AP Psychology: Chapter 1 Exam • Modules 1-8

What is the placebo effect?

(Latin for "I shall please") experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent

What were the beliefs of Rene Descartes in terms of the relationship between mind and body?

- Agreed with Socrates and Plato about the existence of innate ideas and mind's being "entirely distinct from body" and able to survive its death - Dissected animals and concluded that the fluid in the brain's cavities contained "animal spirits." These spirits, he surmised, flowed from the brain through what we call the nerves (which he thought were hollow) to the muscles, provoking movement. Memories formed as experiences opened pores in the brain into which the animal spirits also flowed.

What did the ancient Greek philosophers Socrates and Plato conclude?

- They concluded that mind and body are separate, the mind continues after death, and knowledge is innate (inborn, natural). - concluded that mind is separable from body and continues after the body dies, and that knowledge is innate ( born within us )

What is humanistic psychology and what two men started this in the 1960s?

- a historically significant perspective that emphasized human growth potential; a type of psychology that reasons that humans strive to reach their full potential by finding unconditional love, and experiencing life - started by Abraham Moslow and Carl Rogers

What is psychoanalytic psychology and who was the "major force" behind it?

- also known as Freudian psychology, a type of psychology that reasons that unconscious forces and childhood experiences affect individual's behavior and mental processes - major force: Sigmund Freud

What is functionalism and who introduced it?

- an early school of thought promoted by James and influenced by Darwin; explored how mental and behavioral processes function—how they enable the organism to adapt, survive, and flourish. - founded by William James Note: William James also wrote the first psychology textbook called Principles of Psychology

What is structuralism and who introduced it?

- an early school of thought promoted by Wundt and Titchener; used introspection to reveal the structure of the human mind. - founded by Edward Bradford Titchener

What is the biopsychosocial approach?

- an integrated approach of understanding behavior or mental processes by incorporating biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis - this integrated approach incorporates three viewpoints to offer a more complete picture of any given behavior or mental process.

What two issues emerge when debating if it is morally acceptable to use animals in research?

- an issue discussing whether it is right to place the well-being of humans above that of other animals - an issue determining what safeguards should protect the well-being of animals in research

Define testing effect and SQR3

- enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information. Also sometimes referred to as a retrieval practice effect or test-enhanced learning - Survey, Question, Read, Retrieve, and Review

Averages derived from scores with ______________________________ are more reliable than averages based on scores with ______________________________.

- low variability - high variability

What are two reasons why psychologists study nonhuman animals?

- psychologists find animals fascinating, so they study them in order to understand how different species learn, think, and behave - psychologists study animals to learn about people since animals and people share a common biology

What is culture? Give some examples of how culture shapes our behavior.

- the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next - culture impacts individual's perception of time and promptness, ideal personal space, beliefs about marriage and sex, and emotional display

What is natural selection and who pioneered this idea?

- the principle that inherited traits that better enable an organism to survive and reproduce in a particular environment will (in competition with other trait variations) most likely be passed on to succeeding generations - Charles Darwin

What is behaviorism?

- the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. - enforced by John B. Watson and B. F. Skinner - Most psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2)

What are the four main ethics codes when working with humans?

1. obtain potential participants' informed consent to take part 2. protect participants from greater-than-usual harm and discomfort 3. keep information about individual participants confidential 4. fully debrief people (explain the research afterward, including any temporary deception).

What three principles must be kept in mind when deciding when it is safe to generalize from a sample?

1. representative samples are better than biased samples 2. less-variable observations are more reliable than those that are more variable 3. more cases are better than fewer

What is a histogram?

A bar graph depicting a frequency distribution.

What is the point to remember when dealing with experiments?

A correlation coefficient, which can range from −1.0 to +1.0, reveals the extent to which two things relate. The closer the score gets to −1 or +1, the stronger the correlation. Although correlational research helpfully reveals relationships, it doesn't explain them.

What is meant by a "negative correlation"? Give an example.

A correlation is negative if two sets of scores relate inversely, one set going up as the other goes down. The correlation between standing people's height and the distance from their head to the ceiling is strongly (perfectly, in fact) negative.

What is meant by a "positive correlation"? Give an example.

A correlation is positive if two sets of scores, such as for height and weight, tend to rise or fall together.

Define developmental psychologists.

A psychologist who examines our physical, cognitive, and social development across the life span.

When dealing with research, what is the population?

All those in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn

How were Aristotle's ideas different from Socrates and Plato?

Aristotle derived principles from careful observations. Moreover, he said knowledge is not preexisting (sorry, Socrates and Plato); instead it grows from the experiences stored in our memories.

What is the correlational research method?

Basic Purpose: To detect naturally occurring relationships; to assess how well one variable predicts another How Conducted: Collect data on two or more variables; no manipulation What is Manipulated: Nothing Weaknesses: Cannot specify cause and effect

What is the experimental research method?

Basic Purpose: To explore cause and effect How Conducted: Manipulate one or more factors; use random What is Manipulated: The independent variable(s) Weaknesses: Sometimes not feasible; results may not generalize

What is the descriptive research method?

Basic Purpose: To observe and record behavior How Conducted: Do case studies, naturalistic observations, or surveys What is Manipulated: Nothing Weaknesses: No control of variables; single cases may be misleading

What is the author's point to remember?

Before accepting survey findings, think critically. Consider the sample. The best basis for generalizing is from a representative sample. You cannot compensate for an unrepresentative sample by simply adding more people.

What does the smart thinker ask?

Does it work?

What is the point to remember in module 8?

Doubt big, round, undocumented numbers. If you read that there are one million missing children, two million homeless, or three million spouse abusers, you can be pretty sure that someone is guessing. If they want to emphasize the problem, they will be motivated to guess big. If they want to minimize the problem, they will guess small.

Define the focus of social-cultural perspective.

How behavior and thinking vary across situations and cultures - Definiton: the study of how situations and cultures affect our behavior and thinking. Sample Questions: How are we affected by the people around us, and by our surrounding culture?

Define the focus of psychodynamic perspective.

How behavior springs from unconscious drives and conflicts - Definiton: a branch of psychology that studies how unconscious drives and conflicts influence behavior and uses that information to treat people with psychological disorders. Sample Questions: How can someone's personality traits and disorders be explained by unfulfilled wishes and childhood traumas?

What is meant by the amount of variation in the data?

How similar or diverse the scores are

Define the focus of biological perspective.

How the body and brain enable emotions, memories, and sensory experiences; how our genes and our environment influence our individual differences - Definiton: the scientific study of the links between biological (genetic, neural, hormonal) and psychological processes. (Some biological psychologists call themselves behavioral neuroscientists, neuropsychologists, behavior geneticists, physiological psychologists, or biopsychologists.) Sample Questions: How do pain messages travel from the hand to the brain? How is blood chemistry linked with moods and motives? To what extent are psychological traits such as intelligence, personality, sexual orientation, and vulnerability to depression products of our genes? Of our environment?

Define the focus of evolutionary perspective.

How the natural selection of traits has promoted the survival of genes - Definition: the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection. Sample Questions: How does evolution influence behavior tendencies?

Define the focus of humanistic perspective.

How we achieve personal growth and self-fulfillment - Defintion: a historically significant perspective that emphasized human growth potential Sample Questions: How can we work toward fulfilling our potential? How can we overcome barriers to our personal growth?

Define the focus of cognitive perspective.

How we encode, process, store, and retrieve information - Definition: the study of mental processes, such as occur when we perceive, learn, remember, think, communicate, and solve problems Sample Questions: How do we use information in remembering? Reasoning? Solving problems?

Define the focus of behavioral perspective.

How we learn observable responses - Definiton: the scientific study of observable behavior, and its explanation by principles of learning. Sample Questions: How do we learn to fear particular objects or situations? What is the most effective way to alter our behavior, for example, to lose weight?

How does the wording of questions influence responses on a survey?

It determines how people will react, feel, and approve of a phrase, as certain words have negative or positive connotations and denotations that affect how people will respond to them.

How does psychology influence modern culture?

It influences modern culture because psychological knowledge transforms people and it changes people in modern culture by shifting how people view themselves and others, such as in regards to women's rights and mental disabled people

Who redefined psychology as "behaviorism"?

John B. Watson

Who was the first woman to receive a Ph.D. in psychology?

Margaret Floy Washburn

Who was the first woman to become president of the American Psychological Association?

Mary Whiton Calkins

What is the main purpose of an experiment?

Not to re-create the exact behaviors of everyday life but to test theoretical principles that can possibly illuminate everyday behaviors

What is the final point to remember for Unit 1?

Statistical significance indicates the likelihood that a result could have happened by chance. But this does not say anything about the importance of the results.

Define forensic psychologist.

They bring law and psychology together. They might develop public policy for the mentally ill, consult on jury selection or help law enforcement in criminal cases.

Define counseling psychologist.

They help individuals cope with or make difficult life changes.

Define rehabilitation psychologist.

They help individuals who have lost functioning after an accident or illness.

Define clinical psychologist.

They promote psychological health in individuals, groups, or organizations. May specialize in specific psychiatric disorders.

Define Neuropsychologists.

They study how our brain impacts our behavior and thoughts. They might treat Alzheimer's or stroke, work with athletes and concussions or with people with autism or ADHD.

Define environmental psychologist.

They study how we are influenced and affected by our natural or built (urban) surroundings.

Define Industrial-organizational psychologist.

They study the relationship between people and our work environments. They investigate worker productivity and personnel selection, as well as organizational structuring, consumer behavior, and training.

Define health psychologist.

They work to promote health and prevent disease. They might design programs to stop smoking, lose weight, improve sleep, manage pain, and prevent psychosocial problems related to disease.

Define sports psychologist.

They work with athletes to help them improve their performance. They might work as university professors or as a consultant for a team, or private company. They may work with athletes that have psychological problems such as anxiety or substance abuse.

Define school psychologist.

They work with kids in school dealing with problems that may negatively impact learning in the classroom.

Define community psychologist.

They work with larger groups and communities and focus on crisis management...such as recovering from a hurricane.

What is critical thinking?

Thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, appraises the source, discerns hidden biases, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions.

What is key to approaching all of psychology?

Understanding how research is done - how testable questions are developed and studied - is key to appreciating all of psychology

How do values affect psychological science?

Values affect psychological science by coloring or influencing individuals' observations or interpretations. ex: the rabbit and duck drawing, the labels people put on topics, or value-laden life advice, such as marriage counseling

The first "experiment" in psychology is attributed to Wilhelm Wundt. Describe what happened.

Wundt's experiment consisted of two separate trials, in which subjects were asked to press a telegraph key as soon as they heard the sound of a ball hitting a platform and were consciously aware of perceiving the sound testing reactionary times, thoughts, and sensations, and analyzing them into their constituent elements. The exact results of the experiment was that in the multiple trials, the subjects passed the button in 1/10th of a second when they heard the sound of the ball hitting a platform, but it took 2/10ths of a second to wait until they were consciously aware of perceiving the sound. Note: Wundt established the first psychology laboratory at the University of Leipzig, Germany.

Define standard deviation.

a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score

Define survey.

a descriptive technique for obtaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group

Define case study and give an example.

a descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles ex: Patient H.M., Little Hans, Genie (the federal child), University of Tennessee women's basket ball team, prison inmates in a group therapy study

Define naturalistic observation and give an example.

a descriptive technique of observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate or control the situation ex: watching chimpanzees in the jungle; psychologists Mehl and Pennebaker attached voice recorders to 79 college students to listen in on their day-to-day conversations

What is a confounding variable?

a factor other than the factor being studied that might influence a study's results

What is sampling bias?

a flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample

What are scatter plots?

a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. The slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables. The amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation (little scatter indicates high correlation)

Define skewed distribution.

a representation of scores that lack symmetry around their average value

What is an experiment?

a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable). By random assignment of participants, the experimenter aims to control other relevant factors

What is a random sample?

a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion Note: different from random assignment, which assigns participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between the different groups

What is correlation?

a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from −1.00 to +1.00) Note: Correlation—abbreviated r—can range from +1.00 (scores for one variable increase in direct proportion to scores for another), to 0.00 (no relationship), to -1.00 (scores for one variable decrease precisely as scores rise for the other).

What is a correlation coefficient?

a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from −1.00 to +1.00).

What is statistical significance?

a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance

What is a normal curve (normal distribution)?

a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean (about 68 percent fall within one standard deviation of it) and fewer and fewer near the extremes

What is a double-blind procedure? Why is it used?

an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies - used in drug-evaluation studies in order to avoid bias or psychological foresight that can affect the results of the experiment

What are variables when discussing correlation?

anything that can vary and is feasible and ethical to measure

What is random assignment? (don't confuse with random sample!)

assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between the different groups

Critical thinking, when informed by science, helps . . .

clear the colored lenses of our biases

Define experimental psychologists.

conduct experiments to understand our behaviors and mental processes

Critical thinking must also consider the . . .

credibility of sources

What are the three key elements of the "scientific attitude"?

curiosity: asking questions skepticism: sifting reality from fantasy and demanding evidence humility: accepting incorrect predictions

What does the experimenter intend in a laboratory environment?

experimenter intends the laboratory environment to be a simplified reality - one that stimulates and controls important features of everyday life

Define cognitive psychologists.

experimenting with how we perceive, think, and solve problems.

Define social psychologists.

exploring how we view and affect one another.

What is at the foundation of all science?

having a scientific attitude that healthily combines curiosity, skepticism and humility

What are the three roadblocks of critical thinking?

hindsight bias: the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it. (Also known as the I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon.) overconfidence: the tendency to be more confident than correct—to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments perceiving order in random events: an eagerness to identify a pattern in random events when none exists

What is an independent variable and give an example?

in an experiment, the factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied. ex: students' memories, intelligence, and age

Define experimental group.

in an experiment, the group exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable

Define control group.

in an experiment, the group not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment

What is a dependent variable and give an example?

in an experiment, the outcome that is measured; the variable that may change when the independent variable is manipulated. - ex: final exam performance

For psychologists, statistics are the tools that allow them to:

measure variables and then interpret results

Define mode, mean, and median.

mode: the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution mean: the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores median: the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it

What are inferential statistics?

numerical data that allow one to generalize - to infer from sample data the probability of something being true of a population

What are descriptive statistics?

numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups. Includes measure of central tendency and measure of variation.

What is an illusory correlation?

perceiving a relationship where none exists, or perceiving a stronger-than-actual relationship

Describing behavior is a first step toward _______________________________.

predicting it

What is basic research?

pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base

What is applied research?

scientific study that aims to solve practical problems

Define range.

the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution

A key goal of experimental design is validity. Explain what this means.

the extent to which a test or experiment measures or predicts what it is supposed to - Means: how successful an experiment or test reaches its objective of analyzing a topic, item, or phenomena

What is empiricism?

the idea that knowledge comes from experience, and that observation and experimentation enable scientific knowledge

What is cognitive neuroscience?

the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language)

Describe the nature-nurture issue?

the longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors. Today's science sees traits and behaviors arising from the interaction of nature and nurture

What is John Locke referring to when he calls the mind a tabula rasa?

the mind at birth is a tabula rasa—a "blank slate"—on which experience is written.

What is introspection?

the process of looking inward in an attempt to directly observe one's own psychological processes

How is psychology defined today?

the scientific study of behavior and mental processes of humans and other animals

What is positive psychology?

the scientific study of human flourishing, with the goals of discovering and promoting strengths and virtues that help individuals and communities to thrive

What is psychometrics?

the scientific study of the measurement of human abilities, attitudes, and traits

Define educational psychologists.

the study of how psychological processes affect and can enhance teaching and learning.

What is cognitive psychology?

the study of mental processes, such as occur when we perceive, learn, remember, think, communicate, and solve problems

What is meant by regression toward the mean?

the tendency for extreme or unusual scores or events to fall back (regress) toward the average

What are the parts of the scientific method?

theory: an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events hypothesis: a testable prediction, often implied by a theory operational definition: a carefully worded statement of the exact procedures (operations) used in a research study. For example, human intelligence may be operationally defined as what an intelligence test measures exs: human intelligence may be operationally defined as what an intelligence test measures replication: repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding can be reproduced

Define psychometric and quantitive psychologists.

use math and statistics to create, administer, score, and interpret tests, such as intelligence or personality tests

What is the underlying logic when it relates to the possibility of obtaining results by chance?

when averages from two samples are each reliable measures of their respective populations (as when each is based on many observations that have small variability), then their difference is probably reliable as well.