AP Psych Final

Gestalt

"Whole is greater than the sum of its parts" Looking at whole behaviors instead of dissecting them into smaller bits The only reason a child is acting some way is because of the family (family therapy) Wolfgang Kohler

operational definition

- Carefully worded statement of the exact procedures used in an experiment - Allow for replication - Take things that might be hypothetical and put them into a more clear way

Scientific Method

- Designed and structured to answer questions about the world - Theory- more overarching, explains a set of principles, helps us predict outcomes - Hypothesis - a testable prediction, we are working on testing, we need to make sure we can discount the null (opposite) hypothesis - Note when you are wrong in your research

Why critical thinking?

- Few truths transcend the need for empirical testing - We understand the importance of empiricism - Do the research on things that you hear like news

correlation study

- Find existence of relationship between two events, measures, or variables - Correlation coefficient: statistic ranging from -1.00 to +1.00; the sign indicates the direction of the relationship - The stronger the negative correlation: the -1 or -.99 - The stronger the positive correlation: the 1 or .99 - A correlation of 0 means the variables are unrelated and have no relationship - Positive Correlations: both variables increase, the variables are going in the same direction - Negative Correlation: variables are going in opposite directions, one increases and one decreases - Free time goes up, hw goes down - Example: the amount of hrs u study and your GPA - ADVANTAGE: You know if the variables are related and how they're related in terms of directionality - DISADVANTAGE: Correlation does not demonstrate causation!

Case Study (Clinical Study)

- In depth focus on all aspects of a single case - Natural clinical tests (specific kind of case study): natural events, such as accidents, that provide psychological data - Don't plan for - Take a situation like a terrorist event and you study how it affects mental health of the people - The person knows that they are being researched - Example of clinical method: any time a therapist meets with a patient - Example in case study: study of the Asmat tribe in famous for their heavy cannibalism and taking skulls and decorate it - ADVANTAGES: your are studying the subject that you are interested in - DISADVANTAGES: Its heavily outside of your control as a researchers b/c you are just hoping that your subject is telling the truth and will come back every day You can't generalize to the population just bc you subject acts a certain way Example: 9/11 and studying the effects on people who saw it Found that people that watched it on tv were experiences symptoms matched with PTSD

Terminal Buttons

- Knobby ends of the axon - Releases NT's - Does not touch the dendrite of the post - synaptic neuron

John B. Watson

Behaviorism "Give me a dozen healthy infants..." and let me raise them however I want and I will turn anyone into a stellar athlete, academic, musichin, criminal, etc] Your surroundings is everything, you can make someone however you want with their environment Believed you could condition babies to fear. Answer is yes (Little Albert study)

Ivan Pavlov

Behaviorism Names classical conditioning Rang a bell and gave dogs food, all he had to do was ring the bell and the dog started to salivate Like when you have to spell out walk to yur dog, thats classical conditioning Involuntary behavioral change

B.F. Skinner

Behaviorism Parent Conditioning (rewards and punishers) Behaviorist that developed the theory of operant conditioning by training pigeons and rats

normal distribution

Bell curve Negatively skewed Positively skewed

Roger Sperry

Biological Brain hemisphere specialization - you have 2 halves of your brain (right and left) and they do different things Language is left hemisphere, right does other things

biological psychology

Brain chemistry, brain structure, function, anomalies What things are going right or wrong Roger Sperry Brain hemisphere specialization - you have 2 halves of your brain (right and left) and they do different things Language is left hemisphere, right does other things

Glutamate

Brain's main excitatory NT Involves in learning/long term memory Surplus: over-stimulated brain, migraines and even seizures

GABA (gamma amino butyric acid)

Brain's main inhibitory NT Acts like a brake to the excitatory NTs in our system sleep/awake cycles Medications that increase GABA help treat Surplus: sleep disorders, eating disorders Deficit: seizures, tremors, insomnia, anxiety

John Locke

British philosopher Argued that we are born from knowledge Tabula Rasa-- you were born a blank slate Need to experience life to learn

Aristotle

Monist--your mind resides in your body and head. If one things fails, so will the other From experience--only way we will learn is through experimentation and living Empiricist--experimentist

Experiments

To identify cause and effect relationships, we conduct experiments Directly vary a condition Create 2 or more groups of subjects, alike in all ways except that condition Record whether varying the condition affects behavior ADVANTAGES: Only kind of research where correlation can be determined (CAN SAY THE WORD CAUSE) DISADVANTAGES: Hard to run, takes a long time, need things to be cleared in order to even start

Eclectic

Various schools of thought Example: biopsychosocial approach Three factors shape behavior You biology, physcology, and environment (social)

Behaviorism

Wanted psychology to be "the scientific study of observable behavior" and actions Stems from desire to move away from pure introspection (thinking about how you feel in the moment) Is a perspective that focuses on observable behavior and actions Ivan Pavlov John B. Watson BF Skinner

hindsight bias

You think you knew all along (i knew you were trouble when you walked in)

Self fulfilling prophecy

a predictions that leads people to act in ways to make the prediction come true

confirmation bias

seek to confirm our beliefs, may ignore evidence that refutes it

Representative sample

small group that accurately reflects a larger population

Medulla

the base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing, digestion, and swallowing

Control group

the group that does not receive the experimental treatment.

Experimental group

the group that receives the independent variable

Psychology

the study of the mind and its processes, behavior, and the relationship between the 2 + The relationship between your mind and your behaviors

single-blind experiment

the subjects have no idea whether they received real or placebo

Functionalism

Focus on active processes, not passive Study the "why" Inspired by work of Darwin William James Mary Whiton Calkins Margaret Floy Washburn

Cognitivism

Focuses on thought processes Looking at how you think, process, and store Cognitions = thoughts Allen Newell and Herbert Simon Jean Piaget Cognitive development in children : how children go from blabbering to speaking a language Irrational thoughts - you need to be liked by everyone you meet. Completely wrong + how you break this

Humanism

Free will Self-esteem Human potential/growth Abraham Maslow Carl Rogers

Rene Descartes

French philosopher, mathematician, scientist Revived plato's dualism-- believing the mind is entirely distinct from the body Cogito Ergo Sum-- I think therefore I am

Margaret Floy Washburn

Functionalism First women to earn a PhD in psych

William James

Functionalism Principles of Psychology 1890 Importance of understanding how humans adapt Starts a doctorate at Harvard

Mary Whiton Calkins

Funtionalism Admitted to harvard's Graduate Seminar by James Harvard refused her degree - offered a degree from Radcliffe, but she declined 1st Female Pres of APA

Immanuel Kant

German philosopher Blends Rationalism and Empiricism A Priori and A Posteriori

Wolfgang Kohler

Gestalt Insight and thinking (aha moment) in animals Worked with chimps and put them in situations where they had to problem solve

Sociocultural

How cultures/situations affect us What Social norms do in processing through life John Berry Cultural relativity- understanding the culture and background of every subject Example: depression, some ppl talk about stomach hurting, some talk about feeling hopeless

Assosiationism

How events are linked in mind - learning Edward Lee Thorndike Law of Effect Actions rewarded will increase, those punished will decrease

Evolutionary

How humans adapt and change over time Charles Darwin Natural selection

Why do good research and analyze with stats?

Human error! observer/experimenter bias and effect

Abraham Maslow

Humanism Everyone is on a quest for self actualization (thriving and living to your fullest potential)

Carl Rogers

Humanism Says only way you'll get there is through unconditional positive regard (from your mom) Amends his theory to just someone in your life (not just your mom)

Ethical Guidelines for Psych Rx

Institutional review boards check for: - Acceptable deception - Informed consent (comes first) -Debriefing - Minimal Pain (psychological/physical) - Maintain Confidentiality

Descriptive stats

Measures a central tendency Mean (avg) Median (middle score) Mode (most common)

Endorphins

Meditate pain at receptor sites Stress reduction Positive mood Narcotics mimic endorphins Heroin Surplus: artificial high Deficit: increased experience of pain

Nodes of Ranvier (myelin sheath)

- Myelin Sheath: the fatty substance that surrounds and protects some nerve fibers (produced by Schwann cells in the PNS and Oligodendrocytes in the CNS) - Nodes of Raniver: one of the many gaps in the myelin sheath, this is where the action potential occurs - Multiple sclerosis (condition where you have myelin degeneration)

naturalistic observation

- Observing a person or an animal in the environment in which they live - ADVANTAGES: You get natural and real behavior No lab needed, costs are less Subject does not know they're being observed Example: the study: Naturalist observations of peer interventions in bullying Went to a school playground to look for bullying intervention - DISADVANTAGES: Observer effect: changes in behavior caused by an awareness of being observed Students could change how they are talking based on who is watching Cameras help Observer Bias: Occurs when observers see what they expect to see or record only selected details You set out to support your hypothesis, so you only notice when they do what you thought and you are looking FOR that behavior Anthropomorphic Fallacy: attributing human thoughts/feelings to animals Often take sorrow and regret and stuff like that and apply it to animals Eliminate any human emotion words, you script their behavior instead

Barnum Effect

- People believe descriptions apply specifically to them, despite the fact the description applies to everyone - We will pay to be amazed and to feel enjoyment The greatest show on earth, making money off of peoples gullibleness

Pseudo psychologies

- Pseudo means "false" not based on scientific testing - Ex: Palmistry: lines on the palms of your hands to predict your future and personality - Phrenology: personality traits revealed by shape of skull and bumps on your head - Graphology: personality revealed by your handwriting - Astrology: the positions of the stars and planets at birth determine your personality and affect your behavior - Self fulfilling prophecy

measures of dispersion

- Range- dif from high to low score - Standard deviation- how much the scores differ from the mean - Listed as z scores

Intraneuronal communication

- Resting potential -70mv: Outside of the neuron has a mostly positive change, but inside has a mostly negative charge - Threshold -55/-50mv - Action potential...ion channels open allowing Na+ to rush in (all or nothing) - The only way the message will happen is if the action potential pushes it along - gates/membranes open - Negative after potential... K+ flows out - Absolute refractory - Relative refractory

how neurons communicate

- Sending neuron will send the neural impulse along its axon 1. Electrical impulses (action potentials) travel down a neuron's axon until reaching tiny junction known as a synapse 2. When an action potential reaches an axon terminal. It stimulates the release of neurotransmitter molecules. These molecules cross the synaptic gap and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron.this allows ions to enter the receiving neuron and excite or inhibit a new action potential 3. The sending neuron normally reabsorbs excess neurotransmitter molecules a process called reuptake

Neuron

- Single nerve cell; basic building block of the nervous system - Able to transmit messages from body to brain and vise versa - Everything about you is neuron based

Axon

- The long extension of a neuron that carries nerve impulses away from the body of the cell - Some axons are microscopic and you cant even see them, but some are as long as your leg, where you will find myelin

Experiments

- To identify cause and effect relationships, we conduct experiments - Create 2 or more groups of subjects, alike in all ways except that condition ADVANTAGES: - Only kind of research where correlation can be determined (CAN SAY THE WORD CAUSE) DISADVANTAGES: - Hard to run, takes a long time, need things to be cleared in order to even start

Surveys/Questionnaires

- Using public polling techniques to answer psychological questions - Example: like the school survey on mental health - Same with youth risk behavior survey - ADVANTAGES: efficiency, fast - DISADVANTAGES: Courtesy bias: a tendency to give polite or socially acceptable answers or socially desirable answers Like lying and saying you didn't cheat Response Bias: not all answered or returned the survey Sampling Bias: unrepresentative sample

Fallacy of positive instances

- We remember/notice things that confirm our expectations and forget the rest - You create this set of memories and evidence to support what the astrology says about you

Brainstem

- made up of medulla, pons, and reticular formation - indicates whether your alive or dead - keeps you alive

parietal lobe

- mediates attention - somatosensory cortex: all sensations of skin and muscles

inferential statistics

- numerical data that allow one to generalize- to infer from sample data the probability of something being true of a population - Statistical significance - Probability (p-value) - likelihood of chance - Low p-value (below .05) is better!

frontal lobe

- planning, thinking, decision making - primary motor cortex: control all voluntary mvmt in body - Phinneas Cage

Cerebellum

- processing sensory input - coordinating movement output and balance - enables nonverbal learning and memory

Pons

- the part of the brainstem that is the bridge/message system btw spine and brain - relay/message station of the brain

Neurotransmitter modifiers

Agonists: substances that increase activity of NT Opiates agonist Endorphins Antagonists: substances that decrease activity of NT Curare is antagonist to ACh

Epinephrine/ norepinephrine (NE)

Alertness/arousal Fear and anxiety Mood elevation Antidepressant medications Surplus: anxiety Deficit: depression

Jean Piaget

Cognitivism Cognitive development in children : how children go from blabbering to speaking a language Irrational thoughts - you need to be liked by everyone you meet. Completely wrong + how you break this

Allen Newell and Herbert Simon

Cognitivism Created detailed models for how people think

Plato

Dualist-- 2 separate ideas of body and mind Innate--you were born with everything you need in your mind already there. Think things through to find answers Rationalist

Structuralism

First major school of thought in psych founded in Germany Goal was to understand the "structure" of the mind Wilhelm Wundt Stanley Hall Edward Titchener

Electro Chemical Impulse

Electro- the action potential along the axon Chemical- the NT's in the synapse

Francis Bacon

English philosopher and statesman Believed science and thought should be purely empirical-- not guided by theory at all "Atheoretical" Science began contradicting the bible

Dopamine (DA)

Mood and arousal Smooth, coordinated movements Pleasure-based cycles L-Dopa: medicine that relaxes the muscles Surplus: schizophrenia Addition Deficit: Parkinson's Disease (stiff, jerky mvmt, tremors)

Serotonin (5-HT)

Mood regulation sleep regulation hunger arousal Medication to keep serotonin in the synapse for longer Surplus: hallucinations Deficit: depression, mood disorders

Acetylcholine (ACh)

Muscular contractions memory/learning (high concentration in hippocampus) Attention Botox Curare Surplus: muscle spasms Deficit: Alzheimer's disease. Loss of muscular contractions Causes issues with memory

Pragmatism

Offshoot of functionalism Knowledge is validated by its usefulness How can we apply to psychology? focuses only on the outcomes and effects of processes and situations.

illusory correlation

Perceived relationships where none exist (lucky socks)

Socrates

Philosopher Concluded, through logic that the mind was separable from the body, and the mind continues after death Worked with his student Plato

Psychology is rooted/made up of:

Philosophy: understanding the nature/aspects of the world thru introspection- self examination + Physiology: the scientific study of organisms and their functions

Psychodynamic

Sigmund Freud Looks at : Unconscious conflicts and Repressed urges - All of us have dark dangerous violent thoughts and urges and Looked at childhood experiences All thought, actions, emotions are determined (determinism) Psychoanalysis - the tx based on Freud's work

John Berry

Sociocultural Cultural relativity- understanding the culture and background of every subject Example: depression, some ppl talk about stomach hurting, some talk about feeling hopeless

Cell body

Soma: the cell body of the neuron; it contains the nucleus

Stanley Hall

Structuralism Student of Wundt Brought ideas to the US Established the first psych lab in the Us at Johns Hopkins University

Edward Titchener

Structuralism Student of Wundt- moved to cornell All consciousness can be reduced to elementary states - studied through introspection

Wilhelm Wundt

Structuralism first lab at University of Leipzig in Germany Studying "atoms of the mind" - basic mental processes Wait until your consciousness process sound (ball hitting platform) When we involve the mind it slows us down Founding fathers of psychology

Hippocrates

Studied the human body Father of medicine Proposed the mind was within the brain Used empirical methods Experimentation and thinking and logic based ideas Cutting into dead organisms (dissection) Vivisection: examination alive organisms Wrote a book that looked at melencolia which is like depression and anxiety and mental health disorders

Uncritical acceptance

Tendency to believe positive or flattering descriptions of yourself

Dendrites

The branching structure of a neuron that receives messages (attached to cell body (soma))

independent variable

The experimental factor that is manipulated, the "cause"

Synapse

The gap between the sending neuron and the receiving neuron (microscopic space)

dependent variable

The measurable effect, outcome, or response in which the research is interested.

Nucleus

The organelle in the cell body of the neuron that contains the genetic material of the cell

double-blind experiment

both the subjects AND the experimenters have no idea whether the subjects received real or placebo

placebo effect

changes in behavior that result from expectation of change (ex. Little kid acting out in excitement not actually from the sugar)

Neurotransmitters

chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons

Extraneous variables

conditions that a researcher wants to prevent from affecting the outcomes of the experiment, (ex. If the kids show up already hyper from sugary breakfast before, or experimenting start time)

The basic parts of a neuron are

dendrites, cell body, axon, nucleus, nodes of rainiver, terminal buttons, synapse

Lobes of the cerebral cortex

frontal, parietal, occipital, temporal

Hindbrain

medulla, pons, cerebellum, brainstem