AP Psychology Chapter 11 Motivation

Define motivation, and name four perspectives useful for studying motivated behavior.

A motivation is a need or desire that energizes behavior and directs it toward a goal. The perspec- tives useful for studying motivated behavior include (1) instinct/evolutionary perspective, (2) drive-reduction theory, (3) arousal theory, and (4) Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of needs.

incentive theory

A theory of motivation stating that behavior is directed toward attaining desirable stimuli (rewards) and avoiding unwanted stimuli (punishments)

instinct theory

A view that explains human behavior as motivated by automatic, involuntary, and unlearned responses.

Describe Maslow's hierarchy of needs.

Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of needs expresses the idea that, until satisfied, some motives are more compelling than others. At the base of the hierarchy are our physiological needs, such as for food and water. Only if these are met are we prompted to meet our need for safety, and then to meet the uniquely human needs to give and receive love, to belong and be accepted, and to enjoy self-esteem. Beyond this lies the need to actualize one's full potential. Near the end of his life, Maslow suggested that some people reach a level of self-transcendence in which they strive for meaning and purpose that is beyond the self, that is, transpersonal.

Discuss achievement motivation

Achievement motivation is the desire for significant accomplishment; for mastery of skills and ideas; and for rapidly attaining a high standard and for control.

Discuss some of the forces that influence teen pregnancy and teen attitudes toward contraception.

Adolescents' physical maturation fosters a sexual dimension to their emerging identity, but rates of teen intercource vary from culture to culture. In the twentieth century, increase teen sexual activity in north america was reflected in increased rates of adolescent pregnancies. Factors contributing to teen pregnancy include ignorance of the potential consequences of sexual activity; guilt related to sexual activity; minimal communication about contraception with parents, partner, and peers; alcohol use; and mass media norms of unprotected promiscuity.

Describe the physiological, psychological and cultural determinants of hunger.

Although the stomach's pangs contribute to hunger, variations in body chemistry are more impor- tant. Increases in the hormone insulin diminish blood glucose, partly by converting it to body fat. We do not consciously feel this change in blood chemistry. Rather, our body's internal state is monitored by the hypothalamus, which regulates the body's weight as it influences our feelings of hunger and fullness. Other hormones monitored by the hypothalamus include ghrelin (which is secreted by an empty stomach), obestatin (secreted by a full stomach), leptin (secreted by fat cells), and PYY (a digestive tract hormone). Orexin is a hunger-triggering hormone secreted by the hypothalamus. Activity in the lateral hypothalamus (sides of the hypothalamus) brings on hunger; activity in the ventromedial hypothalamus (the lower mid-hypothalamus) depresses hunger. Some researchers have abandoned the idea that the body has a precise set point—a biologically fixed tendency to maintain an optimum weight—preferring the term settling point to indicate an envi- ronmentally and biologically influenced level at which weight settles in response to caloric input and expenditure. Human bodies regulate weight through the control of food intake, energy output, and basal metabolic rate—the body's resting rate of energy expenditure. Part of knowing when to eat is our memory of our last meal. As time passes, we anticipate eating again and feel hungry. Although some taste preferences are genetic, conditioning and culture also affect taste. For exam- ple, Bedouins enjoy eating the eye of a camel, which most North Americans would find repulsive. Most North Americans also shun dog, rat, and horse meat, all of which are prized elsewhere. With repeated exposure, our appreciation for a new taste typically increases, and exposure to one set of novel foods increases willingness to try another. Some of our taste preferences, such as the avoid- ance of foods that have made us ill, have survival value. We eat more when eating with others (through social facilitation). In addition, the size of food portions (called unit basis) and even of bowls, plates, and eating utensils affects how much we eat.

Discuss the contribution of arousal theory to the study of motivation.

Arousal theory states that rather than reducing a physiological need or minimizing tension, some motivated behaviors increase arousal. Curiosity-driven behaviors, for example, suggest that too lit- tle or too much stimulation can motivate people to seek an optimum level of arousal.

approach-avoidance conflict

Conflict that results from having to choose an alternative that has both attractive and unappealing aspects

approach-approach conflict

Conflict that results from having to choose between two attractive alternatives

Explain how drive-reduction theory views human motivation.

Drive-reduction theory proposes that most physiological needs create aroused psychological states that drive us to reduce or satisfy those needs. The aim of drive reduction is internal stability, or homeostasis. Furthermore, not only are we pushed by internal drives but we are also pulled by external incentives. When there is both a need (hunger) and an incentive (smell of freshly baked bread), we feel strongly driven.

Describe the role of external stimuli and fantasies on sexual motivation and behavior

Erotic material and other external stimuli can trigger sexual arousal in both men and women, although the activated brain areas differ somewhat. Sexually explicit material may lead people to perceive their partners as comparatively less appealing and to devalue their relationships. Sexually coercive material tend to increase viewer's acceptance of rape and violence towards women. In combination with the internal hormonal push and the external pull of sexual stimuli, fantasies influence sexual arousal.

Discuss the factors that predispose some people to become and remain obese.

Genes and environment interact to produce obesity. Obesity correlates with depression, especially among women. Twin and adoption studies indicate that body weight is also genetically influenced. Environmental influences include lack of exercise, an abundance of high-calorie food, and social influence. Those wishing to lose weight are advised to make a lifelong change in habits: Get enough sleep; boost energy expenditure through exercise; limit variety and minimize exposure to tempting food cues; eat healthy foods and reduce portion sizes; space meals throughout the day; beware of the binge; monitor eating during social events; forgive the occasional lapse; and connect to a support group.

teen pregnancy

Ignorance: Teen girls do not have the right ideas about birth control methods. Guilt Related to Sexual Activity: Guilt reduces sexual activity, but it also reduces the use of contraceptives. Minimal Communication: Many teenagers feel uncomfortable about discussing contraceptives. Alcohol Use: Those who use alcohol prior to sex are less likely to use contraceptives. Mass Media: The media's portrayal of unsafe extramarital sex decreases the use of contraceptives.

Discuss the similarities and differences between instinct theory and the evolutionary perspective.

Instincts are rigidly patterned, complex behaviors found throughout a species, such as the nest-building behaviors of species of birds. Early instinct theorist, influenced by Darwin's theory of natural selection, tried to classify human haviors as though they were propelled by such instincts. When it became clear that they were naming, not explaining, behaviors, this approach fell into disfavor. The underlying idea - that genes predispose species-typical behavior- is, however, still influential in evolutionary psychology, which studies behaviors in search of their adaptive functions.

hierarchy of needs

Maslow's pyramid of human needs, beginning at the base with physiological needs that must first be satisfied before higher-level safety needs and then psychological needs become active

Describe the human sexual response cycle, and discuss some causes of sexual disorders

Masters and Johnson describe four stages in the human sexual response cycle: excitement, plateau, orgasm (which seems to involve similar feelings and the brain activity in males and females), and resolution. During the resolution phase, males experience a refractory period, when renewed arousal and orgasm are impossible. Sexual disorders (problems that consistently impair sexual arousal or functioning, such as premature ejaculation, female orgasmic disorder, and erectile disorder) are being successfully treated by behaviorally oriented therapy, which assumes that people learn and can modify their sexual response, or with drug therapy.

Hormones involved in hunger

Orexin- Secreted by hypothalamus; increases hunger. ghrelin- Secreted by stomach; increases hunger. Insulin- Secreted by pancreas; increased hunger. Leptin- Secreted by fat cells; decreases hunger. PPY- Secreted by digestive tract; decreases hunger.

Describe the adaptive value of social attachments, and identify both healthy and unhealthy consequences of our need to belong.

Our need to affiliate-to feel connected and identified with others-boosted our ancestors' chances for survival, which may explain why humans in every society live in groups. The need to belong appears when people seek social acceptance, work to maintain relationships (or mourn their loss), and feel the joy of love(or the gloom of loneliness). Ostracized- excluded or shunned by others- people suffer from stress and depression- a real pain that increases activity in the same brain areas that respond to physical pain. When socially secure in their friendships, families, or marriages, people tend to be healthier and to have lower levels of depression , suicide, and early death. When socially excluded, they may engage in self-defeating behaviors (performing below their ability) or in antisocial behaviors.

Describe trends in the spread of sexually transmitted infections

STIs- sexually transmitted infections, such as the human papilloma virus, AIDS, and others have spread rapidly. People under the age of 25 account for two-thirds of such infections, and teen girls seem especially vulnerable because of their less mature bodies and lower levels of protective antibodies. Attempts to protect teens through comprehensive sex-education programs include a greater emphasis on teen abstinence. High intelligence, religiosity, father presence and participation in service learning programs to to be a predictor of teen sexual restraint.

Discuss the place of values in sex research.

Scientific research on sexual motivation does not attempt to define the personal meaning of ex in our lives, but sex research and education are not value-free. Some say that researchers and educators should therefore opening acknowledge their sex-related values, recognizing the emotional significance of sexual expression.

Summarize current views on the number of people whose sexual orientation is homosexual, and discuss the research on environmental and biological influences on sexual orientation.

Studies indicate that about 3 or 4 percent of men and 1 or 2 percent of women are homosexual, and that sexual orientation is enduring. Research does not support cuase-effect links between homsexuality and any of the following: a child's relationship with parents, father-absent homes, fear or hatred of people the other gender, childhood sexual experiences, peer relationships, or dating experiences. Evidence supporting the likelihood of a biological component of homosexuality is found in studies of the same-sex behavior in several hundred species, straight-gay differences in body and brain characteristics, genetic studies of family members and twins, and the effects of exposure to certain hormones during critical periods of prenatal development. The increasing public perception that sexual orientation is biologically influences is reflected in increasing acceptance of gays and lesbians and their relationships.

ventromedial hypothalamus

The part of the hypothalamus that produces feelings of fullness as opposed to hunger, and causes one to stop eating.

Discuss the impact of hormones on sexual motivation and behavior

The sex hormones testosterone and estrogen are present in both males and females, but males have higher levels of testosterone and females a higher level of estrogen. These hormones help our bodies develop and function as either male or female. In nonhuman animals, they also help stimulate sexual activity. Assuming a normal level is present, hormones have a looser influence on human sexual behavior, though desire does rise slightly at ovulation among women with mates. Unlike other mammalian females, women's sexuality is more responsive to testosterone level than to estrogen level. Short-term shifts in testosterone level are normal in men.

set point theory

Theory that proposes that humans and other animals have a natural or optimal body weight, called the set-point weight, that the body defends from becoming higher or lower by regulating feelings of hunger and body metabolism.

Discuss how social networking influences us.

We connect with others through social networking, strengthening our relationships with those we already know. When networking, people tend toward increased self-disclosure. Working out strategies for self-control and disciplined usage can help people maintain a healthy balance between social connections and school and work performance.

self-transcendence

according to Maslow, the striving for identity, meaning, and purpose beyond the self

sexual orientation

an enduring sexual attraction toward members of one's own sex (homosexual orientation), the other sex (heterosexual orientation), or both sexes (bisexual orientation).

multiple approach-avoidance conflict

being simultaneously attracted to and repelled by each of several alternatives

avoidance-avoidance conflict

conflict occurring when a person must choose between two undesirable goals

Ostracism

deliberate social exclusion of individuals or groups

narcissism

excessive self-love and self-absorption

Abraham Maslow

humanistic psychology; hierarchy of needs-needs at a lower level dominate an individual's motivation as long as they are unsatisfied; self-actualization, transcendence

Grit

in psychology, grit is passion and perseverance in the pursuit of long-term goals

Alfred Kinsey

regarded by some as the father of the scientific study of human sexuality. Published a series of reports which described common sexual behaviors in the US

Ecology of eating

situations that control our eating

lateral hypothalamus

stimulates hunger

unit bias

tendency to mindlessly eat more when portions are larger

basal metabolic rate

the body's resting rate of energy expenditure

Glucose

the form of sugar that circulates in the blood and provides the major source of energy for body tissues. When its level is low, we feel hunger.

drive-reduction theory

the idea that a physiological need creates an aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need

Homeostasis

the maintenance of a steady internal state (e.g., maintenance of steady body temperature).

affiliation need

the need to build relationships and to feel part of a group

Yerkes-Dodson Law

the principle that performance increases with arousal only up to a point, beyond which performance decreases

arousal theory

theory of motivation in which people are said to have an optimal (best or ideal) level of tension that they seek to maintain by increasing or decreasing stimulation