AP Language and Composition Rhetorical Definitions

Non Sepuitur

(Latin: "it does not follow") When one statement isn't logically connected to another. i. An arguer is guilty of this fallacy when he or she states: "Ms. Johnson is our new English teacher. She's young and should be good."

Power Verbs

(a) Action verbs that show rather than tell. (b) Verbs other than linking verbs that help sentences stay active, instead of passive.

Diction

(a) Author's word choices. (b) Word choice, particularly as an element of style. Different types and arrangements of words have significant effects on meaning. An essay written in academic diction would be much less colorful, but perhaps more precise than street slang.

Tone

(a) That which relates the author's personal feelings towards the subject, purpose, argument, and thesis. (b) A writer's attitude toward his or her subject matter revealed through diction, figurative language, and organization of the sentence and global levels. a. In other words: the speaker's (author's or narrator's) attitude toward a person, place, idea, or thing displayed through the written word.

Mood

(a) the emotional feel to the writing as a whole. (b) An atmosphere created by the writer's word choice (diction) and the details selected or the subject matter being discussed. a. Syntax is also a determiner of this because sentence strength, length, and complexity affect pacing.

Fallacy/ Fallacious Claim

(general definition): Statements that can be easily argued or are obviously not true. In essay writing, these need to be completely avoided

Parallel Sentence

(sometimes called a balanced sentence) contains parts of equal grammatical structure or rhetorical value in a variety of combinations i. Example: The dog ate voraciously, joyously, and noisily. (The verb ate is modified by three multisyllabic adverbs, which seems somewhat lofty in style for such a mundane act as a dog eating.)

Rapport

: A Rhetorical Strategy, a persuasive technique, How does the author go about building a sense of friendliness and receptivity on the part of the audience? Some methods are friendly introductions ("my friends"), complimenting, showing respect, speaking the speakers 'language,' and conveying optimism. These are important communicative techniques! This is important. We just have to be aware of its use in persuasive contexts.

Metaphor

A comparison of two things, often unrelated. A figurative verbal equation results where both "parts" illuminate one another

Hasty Generalization

A conclusion reached prematurely without sufficient evidence. Prejudices and stereotypes; Words like "all," "every," "everyone," and "no" are associated with this fallacy. i. Example: All teenagers are lazy and uninterested in anything other than themselves. ii. Example: Everyone is doing it, so it must be healthy. iii. This fallacy may also be called "jumping to conclusions"

Slogans

A motto or phrase that is mindlessly repeated and has no particular meaning, but can bring people together in a common bond. Example: Obama's "Change!"

Allusion

A reference to something in culture, history, or literature that expands the depth of the text if the reader makes the connection. Allusions can help determine the writer's potential audience. a. Most are based on the assumption that there is a body of knowledge that is shared by the author and the audience and that therefore the audience will understand the author's referent. b. Some of the most common forms of this refer to biblical figures and figures from classical mythology

Anecdote

A short narrative of an amusing, usual, revealing, or interesting event. Usually, the anecdote is combined with other material such as expository essays or arguments to clarify abstract points or to create a memorable image.

Symbol

A thing, event, or person that represents or stands for some idea or event. These also simultaneously retain their own literal meaning

Verb Phrase

A verb and its object and modifiers

Figurative Language

A word or words that are inaccurate literally, but describe by calling to mind sensations or responses that the thing described evokes. This may be in the form of metaphors or similes, both of which are non-literal comparisons. a. For Example, Shakespeare's "All the world is a stage" shows a lot of this (metaphor, specifically).

Syntactic Fluency

Ability to create a variety of sentence structures, appropriately complex and/or simple and varied in length

Ad Populum

An appeal to the prejudices of the masses that asserts if many believe it, then it is so. The assumption here is that if everyone is going to agree with me, then I don't really need to support my claim with any evidence. Just because a lot of people believe something, that doesn't necessarily make it true. i. Example: Politicians often want whatever the American people want, as if everyone wants/believes the same thing.

Logical Appeal/Logos

An implied comparison resulting when one thing is directly called another. To be logically acceptable, support must be appropriate to the claim, believable and consistent. A good logical argument is based on solid facts to support a reasonable and well-founded claim.

Authority

Arguments that draw on recognized experts or persons with highly relevant experience are said to rest on authoritative backing. The audience is expected to accept claims if they are in agreement with an authority's view.

Appeal to Authority

Associated with fear, human beings seem reluctant to oppose authority. We're taught that we do not want to get into trouble. Also, we may find it easier to follow than to lead. We tend to blindly follow authority.

Obtain Disapproval

Citizens band together to hate or stand against a common enemy

Complex sentence

Contains an independent clause and a (dependent) subordinate clause i. Since the nun's ascetic life provided her few material comforts, the wool shawl the novitiate knitted her was a cherished treasure.

Proof-reading

Correcting grammar and punctuation during the writing process

Unwarranted Emotion Appeals

Even unrestrained joy (mania of a crowd) can persuade and make people lose their reason.

Bandwagon technique

Everyone else is doing it; why not you too? If you think otherwise, you're not patriotic.

Anecdotal

Evidence that relies on observations presented in the narrative

Appeal to Fear

Fear is one of the most effective methods of controlling others i. Example: Fear of Weapons of Mass Destruction led the United States to invade Iraq.

Begging the Question

If an argument depends for one of its reasons or assumptions on a statement that is identical or equivalent to the conclusion drawn, it is "circular". The arguer makes an assertion as if she or he has already proven it. It lacks evidence. i. Example: Required courses such as freshman English are a waste of time. They should not be required. ii. Note that a suppressed or presupposed assumption might also be the conclusion, making this fallacy less obvious.

Concrete Imagery

Imagery that relies on concrete language. Example: the moon as full and orange instead of ominous, which can be interpreted in a variety of ways. Most people have an understanding of what a full moon is and of the color orange.

Inductive Reasoning

Individual observations are put together to form a general conclusion. In other words, writing from specifics to a general observation a. For example: Jeff, Barbara, Trevor, and Holly are students in the engineering college at NJIT. Each of them wants to be an engineer upon graduation. Each of them is skilled at using the computer. I conclude from this that computer skills are required of all engineers.

Stereotyping

It is much easier to disapprove of a group if we believe everyone in the group is the same. Example: All teenagers are lazy and selfish.

Propaganda

Language or rhetoric used to persuade a mass audience, generally to convince them of a particular political, religious, or other ideology. Propaganda differs from other mass persuasive messages in that it is associated with a particular agenda and not a particular message. Therefore, it is directly related to Intent Signals

Imperative Sentence

Makes a command

Declarative Sentence

Makes a statement

Simple Sentence

One subject, one verb, modifiers, complements. These are generally short, direct, and in combination with more complex sentences can be used for emphasis. In other words, these are used to emphasize, while more complex structures are used to discuss i. Example: Puppies need a lot of care.

Connotation

Rather than the dictionary definition, the associations suggested by a word, implied meaning rather than literal meaning

Guilty be Association

Relies on prejudice instead of thought. When a person is negatively judged by the actions of those with whom he associates i. Example: Senator Adams cannot be trusted. He played golf last year with Senator Jones, who has been indicted for campaign-finance fraud.

Syntactic Permutation

Sentence structures that are extraordinarily complex and/or simple and varied in length

Deductive Reasoning

Starts with a general observation which is then applied to individual data to reach a particular conclusion. a. For example: I have a general observation that all student athletes I have met at MIT are competitive individuals. Last semester, I had two basketball players in my English class; I conclude that both of these students were motivated by competition.

Editing

The adding and deleting necessary for development, clarity etc. in order to reach a finished product.

Faulty Use of Authority

The arguer attempts to justify his or her claim by citing testimony or opinions of experts, but does it incorrectly. The arguer fails to acknowledge disagreements among experts or otherwise misrepresents the trustworthiness of sources.

Slippery Slope

The arguer predicts that one thing will inevitably lead to another, and that one thing will be undesirable. This is a cause-and-effect error that relies on simplistic, erroneous connections i. For example: If students study sex education in high school, they will become sexually promiscuous.

Rhetoric

The art of effective communication, especially persuasive discourse. This focuses on the interrelationship of invention, arrangement, and style in order to create felicitous and appropriate discourse.

Extended Metaphor

The metaphor extends throughout the work or passage, even forming the basis for the entire work. The key to indentifying an extended metaphor is length

Periodic Sentence

The most important idea comes at the end of the sentence i. Example: Doctors were convinced they had destroyed the pernicious infection, but just when they thought he'd recovered fully, Mario became savagely febrile and died.

Loose Sentence

The most important idea is revealed early and the sentence unfolds loosely after that. i. Example: After her chemotherapy failed, Margaret lay moribund in the hospice, glad for the kindness of nurses, thankful for each new morning that she was able to enjoy.

Antithesis

The opposite of an idea used to emphasize a point: the juxtaposition of contrasting words or ideas. a. More specifically, this is a rhetorical device in which irreconcilable opposites or strongly contrasting ideas are placed in sharp juxtaposition and sustain tension, as in the phrase: "They promised freedom and provided slavery." b. A balancing of two opposite or contrasting words, phrases, or clauses.

Syntax

The order of words in a sentence; the structure and types of sentences

Context

The parts of discourse that surround a word or passage and can throw light on its meaning. It is the "O" of the SOAPSTone Analysis Chart. a. The time and place a piece was written influences the work; this involves how the historical context influences the work. It involves the author's personal experiences and the circumstances he or she is in when writing the work.

Purpose

The reason for writing the prose in the first place. It is the "P" of the SOAPSTone Analysis Chart. This is NEVER is to simply "complete an assignment;" it involves much more than that. This involves figuring out what is necessary to fulfill the prompt as specifically and accurately as possible

Qualify

The term is basically the same as Warrant but refers more directly to the writing process. To do this is to come to logical conclusions essay writing. To support all statements made. In terms of the thesis: a. Determine thesis direction from content by choosing areas (provided by questioning) with regard to audience and purpose. b. Limit your thesis to the exact area you want to defend c. Ask: Does your thesis need a degree of truth in order to be accurate?

Direct Thesis

The thesis is clearly stated in the introduction, referred to in the points, and is clearly stated in the conclusion.

Implied Thesis

The thesis is not clearly stated in the introduction; the points refer/prove the thesis but may or may not directly state the thesis; the conclusion does not clearly state the thesis. Evidence and argument maintained in the essay clearly gets the thesis across, even though the thesis isn't necessarily stated.

Imagery

The use of images, especially in a pattern or related images, often figurative, to create a strong, unified sensory perception.

Parallel Structure/Syntax

The use of parallel elements in sentences or in the structure of an essay or prose passage. a. Examples: A sentence with successive prepositional phrases uses parallelism. An essay that has four parts, each beginning with a question followed by an answer uses this structure.

Argument/Thesis

The writer's argument. It is what the writer is trying to get across to the audience, what the writer is trying to convince the audience.

Warrant

There must be a logical and persuasive connection between a claim and reasons and data supporting it. This is the relation between the argument (or point) and the data; therefore, it is the discussion of the data in terms of the argument.

Full Thesis

Thesis + Points

Post, Hoc, Ergo, Propter, Hoc (Doubtful Cause)

This fallacy exists when the arguer suggests that because an event follows another event, it is therefore the cause of that event. i. Example: Everything was fine until we switched to daylight saving time. That's why the economy is in trouble.

Red Herring

This fallacy exists when the arguer throws out an unrelated and irrelevant argument to divert the reader's/listener's attention

Appeal to Tradition

This fallacy is apparent when the arguer suggests a course of action that is correct "because we've always done it this way." Just because something is traditionally true, that does not make it right or effective i. Example: We arrange the desks in a classroom in orderly rows. Any other way has not been proven effective.

Bandwagon Effect or jumping on the Bandwagon

This fallacy is similar to Ad Populum, but relies on popularity or trendiness. The error in logic is obvious. Just because it is popular, it isn't necessarily correct.

Ad Hominem

This fallacy occurs when someone argues against a claim or position by attacking its holders in logically irrelevant ways instead of addressing the issue. This fallacy draws attention away from the real issue. i. For example: Often in environmental debate people think they can discredit a view by asserting that it is held by "wackos" or "corporate pigs" or "elitists." ii. For example: Don't vote for William Smith. He has been married three times.

Persona

This is the tone, mood, and word choices that an author uses. Basically, it is how a work is displayed. A writer often adopts a fictional voice (or mask) to write with. This voice is usually determined by a combination of subject matter and audience.

False Dilemma or Either-Or Fallacy

This is when the arguer assumes that there are only two ways of looking at an issue. i. Example: America. Love it or Leave it.

Indicate

To be a signal of; to state or express

Analyze

To break apart; to look at component parts of a text in order to understand an aspect of the whole.

Discuss

To consider in writing a variety of possible views (ways of interpretation) on a topic.

Characterize

To depict something in a certain way; to give specific characteristics of someone or something

Clarify

To draw distinctions, to make more evident, to lessen confusion.

Dramatize

To give a story to a situation, to add vivid details, such as imagery, figurative language, etc. In other words, to describe or detail something, painting a vivid picture for the audience.

Emphasize

To give added importance or weight to something

Support

To give reasons and examples for a statement of fact or a claim.

Claim (type of Purpose)

To make a statement of "fact," something you intend to prove

Suggest

To offer a perspective, a solution, or a way of thinking about something for consideration.

Paraphrase

To put into more common, less complex (or technical) language

Rebuff

To reject

Estapblish

To set a foundation for, to base a claim on an observation

Imply

To state indirectly; to have a logical consequence

Observe

To take notice of, and thereby, it is implied, to draw conclusions

Compound Sentence

Two independent clauses joined by coordinating conjunction. Remember this mnemonic devise: FANBOYS: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so. These are often used to indicate relationships or add additional information i. Example: The king's edict that adulterers would be punished by death caused a raucous din in the local taverns, for even the common folk knew that he had many indiscretions of his own which to atone.

Glittering generalities

Using abstract and undefined language to the extent that people want to believe it. Examples: Freedom, Glory

Rhetorical Strategy

Various strategies and appeals that writers use to persuade. All terms of Rhetoric can apply to various strategies, and strategies can usually be categorized under logos, pathos, or ethos. Strategies take into consideration purpose, persona, audience, and argument.

Prewriting

What one does before writing in order to prepare to write (research, generate ideas, thesis development, outline etc.) Prewriting strategies are usually used throughout the writing process.

Claim

What you are trying to prove; it's your proposition or thesis

Emotional Appeal/Pathos

When a writer appeals to an audience's emotions to excite and involve them in the argument a. An important element of this is tone, imagery, connotation, and mood; this uses language to pull upon the readers' emotions, attaching them to the work and argument via emotions b. This can be the most powerful rhetorical tool, for many folks tend to rely more upon their emotional response than their logical response.

Straw Man

When a writer argues against a claim that nobody actually holds or is universally considered weak. Setting up a straw man diverts attention from the real issues.

Ethos/Ethical Appeal

When a writer tries to persuade the audience to respect and believe him or her based on a presentation of image of self through the text. Reputation is sometimes a factor in ethical appeals, but in all cases, the aim is to gain the audience's confidence. a. An important element of this is tone, The tone of the prose must match the intent of the writer; for example, a condescending tone does not equal a willingness to foster positive change; you will not convince your audience if you talk down to it.

Faulty Emotional Appeals

When the arguer seeks sensational or sentimental reactions in the audience; bases an argument on feelings (especially pity or fear), often to draw attention away from the real issue or to conceal another purpose i. Example: If you don't study at least an hour every night, you won't get into college and you won't have a successful life.

Claim of Fact

When you are making this type of claim, , you are stating something is true and you want your audience to believe you. Example: Daylight saving time benefits leisure industries. Notice that this type of claim is still controversial.

Claim of Policy

When you argue that certain conditions or situations should exist or be changed. Example: All high school students should pass mandatory minimum proficiency tests before earning a diploma

Claim of Value

When you make this type of claim, you are making a judgement or evaluation. Example: Reality TV will rot your brain

Aesthetics

a type of claim of value where a judgment of what is beautiful, pleasing, or artistic is made

Morality

a type of claim of value where a judgment of what is moral, right, or good is made

Assertion

the claim or point the author is making

Denotation

the literal meaning of a word

Concrete Diction

the writer chooses language that is concrete, quantifiable, based on facts, easily accepted by the reader, and generally understood

Abstract Diction

the writer chooses language that is vauge, not easily accepted, and can be easily misunderstood

Qualifying a claim/statement

to do this means to show how a claim can be true in some ways but not true in others.