profitability; this takes into effect the transportation costs and land costs

spatial patterns of dietary laws

some regions of the world may have food preferences or even dietary laws due to religious reasons ex: the sale of pork and alcohol in restaurants is illegal in Iran due to Sharia law; beef consumption is low in India

poultry (US agriculture)

southeastern usa and some along the west coast

tidewater south

southern style; porches; found in the southern region of the united states; includes the charleston single house and shotgun cottages

secondary category of economic activity

take the primary product and manufacture it; add value ex: factories

mechanization of agriculture

technology and advanced equipment allow efficient production of goods

effects of the industrial revolution

the advances of the second agricultural revolution were sustained; tractors and new farm machines were produced; commercial farming was extended (colonial production was needed to supply factories and feed new urban populations in the core); the feudal landholding system was breaking down yielding to a new agrarian system based not on service to the lord but on the emerging system of private property relations

sustainable yield

the amount you can harvest and still keep the population constant; most governments have strict fishing/hunting quotas stating how much of a certain animal can be harvested/hunted per year and once the quota is reached, you can't fish/hunt for that species anymore; this ensures the remaining population can replenish effectively

monoculture

the cultivation of one crop in a given area; the settlement patterns associated with this type of agriculture are most likely to be dispersed or linear as most of these farms will be focusing on one major crop for export (a cash crop); these countries are usually less developed, experience financial instability, peripheral; unfortunately, many such countries still rely on one cash crop to support a large percentage of their economy (ivory coast grows cacao for chocolate, mozambique grows cotton, sri lanka produces tea); result in low income levels; single crop economies are unstable as they depend on the cost of their cash crop to remain high and sometimes rely on loans and aid from countries and other organizations *typically linear or dispersed*

location/land rent

the difference between the amount farmers receive when they sell their crops and the cost they incur to grow, harvest, and get to market

rural settlement patterns

the different forms and patterns of villages and settlements in rural areas the traditional farm villages are still common in India, Sub-Saharan Africa, China, SE Asia; in India farming is still practiced by 70% of the population, only 2% of the U.S. labor force is involved in arming; traditionally people who lived in villages either farmed in surrounding land or provided services to those who did; they were closely connected to the land; in Japan village form is tightly packed because they need to allocate every possible square foot of land to farming; in the United States settlement is dispersed (farmhouses are far apart); land is intensively cultivated by machine In Indonesia you see nucleated settlement patterns every 1⁄2 mile or so along rural roads; land is juts as intensive but also labor intensive

mediterranean cropping/agriculture

the farming of crops that need warmer temperatures year round and less rain such as citrus fruits, grapes, olives, figs, dates, and almonds

specialty farming

the farming of crops that people seek out or are in higher demand; an exception to von thünen's model

enclosure system/enclosure act

the governments of europe played a role by passing laws; great britain's enclosure act which encouraged consolidation of fields into large single-owner landholdings; this increased the number of individual and independent farmers; farm sizes increased and land was enclosed by fences, hedges, and walls

unchanged traditional

the layout, construction, and appearance have not been significantly altered by external influences in the last 100 years; it remains unchanged; it can however change internally due to cultural changes; most common in isolated communities in less developed parts of the world (found in the regions of africa, southwest asia, south asia, southeast asia)

survey/cadastral system

the method of land survey through which land ownership and property lines are defined

economies of scale

the more units you produce, the cheaper each unit costs to produce

economies of scale (factors affecting the location of food processing facilities)

the more you produce, the cheaper the cost of production; land and transportation costs will determine the location of the food processing facility; there are locations where transportation and operating costs are too expensive to earn a reasonable profit

desertification

the process by which arable land is turned into desert; overgrazing is a major cause of deforestation as animals eat all ground cover; attempting agriculture in drier climates also can lead to this; native plants are cleared for fields and the land is worked too hard and cannot recover as the ecosystem is stressed beyond capacity; the dust-bowl disaster of the 1930s is an excellent example of over-working the land with agriculture; slash-and-burn agriculture in drier climates can also lead to this; if it's due to agriculture it's usually 100% preventable by using appropriate agricultural practices

salinization

the process in which evaporated water leaves behind salts that poison the soil; human practices can increase the salinity of soils by the addition of salts in irrigation water

garrison house (new england)

the second floor overhang is a relic of urban house (allowed for more walking space on the street)

north american folk housing regions

the three housing hearths in the united states (new england, middle atlantic, tidewater south)

genetically modified organisms (debates over environmental, cultural, and health impacts)

there is concern that GMO companies are releasing organisms into the environment without an adequate understanding of the environmental, health, or socioeconomic consequences. africa opposition: health problems; there is concern that consuming large quantities of genetically modified foods may reduce effectiveness of antibioics and could destroy long standing ecological balances in local agriculture (rubenstein) export: as europeans believe genetically modified foods are not as nutritious and African farmers export to those countries there is a concern that they would lose a market; dependence on US: US corporations manufacture most of the seeds for GM crops; there is concern over needing to constantly buy from the transnational corporations; farmers fear a genetic manipulation to the seeds that would not allow them to replant seeds after harvest and require them to buy new seeds

biotechnology (debates over environmental, cultural, and health impacts)

there is concern that consumption of large quantities of genetically modified foods may reduce the effectiveness of antibiotics and could destroy long-standing ecological balances of agriculture; there is concern that the GM plants/animals could interbreed and contaminate natural food supplies or the environment causing long-term harm; there is currently no evidence that GMOs cause harm to humans although many consumers have health concerns

bid rent curve

this graph shows the price and demand for real estate changes as distance from the market increases; different land users will compete for land close to the city center; because transportation costs rise with distance from the market, rents generally fall correspondingly

overgrazing

this happens when livestock herding is moved into arid or semiarid areas where the natural vegetation there cannot sustain the herds thus leading to desertification

soil erosion

this results in removed topsoil thus affecting the growth of plants which suffer due to nutrient loss; can also lead to water pollution

ring 2

this ring of von thünen's model produced items for fuel; close to market because wood is heavy and expensive to transport (wood and coal)

ring 3

this ring of von thünen's model produced items that could be located farther out; these would be crops that are less expensive to transport and not perishable; various crops and for pasture; (feed grains, soybeans, apples, wheat, field corn)

ring 4

this ring of von thünen's model produced items that needed lots of space and didn't need to be close to the central city (livestock)

ring 1

this ring of von thünen's model produced items that perished quickly; market-oriented gardens and milk producers; perishable goods are expensive to deliver because they damage easily (dairy cattle, eggs, tomatoes, broccoli, strawberries, lettuce)

rectangular survey system

this system appears as checkerboards across agricultural fields

long lots survey system

this system divided land into narrow parcels stretching back from rivers, roads, or canals; reflects a particular approach that was common in french america; found in candian maritimes and in parts of quebec, louisiana, and texas

metes and bounds survey system

this system used natural features to demarcate irregular parcels of land; adopted along the eastern seaboard from maine to georgia

township and range system

this system was designed to facilitate the settlement of non-indians in the farmlands of the interior of the united states; rigid grid-like pattern; bought and sold in whole, half, or quarter sections; property lines were drawn without reference to the terrain thus imposing a remarkable uniformity across the land

the columbian exchange

transfer of plants, animals, diseases between new and old worlds to the new world: honeybees, sugar cane, bananas, grapes, citrus fruits, onions, olives, turnips, coffee beans, peaches, pears, wheat, rice, barley, oats, cattle, sheep, pigs, horses, smallpox, influenza, typhus, measles, malaria, diphtheria, whooping cough from the new world: sweet potatoes, squash, pumpkins, turkeys, peanuts, potatoes, tomatoes, corn, vanilla, beans, cacao, pineapples, tobacco, peppers

traditional "I" house (middle atlantic)

two rooms per floor separated by central hallways; common in "I" states (Illinois, Indiana, Iowa) not that it originated there

building materials

typically reflect what is locally available (wood, brick, stone, wattle (tightly woven sticks and poles plastered with mud), grass and brush))

horse collar

use horses to plow your fields instead of oxen

third agricultural revolution

use of biotechnology to expand agricultural production -mechanization-increased use of machines in agriculture -chemical farming became widespread in the 1950's in the united states then diffused to europe in 1960 and the periphery in 1970. -globally widespread food manufacturing (adding value to agricultural products through processing, canning, refining, packaging, packing)

extensive agriculture

using less labor and money per unit of land; uses large areas and less labor; output and population densities both low

intensive agriculture

using much labor and money to increase land productivity per unit of land; using small land holdings for maximum crop production, creating high land yields and population densities; may result from increased land costs

clustered/nucleated village

village clusters around an intersection; nucleated settlements are the most prevalent residential pattern in agricultural areas

rundling village/round village

village has a central cattle corral, thus having a circular shape

grid village

village is more modern, planned; found especially in areas with spanish influence; boxed (grid) structure

walled village

village is walled and may be surrounded by moats for protection

dispersed

village land is intensively cultivated by machine; houses are far apart from each other; typical in the midwestern region of the united states

agrarian

way of life deeply embedded in demands of agricultural population

southwest asia (agricultural hearth)

wheat, barley, cow, horse, sheep/goat

middle atlantic

wings that shoot out; found in the mid part of the untied states; include the four over four house, the traditional "I" house, and the dogtrot house

von thünen's model (rings)

• central city 1) intensive marketing and dairying 2) forest/wood lots (fuel) 3) increasing extensive field crops (grains) 4) ranching/animal products