AP Psychology Unit 1-14 FRQ

Ms. Pilai has given her class their final exam and has discovered that their scores formed a perfect normal curve, with a standard deviation of 10.- If the mean score of the test was 72, what percentage of students scored between 62 and 82?- What range of scores would be within three standard deviations of the mean?- What percentage of the scores would be within two standard deviations of the mean?

68 percent of the students would have scored between 62 and 82—within one standard deviation of the mean. The range of scores within three standard deviations would be 42-102. 95 percent of all scores would be within two standard deviations of the mean.

Name and briefly describe the three essential principles of test construction.

68 percent of the students would have scored between 62 and 82—within one standard deviation of the mean. The range of scores within three standard deviations would be 42-102. 95 percent of all scores would be within two standard deviations of the mean.

How can you use Maslow's hierarchy of needs to explain why- a hungry young person would steal?- a lonely new student in a school would join a club?- a successful artist would continue to invest tremendous effort in her career?

A hungry young person would steal because of a physiological need.: A lonely new student would join a club to meet belongingness and love needs. A successful artist would still work hard to satisfy the need for self-actualization.

A researcher is conducting a study and wants to ensure that the sample chosen to participate will yield good results.- Why is it better to have a large sample of data instead of a small sample?- What happens to reliability as sample size increases?

A larger sample will be less variable (for example, a large sample from a population with 40 percent women and 60 percent men will be more likely to be close to that demographic breakdown than a smaller sample). As the sample size increases, the results are more likely to be reliable (represent the opinions) of the population as a whole.

Explain alcohol use disorder by using the following terms:- Tolerance- Craving- Withdrawal

A person who regularly consumes alcohol develops tolerance—they need to consume more and more alcohol to achieve the same pleasurable effects. Tolerance increases the risk of developing alcohol use disorder. A person with alcohol use disorder will crave the drug, even when use is accompanied by aversive consequences. A person with alcohol use disorder will suffer the negative symptoms of withdrawal when they stop drinking.

Your family has had a golden retriever for years, and that represents your prototype of a dog. You just got a dachshund puppy for the holidays. Explain how your prototype of a dog will hinder, and how your concept of a dog will help, your thinking about the new puppy as a dog.

A prototype is a mental image or best example of a category. You may initially have a difficult time thinking of the new dog as a "dog," because it looks so much different from your dog prototype (golden retriever). A concept is a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, and people. Your new puppy will still act like a dog—wagging its tail and barking—so you will quickly recognize it as part of the "dog" concept.

Bill grew up in a safe neighborhood, and his family made enough money for him to be comfortably fed and clothed. Bill worked hard in school, and he has decided to apply for admission to the University of Michigan. He puts a lot of effort into his application. Five months later, Bill is elated when he receives a letter of acceptance. Explain how each of the following psychological theories might consider Bill's experiences.- Maslow's hierarchy of needs- James-Lange theory- Cannon-Bard theory- Schachter-Singer two-factor theory

According to Maslow's hierarchy of needs, Bill's decision to apply to the University of Michigan is the result of a motivation to achieve the higher psychological needs of belonging, esteem, self-actualization, and self-transcendence. Bill is able to focus on these higher-level needs because his physiological and safety needs have already been met. According to the James-Lange theory, when Bill receives the letter in the mail, his heart races and his breathing increases, which causes his brain to automatically interpret this experience as the emotion of excitement. Note: Bill may exhibit any emotion as long as the physical arousal occurs prior to the experience of the emotion. According to the Cannon-Bard theory, when Bill receives the letter in the mail, his heart races and his breathing increases at the same time that he experiences the emotion of excitement. He simultaneously experiences an increase in physiological arousal and the emotion of happiness. According to the Schachter-Singer two-factor theory, when Bill opens his letter, he experiences an increase in physical arousal and determines that he is experiencing happiness based on the hopes and dreams for college that are on his mind. Note: Bill may exhibit any emotion as long as the response includes a physical arousal and a cognitive labeling of that emotion.

Steve recently lost his job. For each of the disorders below, explain how that diagnosis could have affected his job performance:

Agoraphobia: Because Steve was afraid to leave his house, he missed too much time from his job which caused him to be fired. Panic Disorder: Because Steve suffered frequent panic attacks, he was unable to complete his vocational duties due to him having to excuse himself frequently to find a private place to panic. Due to his OCD, Steve was constantly late for work because he could not leave his house without vacuuming the whole house twice to try to control his anxiety about dirt.

Identify one disadvantage and one advantage each, of using algorithms and heuristics when looking for an item in the grocery store.

Algorithm disadvantage: It is very time consuming, and you will spend much time wandering around the store looking at irrelevant items. Heuristic disadvantage: The few places you have chosen to look may not be where the item is located in the store. Algorithm advantage: Because it is so methodical, you are guaranteed to find the item if it is in the store. Heuristic advantage: This method is often faster, so you will get in and out of the store faster.

Researchers have identified the brain waves associated with waking and sleeping stages. Explain which stage a person is in if researchers detect the following brain waves:- Alpha waves- Sleep spindles- Delta waves

Alpha waves are present in an awake, relaxed state just before falling asleep. Sleep spindles appear during NREM-2 sleep. Delta waves appear during our deepest stage of sleep, NREM-3.

Guillermo's physician suggested that he see a therapist for possible depression. Explain how effective each of the following might be in the treatment of his depression:- Psychiatrist- Clinical psychologist- Counselor

As a medical doctor, a psychiatrist would be able to prescribe medication to Guillermo. The psychiatrist, however, may not be trained in psychotherapy, so may not fully be able to help Guillermo. A clinical psychologist would have psychotherapy training and be able to provide effective methods, such as cognitive-behavioral therapy, to Guillermo. A counselor would be the least helpful therapist for Guillermo. This type of therapist tends to help with family, marriage, or substance abuse issues, not depression.

Charlotte is 88 years old and is feeling the effects of her long life. She suffered a stroke five years ago, which left the right side of her body limp. She also sometimes has trouble understanding when she is asked questions. Her doctors believe that she also may be suffering from the beginning stages of Alzheimer's disease. Explain how each might contribute to Charlotte's current circumstance.- Motor cortex- Acetylcholine- Association areas- Plasticity - Epigenetics

Because Charlotte's right side is limp, the damage from her stroke most likely occurred in the left hemisphere and potentially in her left motor cortex, which would leave her with little muscular control over the right side of her body. If Charlotte suffers from Alzheimer's disease, it is possible that the neurons responsible for producing acetylcholine have deteriorated. If Charlotte's association areas have been damaged, it may be difficult for her to integrate new ideas. She may also have trouble retrieving memories that were once easily recalled. Because of Charlotte's age, her brain will not have the ability to build an abundance of new neural networks, and if she has not recovered from her injury in a few months' time, she is likely to make little progress in her recovery. Perhaps Charlotte has a predisposition for Alzheimer's disease. If she was in an environment that was not enriching and cognitively engaging, it may have made Alzheimer's disease more likely. On the other hand, despite having a genetic predisposition for Alzheimer's disease, if Charlotte was exposed to an enriching environment, her disposition may not have been expressed.

Provide two examples of how nature and nurture interact to affect an individual's physical health.

Because nature refers to the contributions of heredity, a person may be predisposed to develop (or not) diabetes or heart disease. Because nurture refers to the contributions of environment and the way individuals are raised, an individual may eat a balanced diet and exercise regularly, activities that will make them healthy, which may counteract their heredity.

Describe one influence on sexual motivation from each of the following categories:- Biological- Psychological- Social-cultural

Biological influences on sexual motivation could include hormones or sexual orientation. Psychological influences on sexual motivation could include exposure to sexually stimulating material or fantasizing. Social-cultural influences on sexual motivation could include religious and personal values or the media.

Explain how the following are involved when you listen to your favorite song:- Bottom-up processing- Top-down processing

Bottom-up processing will take place in the ear and allow you to hear the individual notes and words of the song. Top-down processing will take place in the brain and allow you to recognize the song as your favorite song.

Explain how central route persuasion and peripheral route persuasion could be used by your school's cafeteria to increase lunch sales.

Central route persuasion would use facts, such as the health benefits of eating certain foods, or the value-pricing of the available options, to influence the students to purchase the food. Peripheral route persuasion would focus more on emotion and might attempt to display the food in a very appetizing way to create an impulse decision to purchase the food.

Describe how each of the following types of evidence are used to determine whether there is an intellectual decline as people age.- Evidence from cross-sectional studies- Evidence from longitudinal studies

Cross-sectional studies would test people from several age groups at once. This type of study would examine a group of younger people and a group of older people at one point in time and compare their test scores to see if those in the older group had lower scores. Longitudinal studies would test the same group of people periodically over a long period of time. This type of study would compare individuals' test scores at varying ages to see if there is a decline as the participants grow older.

Karl's doctor is concerned about a loss of neural functioning in Karl's brain. Explain how loss of each of the following might make Karl's reaction time slower.- Myelin sheath- Acetylcholine (ACh)

Damage to the myelin sheath would slow down neural impulses and cause the message to travel slower which makes the muscles move slower. ACh is the neurotransmitter involved in muscle action. The doctor might look to see if Karl was producing enough of this neurotransmitter.

Anonymous reviews of restaurants tend to be more negative than those where the name of the reviewer is attached. Explain why this is, using the following terms: deindividuation and group polarization.

Deindividuation- the loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity;reviewers are harsher because they cannot be personally judged for it by others. They lost self-awareness because of the anonymity. group polarization- the enhancement of a group's prevailing inclinations through discussion within the group; if the other reviews are negative, new reviewers are likely to make their review more negative than it would have been originally because people feed off the negativity.

Depression is often misunderstood as "sad" and mania is often misunderstood as "happy." Provide two examples for each of these disordered behaviors that could help clarify this misunderstanding.

Depression examples could include any two behaviors that illustrate the following: a lack of interest in activities, feelings of hopelessness, reduced energy levels, problems with sleep, and problems with appetite. Mania examples could include any two behaviors that illustrate the following: little need for sleep, wildly increased energy levels, dangerous risk-taking, and extreme optimism.

What is emerging adulthood? Describe two trends that have led researchers to consider this an additional stage of life.

Emerging adulthood is the period in modern Western cultures during the late teens to the mid-twenties that bridges the gap between adolescent dependence and adult independence. Longer years of schooling, and later age of marriage and moving out of the family home, are the trends that have led to recognition of this new stage.

To remember something, we must get information into our brain, retain the information, and later get the information back out. Use the correct terms for these three steps of the process, and explain how this system would apply if you needed to learn the name of a new student who just enrolled in your school today.

Encoding is the process of getting the new student's name into your brain. Storage is keeping that name in your memory. Retrieval is the process of using that name when greeting the new student later.

Julia and Eleanor are identical twins who were raised apart. Julia has developed schizophrenia, but Eleanor has not. Given what we know about how schizophrenia is strongly influenced by genetic and prenatal factors, explain how this could happen when Julia and Eleanor have identical genes and shared the same prenatal environment. Provide at least one research-supported factor that could have prompted the onset of schizophrenia in Julia.

Environmental factors also contribute to the onset of schizophrenia, which suggests why this disorder is not 100 percent heritable. Researchers have found that severe stress or trauma, such as that caused by separation from parents or childhood physical, sexual, or emotional abuse are associated with later schizophrenia in those who are genetically predisposed to the disorder. Julia's childhood may have been more stressful and traumatic than Eleanor's, which could explain why Julia but not Eleanor developed schizophrenia.

Explain how evolutionary psychologists and the concept of social scripts would explain differences in mate selection by men.

Evolutionary psychologist would argue that men, in general, choose mates who are younger than they are and are able to have many children. Social scripts would explain that the choice of one's mate can be determined by cultural scripts and that child bearing may not be the determining factor.

Briefly explain how the concepts below could be used to help a child stop throwing temper tantrums. - Extinction (operant conditioning)- Positive reinforcement- Modeling- Negative reinforcement- Shaping- Extinction (classical conditioning)

Extinction (operant conditioning) The child might be throwing a temper tantrum because that behavior is being reinforced (for example, it gains desired attention from a parent). Extinction could be used to stop the temper tantrum by removing the reinforcement. Without the reinforcement, eventually the behavior (tantrums) should decrease. Positive reinforcement A positive reinforce (such as reading a favorite book) could be used to encourage a behavior other than temper tantrums. The child could be given the positive reinforcement after a prosocial behavior, such as sharing a toy with a friend instead of throwing a tantrum. Modeling The child might learn to avoid temper tantrums through modeling or observational learning. A parent or other adult could show positive behaviors when disappointed, and the child might imitate this behavior. Negative reinforcement Negative reinforcement occurs when an aversive stimulus is removed, and this removal reinforces an aversive behavior. In this situation, a parent or adult could sit the child on a "time-out" seat as soon as the temper tantrum begins. The child could leave the time out seat as soon as she or he stops crying. Release from the time out seat could reinforce not crying, and help to stop the temper tantrums. Shaping A parent or other adult could gradually shape the child's negative behavior toward desired behaviors by rewarding successive approximations. For example, a child could first be rewarded for crying more quietly during a tantrum, then for stopping yelling, then for avoiding the tantrum completely. Extinction (classical conditioning) In the context of classical conditioning, a behavior becomes extinct because a neutral stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus. For example, a child might have been classically conditioned to throw a tantrum whenever the child's brother was present, because the brother always pinched the child. The tantrums could be made extinct by convincing the brother to stop the pinching. The conditioned stimulus (the brother) is presented to the child without the unconditioned stimulus (the pinching). After repeated pairings, the conditioned response of the tantrum should become extinct.

Shervin is a high school student who excels in academics and usually scores very high on academic standardized tests. His friend, Hany, struggles in his coursework and with standardized tests, but is a brilliant pianist and dancer. For each of the following psychologists, briefly explain his theory and identify how that psychologist might describe Shervin's and Hany's intelligence.- Howard Gardner- Robert Sternberg- Charles Spearman

Gardner believes there are eight relatively independent intelligences: linguistic, musical, logical-mathematical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, intrapersonal, interpersonal, and naturalist. Gardner has also proposed a possible ninth, existential intelligence. Gardner might describe Shervin as having high logical-mathematical and linguistic intelligence, and Hany as having high musical and bodily-kinesthetic intelligence. Sternberg's triarchic theory proposes three intelligences: creative, analytical, and practical. Sternberg might predict that Shervin would score high in analytical intelligence and Hany would score high in creative intelligence. According to Spearman's general intelligence theory, each individual has a general, underlying mental ability that is represented in all intelligent behavior. For example, if an individual is above average in verbal intelligence, then she will most likely be at least average, if not above average in spatial or reasoning ability as well. Spearman might have predicted that Shervin would have a high general intelligence, and Hany would not, because Spearman would not have included creativity in music and dance in tests of general intelligence.

Explain the difference between gender roles and gender schemas. How does social learning contribute to the formation of each?

Gender roles are the cultural norms for expected behaviors for males and females. Gender schemas are the cognitive ways in which we organize boy-girl characteristics. Social learning contributes to gender schema formation through the observation of gender roles and the rewarding of gender-appropriate behaviors.

Glenda finds herself constantly checking her phone and thinking about the activities she engages in online. Explain how the following behaviors could have a negative impact on her life, related to her use of social media:- Ostracism- Narcissism

Glenda may feel ostracized if her friends do not respond to her posts. This sense of social exclusion will cause her to feel bad about herself. Glenda may develop narcissism—a sense of herself as more important than she is. Her self-focused and self-promoting behaviors may result in her having many "friends" or followers online, but these superficial relationships will not provide her with a real sense of belonging.

Explain a possible treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder from each of the following types of therapy:• Group therapy• Cognitive therapy• Behavioral therapy

Group therapy for OCD is seen to be just as effective as individual therapy in both adults and adolescents, it increases cost effectiveness, asses to social support and increased motivation; Cognitive therapy for OCD helps you understand that the brain is sending error messages, the therapist will help you learn to recognize these messages and respond to them in new ways to help you control the obsessions and compulsions, focuses on the meanings we attach to certain experiences that we misinterpret; Behavioral Therapy for OCD can use a technique called exposure therapy: for people who have OCD are placed in situations where they are gradually exposed to their obsessions and asked not to perform the compulsions that usually ease their anxiety.

Elena won the lottery last night. Afterward, she told her friends that she knew she was going to win. Her friends think that she is so lucky because she won the lottery last year as well. Explain how hindsight bias and the tendency to perceive patterns in random events apply to Elena's winnings.

Hindsight bias: Elena knew today that she would win the lottery because she did. If she had not won, she would not remember the "feeling" that she would win. Pattern in random events: Elena's winnings are unconnected. The odds of winning make it seem like a person is "lucky" if they win, but the odds of winning the lottery twice are not that unrealistic when odds of winning are spread out across an entire population.

Angelica was just hired for a new job in a day-care center. She has recently been under the care of her physician who is treating her for a sleep disorder. Indicate how her performance will be affected if she suffers from the following disorders:- Sleep apnea- Narcolepsy- Insomnia

If Angelica suffers from sleep apnea, she may be tired and irritable at work because she is often waking up during the night to breathe. If Angelica suffers from narcolepsy, she may suddenly fall asleep at work; this would most likely happen during an emotional moment. If Angelica suffers from insomnia, she will be tired during the day at work because she is having difficulty falling asleep or staying asleep at night.

Dr. Cordova is planning a study of infants in her community. Describe how the following may have an impact on her study:- Teratogens- Habituation

If the infants she is studying were exposed to teratogens in the womb, then their abilities outside the womb may reflect that. For example, an infant whose mother consumed alcohol might have fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) and a range of associated problems, such as lower intelligence, that may affect the study. To learn more about infant cognition, Dr. Cordova may watch for habituation to occur—when the infants respond less frequently to a stimulus because they recognize and remember it.

Nadina is struggling to decide whether to buy a sweater that she really cannot afford. According to Freud, what role would each of the following play in her decision?- Id- Superego- Ego

In Freud's view, the id is the impulsive part of our personality. Nadina's id would cause her to buy the sweater, even though it is too expensive. The superego is Nadina's conscience and may cause her to feel guilty about buying a sweater that she cannot afford. The ego operates on the reality principle and will help Nadina make the final decision about whether to buy the sweater. The ego will balance the desires of the id with the demands of the superego.

Contrast and compare the following eating disorders:- Anorexia nervosa- Bulimia nervosa- Binge-eating disorder

Individuals with anorexia nervosa have a distorted body image: They feel "fat" and continue to follow a starvation diet to lose weight even after they've become significantly underweight. Onset is usually during adolescence and in females, though men may also develop this disorder. Individuals with bulimia nervosa are also distressed about their weight. These individuals alternate between bingeing and purging. Most people with the disorder are women in their late teens or twenties, but men may also suffer from bulimia. Individuals with binge-eating disorder binge without purging.

Heidi is an avid reader. Explain how Heidi's desire to read may be supported by the following elements of reciprocal determinism:- Internal factors- Environmental factors- Behavioral factors

Internal factors that cause Heidi to enjoy reading might include her verbal aptitude or her curiosity. Environmental factors that cause Heidi to enjoy reading might include having grown up in a family where reading was valued and encouraged.1 point: Behavioral factors that cause Heidi to enjoy reading might include the pleasure she gets from reading, which further reinforces her desire to read.

Explain two criticisms of the DSM-5.

It oversimplifies complex problems to labels, loosing the idiosyncrasies of the human presenting for help. Misdiagnosis can occur as there are diagnostic labels that have overlapping symptoms. Over-diagnosis can occur as a result of self-diagnosis, diagnosing by the untrained, and trained professionals either misdiagnosing, being influenced by "fad diagnoses", and/or following the mentality of the Medical Model that posits that all problems must have labels. It can be used to label normal behavior as a mental disorder. People can become stigmatized through being labelled with a mental disorder. It can be used to label normal behavior as a mental disorder. There are questions about its reliability and validity.

While listening to the orchestra as she dances the lead role in Swan Lake, a ballerina concludes her performance with a pirouette, spinning around several times before leaping into the arms of her dance partner. Discuss how the ballerina relied on the following to successfully complete her performance and how each is important to ensuring that success.- Kinesthetic sense- Vestibular sense- Semicircular canals- Hearing

Kinesthesia will allow the ballerina to sense the position of different parts of her body as she dances the role. Thus, she will know that she is to start by facing the audience and, although she has spun around several times, she will always be aware of where the audience is, and where to put her feet and arms in order to accomplish the choreography. The vestibular sense enables the dancer to sense her body position and to maintain her balance. Semicircular canals in her inner ear help the ballerina maintain her sense of balance. She needs this balance as she leaps and spins, and her training allows her to use her vestibular sense to maintain balance rather than become dizzy. The ballerina's sense of hearing allows her to perceive the music and to dance to the correct rhythm of each piece of music.

Brain lateralization means that each hemisphere has its own functions. Give an example of both a left hemisphere and a right hemisphere function. Then explain how the two hemispheres communicate with one another.

Left hemisphere functions include language, math, and logic.. Right hemisphere functions include spatial relationships, facial recognition, and patterns. The corpus callosum carries information back and forth between the two hemispheres.

Yesterday in your science class, the teacher's demonstration was perhaps the best science experiment you have ever seen.- Explain the process that allows memory of the experiment to occur at the synaptic level.- Explain the role of the hippocampus and the frontal lobes in your memory of the class.

Long-term potentiation (LTP) increases the cells' firing potential at the synapse.The hippocampus gives the command to "save" a memory. The frontal lobes help make the judgment about which memories from the experiment are important enough to process for long-term storage.

Provide examples of a primary and a secondary sex characteristic for both males and females.

Male primary sex characteristics include growth of penis and testes and first ejaculation (spermarche).Male secondary sex characteristics include body hair and lower voice. Female primary sex characteristics include menarche and full development of external genitalia. Female secondary sex characteristics include body hair, widening of the hips, and growth of breasts.

Define and give an example of maturation. Define infantile amnesia and explain how maturation contributes to this phenomenon.

Maturation describes the orderly changes in behavior that result from biological processes that are relatively unaffected by experience. Various examples will be accepted here, including the normal development of motor skills (for example, rolling over, crawling) or bladder and bowel control. Infantile amnesia is our inability to remember events that occurred before we were about 4 years old. The brain areas underlying memory need to mature before we can remember accurately. This maturation usually doesn't happen until around the age of 4.

Missy studied for several hours before taking her history test, motivated by the goal of achieving a good grade that would get her a scholarship. She failed the test and now refuses to study for other tests. Explain how the following terms relate to this scenario.- Extrinsic motivation- Learned helplessness

Missy was extrinsically motivated to study for her test. She wanted the good grade in order to get a scholarship. After failing to get the good grade, Missy demonstrates learned helplessness: She now believes there is no use studying and that studying won't help her succeed.

Explain how Bandura's Bobo doll experiment illustrates each of the following.- Modeling- Antisocial modeling

Modeling can be described as observing and imitating a specific behavior. In Bandura's study, the children replicated the behaviors they witnessed the adult perform. Antisocial modeling occurs when a person models behaviors that are not positive, constructive, or helpful. In Bandura's study, the children were replicating these kinds of antisocial behaviors (hitting, kicking, throwing), which they had seen the adult display.

Troy has decided to move from the United States to China. Describe two cultural elements that will be different for Troy when he moves.

Moving to a collective society where social identity is valued above the attributes of the individual.The parent-child relationship is more clearly defined as the parents being the authority.

Central route persuasion would use facts, such as the health benefits of eating certain foods, or the value-pricing of the available options, to influence the students to purchase the food.1 point: Peripheral route persuasion would focus more on emotion and might attempt to display the food in a very appetizing way to create an impulse decision to purchase the food.

Obedience is following the orders of an authority figure. When Pedro does what he is told by the principal and puts his hood down, he is demonstrating obedience. Conformity is adjusting our behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard. When Pedro leaves his hood up, he is conforming to the standard set by the older boys.

Explain one weakness and one strength of the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI).

One point for any strength (for example, the MMPI is empirically derived, assesses several traits at once, or is easily scored). One point for any weakness (for example, the MMPI test-taker might not answer honestly, or validity is not guaranteed).

Compare and contrast the influence parents and peers have on a child's development, giving one example for each.

Parents influence a child's (1) quality of life, (2) achievements, and (3) exposure to peer culture via the neighborhoods and schools they choose. Peers influence a child's (1) tastes and styles, (2) accents and slang, and (3) substance use.

Describe the four possible causes of social loafing.

People acting as part of a group feel less accountable.1 point: Group members may view their individual contributions as dispensable. People in a group may overestimate their own efforts, not considering how much others are contributing. Unless highly motivated and strongly identified with the group, people may free ride on others' efforts.

Consider the sentence "The small child tired was." Apply the following terms to some element of the sentence:- Phoneme- Morpheme- Semantics- Syntax

Phonemes are the smallest distinctive sounds in a word. An example might be the "th" in the or the "ll" in small. Morphemes are the smallest units of a word that carry meaning in language. In this sentence, each word is a morpheme but they cannot be broken down into smaller units. Semantics is the meaning of a sentence. It is clear from the sentence that the child is tired. Syntax represents the rules for ordering words into sentences. In this sentence the syntax is wrong because the word "was" should come before the word "tired."

Describe one key factor present in passionate love and two key factors present in companionate love.

Physical arousal is the key factor that accompanies passionate love. Equity—when people receive from a relationship in proportion to what they put into it—is one key component of companionate love. Self-disclosure—revealing intimate aspects of yourself to others—is another key component of companionate love.

Using the biopsychosocial model, name a biological influence, a social-cultural influence, and a psychological influence on aggressive behavior.

Possible biological influences: genetic, biochemical (for example, testosterone), or neural (for example, severe frontal lobe injury). Possible social-cultural influences: deindividuation, provocation, minimal father involvement, exposure to violent media, rejection from a group, or parental models of aggression. Possible psychological influences: dominating behavior, believing one has consumed alcohol, low self-control, frustration, aggressive role models, or rewards for aggressive behavior.

Even though they complain about how much they pay each year, the Singers dutifully pay their taxes. Provide an explanation Kohlberg might give for the reasoning behind the Singers' tax-paying behavior for each of his stages of moral thinking.

Pre-conventional morality: The Singers pay their taxes to avoid being punished with additional fines or jail time if they fail to pay. Conventional morality: The Singers pay their taxes simply because doing so is the rule. Postconventional morality: The Singers pay their taxes, even though they don't want to, because they feel it's the right thing to do to support government programs for people in need.

Explain what psychoanalysis is, and then give an example of how transference and resistance would affect this therapy.

Psychoanalysis is a Freudian therapy that seeks to get patients to release repressed feelings to gain self-insight. Transference happens when a patient shifts emotions linked with other relationships to the analyst. This can help the patient gain insight into those relationships. For example, a patient feeling angry at a sibling may transfer that to feeling angry at the therapist. Resistance happens when a patient blocks anxiety-laden thoughts and memories from consciousness. For example, patients may find themselves avoiding discussion of their most traumatic memories.

Briefly explain how each of the following theorists would view personality measurement, using appropriate psychological terminology.- Psychodynamic theorists- Humanistic theorists- Trait theorists

Psychodynamic theorists view the goal of personality measurement as revealing the unconscious conflicts and impulses that drive and create our personality. Projective tests (such as the TAT or Rorschach test) supposedly allow individuals to "project" their unconscious desires and impulses onto the test so that they are revealed to the therapist and client. Humanistic theorists are skeptical about attempts to measure personality. They view personality tests and other attempts at measuring and quantifying personality as potentially depersonalizing, reducing the complexity of a person to one of a few generalized categories.Trait theorists attempt to measure personality through personality inventories, such as the MMPI. They are most interested in knowing where a person fits on each of the Big Five personality factors.

Your friend Lawrence recently confided in you that he has been diagnosed with major depressive disorder. He has been offered several different kinds of treatment: psychodynamic therapy, exposure therapy, REBT, SSRIs, and rTMS. Explain what you would tell Lawrence about how each type of therapy works and whether research indicates that it might be an effective treatment for major depressive disorder.

Psychodynamic therapy involves a therapist and client working together to gain insight about a client's unconscious conflicts and childhood experiences. Outcome research indicates that psychodynamic therapy has had success in alleviating depression symptoms. To extinguish fear or anxiety, exposure therapy repeatedly brings people into contact with fear-or anxiety-arousing stimuli. This type of therapy is specifically focused on reducing anxiety and fear and is not designed to treat depression. Albert Ellis' rational-emotive behavior therapy (REBT), a type of cognitive therapy, attempts to stop irrational thinking by challenging a person's illogical, self-defeating assumptions. Since many of the symptoms of depression involve negative, pessimistic thinking, REBT is worth exploring as a treatment for depression. SSRIs, such as Zoloft, Paxil, and Prozac, work by partially blocking the reabsorption and removal of serotonin from synapses. Having more serotonin remain in the synapses has been shown to help reduce the symptoms of depression. Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) sends repeated pulses of magnetic energy into the brain, usually into the left frontal lobe. This approach has shown effectiveness in the treatment of depression.

After reading her AP® Psychology text, Jane starts to wonder if all young people have some kind of psychological disorder. First, briefly explain what you might say to Jane about the criteria psychologists use when diagnosing mental illnesses. Then, briefly explain the symptoms associated with the following diagnoses and how age might be related to each diagnosis:- ADHD- Anorexia nervosa- OCD- Bipolar disorder

Psychologists define a disorder as a significant disturbance in an individual's cognition, emotion regulation, or behavior that is dysfunctional or maladaptive. Jane's general statement that all young people have a psychological disorder doesn't make sense in this context: It's not likely that all young people have significant disturbances that interfere with their day-to-day lives.The symptoms of ADHD include inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity. ADHD is diagnosed more often in young people, but some adults are also diagnosed with ADHD. Individuals with anorexia nervosa have a distorted body image: They feel "fat" and continue to follow a starvation diet to lose weight even after they've become significantly underweight. These symptoms usually appear in adolescent females, but males and older women may also suffer from this disorder. Individuals with OCD experience unwanted repetitive thoughts (obsessions) and actions (compulsions). This disorder is most commonly diagnosed in teens and young adults. People with bipolar disorder will alternate between feelings of mania and feelings of depression. This disorder affects males and females equally and may be diagnosed at any age.

Luis is a Mexican-American high school student with a 3.8 GPA. He recently completed his SAT in a room with a White proctor and an all White group of students. His score was much lower than he predicted based on the practice exam he took during his English class at his largely Hispanic high school. Explain how each of the following may have contributed to his lower score:- Bias- Stereotype threat

Racial group differences do exist on some types of intelligence tests. If the questions on Luis' test were reflective of a type of vocabulary that Luis had not been exposed to, even if unintentional, then the test that he took was biased against him. The stereotype threat would be something that Luis would impose on himself. If he had heard that Hispanic students generally do more poorly on the SAT than do White students, he may have looked around the room and felt pressure internally and not have done as well as he was capable of doing.

Look at the relative size cartoon in Figure 19.6. Describe how the artist incorporated relative size, linear perspective, and interposition to create depth.

Relative size: We know that the woman is closer to us than the police officer because she is drawn larger, or we know that the police officer is farther away because he is drawn smaller. Linear perspective: We can tell that the sidewalk is receding into the distance because its sides pinch closer together in the background of the image. Interposition: We know the woman is closer to us than the police officer because our view of her partially blocks our view of him, or we know the green car is farther away because it is being blocked by the lamp post.

Doctors sometimes have to remove a portion of the brain to control life-threatening seizures. Describe what the results of the removal of a portion of the somatosensory cortex would be and explain how this procedure might be affected by brain plasticity.

Removing part of the somatosensory cortex would result in a lack of sensation/inability to feel being touched in the parts of the body associated with the removed tissue. Because of brain plasticity, the person's brain may be able to change and reorganize new pathways based on experience. This is more likely if the person is a child.

Francisco (that's fun to say) has been diagnosed with major depressive disorder. Explain how each of the following might alleviate his symptoms.- SSRIs- Deep-brain stimulation

SSRIs would help alleviate Francisco's symptoms by making more serotonin available to neurons. By increasing the levels of serotonin, his symptoms should be reduced. Deep-brain stimulation uses implanted electrodes to target an area of the brain where the frontal lobes connect to the limbic system—an area that tends to be overactive in people with depression. Inhibiting negative activity in this way for Francisco should help relieve his symptoms.

Sarah has just joined a new faith community. Describe three long-term benefits that she might experience as a result of her membership.

Sarah may exhibit healthier behaviors and live longer. People who attend religious services smoke and drink less and have greater longevity. As a part of a faith community, Sarah may have a greater support network than those who do not regularly attend religious services. Sarah may experience more positive emotions than those who do not attend services, and she may see life more optimistically.

Walking out of his AP® psychology exam, Dwight told his friends, "I did so well, they might just have to give me a 6!" Explain how each of the following might be involved in Dwight's statement.- Self-efficacy- Self-esteem- Self-serving bias

Self-efficacy would be involved if Dwight had proven readiness for the AP® exam—for example if he had done well on his teacher's tests during the year. Self-esteem would be involved if Dwight, in general, feels good about himself. The self-serving bias may cause Dwight to assume he will do better than most even if he wasn't well prepared.

Abi moved from her small rural hometown to a large city to pursue her singing career. She was soon hired for an important and popular choral performance and was nervous but excited about this new opportunity. Explain how the following social psychology factors might affect her experiences in the "big city."- Self-fulfilling prophecy- Frustration-aggression model- Social facilitation- Reciprocity norm

Self-fulfilling prophecy: Abi may think that she is not talented enough to compete with all of the other singers in the performance. Because of her low expectations of herself, she may not perform to the best of her ability. Frustration-aggression model: If Abi does not progress to her satisfaction, and experiences frustration as her career stagnates, she may lash out at her colleagues either physically or verbally, or even try to sabotage others' careers to further her own. Social facilitation: Abi has been singing for a number of years. Because this is a well-practiced activity, Abi's performance should be enhanced by the presence of others. Because she will have larger crowds in the "big city," Abi's performance should improve in front of larger crowds. Reciprocity norm: If Abi receives gifts (such as flowers) from the audience, she may be motivated to give an extra effort in her performances. If the audience perceives that Abi is throwing herself completely into her performances, they may be more likely to applaud and cheer because the reciprocity norm indicates we will often return the efforts or feelings of others.

While walking barefoot, you step on a piece of glass. Before you have a chance to consciously process what has happened, you draw your foot away from the glass. Identify and explain the three types of neurons that deal with information regarding this painful stimulus.

Sensory neurons carry information from the point of the injury to the central nervous system. Interneurons are neurons within the brain and spinal cord. Interneurons would help you interpret the pain and enable your spinal cord to send out marching orders. Motor neurons carry the instruction from the central nervous system to activate the muscles in your leg and foot.

Nish has received a new bike for his sixth birthday. Explain how each of the following terms can be applied as he learns to ride the bike.- Shaping- Reinforcement- Generalization

Shaping: Nish's parents should reinforce each small step that moves Nish toward riding the bike successfully. For example, first he might receive reinforcement for sitting on the bike, then for pedaling a small distance, and then finally, only after he rides the bike for a greater distance. Reinforcement: Nish's parents could give him a small reward or praise when he successfully rides the bike. Reinforcement will be most effective if it is immediate. Generalization: Having learned to ride his own bike, Nish will be able to transfer what he has learned to other bikes.

Explain the biological changes typically associated with the following:- Sleep deprivation- REM sleep- Tolerance- Opiate use

Sleep deprivation is associated with fatigue, irritability, impaired concentration, memory problems, depression, weight gain, joint pain, a suppressed immune system, and slowed performance (with greater vulnerability to accidents). REM sleep prompts rapid brain waves (similar to those of a nearly awake state), rapid and irregular breathing, aroused genitals, and relaxed muscles despite an active motor cortex. After repeated use of some drugs, the brain adapts to the drug's chemistry and develops tolerance. As a result, more and more of the drug is needed to produce the same effect. Opiate drugs depress neural functioning, which lessens pain and anxiety. Users also experience pupil constriction, slower breathing, lethargy, and, eventually, painful withdrawal symptoms as the brain loses its ability to produce endorphins (the body's natural painkillers).

Nonhuman animals are often subjects in psychological experiments. Provide three reasons why a psychologist might use animals instead of humans in a study.

Some researchers use nonhuman animals because they are interested in understanding the animals themselves, including their thinking and behaviors. Others use nonhuman animals to reduce the complexity that is part of human research. They hope to understand principles that may be similar to those that govern human psychological phenomena. Researchers also study nonhuman animals in order to apply the findings in ways that will help both humans and the other animals.

Give a summary, a strength, and a weakness of Charles Spearman's idea of general intelligence.

Spearman suggested we have a general intelligence—an underlying mental ability—that predicts performance for all intelligent behavior. Strength: Different abilities, such as verbal and spatial, do tend to correlate. Weakness: Human abilities are too diverse to be explained by a single general intelligence factor.

Give an example that is not mentioned in the text for each of the three major components of prejudice.

Stereotyped judgments are generalized, negative beliefs about a group of people, such as assuming they are all elitist or all lazy. The point is awarded for an example that is not cited in the text. Prejudice also involves negative emotions, such as hostility or fear, toward the members of a group. The point is awarded for an example that is not cited in the text. A predisposition to discriminate against members of a group could be expressed by refusing to date or hire people in that group. The point is awarded for an example that is not cited in the text.

Tasnia feels like she encodes material well, but she still forgets the material on test day. Explain how her forgetting might be related to problems with each of the following:- Storage- Retrieval- Retroactive interference

Storage: Tasnia may not remember the material if it decayed over time. Retrieval: Tasnia may have trouble getting the information out of her memory even though it may be on the tip of her tongue. To earn the point the student should demonstrate an understanding that the material has not been forgotten, simply that Tasnia is unable to remember it. Retroactive interference: Similar information learned after she studies will make it hard for Tasnia to remember the older information.

Explain the role of the following as you sit down to breakfast:- Tactile sensations- Olfactory cells- Our chemical sense

Tactile receptors, especially those for pressure, will let you know that you have sat in your seat. Olfactory cells line the top of the nasal cavity and will allow you to smell breakfast. Taste is a chemical sense and these receptor cells on the tongue detect the sweet, sour, salty, bitter, and umami flavors in the food.

Martha is convinced she has extrasensory perception. Explain the specific abilities Martha would display if she had each of the following forms of ESP:- Telepathy- Clairvoyance- PrecognitionThen briefly explain why you should doubt her claims.

Telepathy: Martha would be able to use mind-to-mind communication. For example, she may know what someone in another room is thinking. Clairvoyance: Martha would be able to perceive things happening at a distance. For example, she may know that her cousin who lives in another state has just burned her hand on the oven. Precognition: Martha would be able to see future events happen. For example, she may know that a pop quiz will take place next week. There has never been a conclusive scientific demonstration of extrasensory ability.

Audrey is participating in a study on emotions. Explain how each of the following could be part of the study:- Facial feedback effect- Behavior feedback effect- Ekman's research on emotional expression

Thanks to the facial feedback effect, we know that even faking an expression affects how we feel. So, for example, faking a smile tends to make us feel happier. Audrey may describe herself as happier if asked to make a happy face. The behavior feedback effect explains our tendency to respond emotionally to the way we're acting. So, if Audrey is asked to slouch in her chair for a while, she may report feeling less energetic and cheerful. Ekman discovered that the facial expressions of emotions are the same around the world. Audrey would probably not have any problem identifying each emotion being expressed in a global collection of faces.

Thomas fell and hit his head, so his parents brought him to the emergency room. Explain how the following scans would give doctors different information about the type of injury Thomas may have.- CT scan- MRI- fMRI

The CT scan would reveal brain damage to structures that would be visible on an X-ray. The MRI would provide a much more detailed picture of the brain than a CT scan. The fMRI would enable the doctors to determine if the functioning of parts of the brain had been damaged, by looking at blood flow to certain regions.

Roger is about to ride a roller coaster. He is afraid of heights and is nervous about the ride. How would each of the following theories explain Roger's experience of fear on the roller coaster?- James-Lange- Cannon-Bard- Schachter-Singer

The James-Lange theory would explain Roger's fear as happening after he notices that his heart is pounding (or any other physiological response to the stress of riding a roller coaster.) The Cannon-Bard theory would describe Roger's fear as occurring at the same time that he feels his heart pound (or any other physiological response to the stress of riding a roller coaster.)1 point: The Schachter-Singer theory would explain Roger's fear as a result of a cognitive appraisal of his pounding heart (or any other physiological response to the stress of riding a roller coaster) that he would then label as fear.

Arianna is nervous around large crowds and often leaves social situations such as school dances and parties because she feels like she might have a panic attack. Her father died when she was a young girl, but she still often has nightmares about his death. Arianna enjoys school. She generally receives good grades and appreciates the positive feedback from her teachers, which further encourages her to improve her academic skills. Explain how each of the seven main theoretical perspectives in psychology would explain Arianna's behavior.

The biological approach would attribute Arianna's nervousness to brain chemistry, hormones, or genetic influences. The evolutionary approach would explore how avoiding social crowds might have been a survival advantage for early humans, such as reducing exposure to germs and violence. The psychodynamic approach would examine Arianna's early life and how she dealt with losing her father, focusing on Arianna's childhood experiences and unconscious anxieties. The behavioral approach would look at what Arianna has learned in the past through rewards and punishments. She may have had a negative experience in a large group and, as a result, has learned to avoid social gatherings. The cognitive approach would focus on examining how Arianna perceives situations. Her interpretation of social situations may impact the outcome. The humanistic approach would examine how Arianna's environment may have hindered her growth and self-fulfillment. The social-cultural approach would examine how interactions within the cultures Arianna belongs to influence her expectations about social situations. If her family or other cultural influences encourage her to attend social functions, that might influence her to continue to try attending those kinds of events.

Using psychological terminology, describe how each of the following perspectives helps us understand anxiety disorders, OCD, and PTSD:- Conditioning- Cognition- Biology

The conditioning perspective would consider how a person could learn debilitating fears of various objects and situations. This might happen by way of reinforcement, when the behavior of avoiding a feared stimulus is reinforced by reduced anxiety, or stimulus generalization, when a person experiences a fearful situation and then generalizes that fear to similar stimuli. The cognition perspective would consider how expectations and interpretations might cause a person to overreact to stimuli, and how people may learn some fears by observing others' fears. The biology perspective would consider how genetic predispositions, epigenetic marks, abnormal brain responses, and natural selection could make us vulnerable to the development of these disorders.

The Millers have 1-year-old fraternal twins who are generally calm and have a predictable schedule. However, they become very distressed when they are left at the day care each morning. Apply each of the following terms to the situation at the day care with the Miller twins:- Secure attachment- Temperament

The distress that the twins exhibit each day at day-care drop-off indicates that they are securely attached to their parents. They are upset that the parents have left them and will seek contact with them when they return. Temperament refers to a child's level of emotional reactivity and intensity. The children appear to have an easy temperament, given their predictable schedule at home.

Identify the role of the eardrum, three bones in the middle ear, and oval window in transmitting sound waves before they reach the hair cells.

The eardrum will vibrate in response to the sound waves. The three bones (hammer, anvil, and stirrup) in the middle ear transmit sound waves between the eardrum and the oval window. The oval window is the point at which vibrations enter the cochlea.

Explain whether each of the following comparisons demonstrates the influence of genetics or of environment on intelligence.- The correlation of intelligence test scores for identical twins raised together is about +.85. For identical twins raised apart, the correlation is about +.72.- The correlation of intelligence test scores for identical twins raised together is about +.85. For fraternal twins raised together, it is about +.60.

The first comparison demonstrates the influence of environment. The people being studied were genetically identical twins in both cases, so the higher correlation for identical twins raised together must be due to environment. The second comparison demonstrates the influence of genetics. In both cases, the twins being studied were raised in the same environment, so the higher correlation for identical twins must be due to the fact that there is more genetic similarity between identical twins than between fraternal twins.

Carter's romantic friend has worn plaid shirts on all their special dates. Now, when seeing a plaid shirt, Carter automatically feels happy and a little excited. Identify what each of the following terms would be in this example.- Conditioned response (CR)- Conditioned stimulus (CS)- Unconditioned stimulus (US)

The happy, excited response to the plaid shirt is the CR (thanks to its learned association with the plaid-wearing friend in happy times). The plaid shirt was initially a neutral stimulus (NS). But, thanks to its association with the friend in the dating situation, it has become a CS. The friend in a romantic context is the US.

Stefani is hungry, so she visits the cafeteria and eats a satisfying meal. After lunch, she returns to class and is no longer hungry. Explain the role of the following in Stefani's hunger or subsequent lack of hunger:- Hypothalamus- Glucose- Leptin

The hypothalamus will trigger Stefani's feelings of hunger. Stefani's glucose levels are low, which causes her to feel hungry. After she eats, the levels return to normal and she no longer feels hungry. If Stefani's leptin levels are elevated then she will not feel hunger; when the levels are low she will feel hunger.

Adolescence has been called a time of "storm and stress." Describe how each of the following might contribute to this storm and stress.- Limbic system activity- Frontal lobe development- Formal operational abilities- Erikson's identity versus role confusion stage- Early physical maturation for girls

The limbic system is primed by surges of hormones at puberty, which may lead some adolescents to seek excitement and, possibly, behave impulsively. The frontal lobes, which are necessary for judgment and planning, continue to develop during adolescence and into the early twenties. Unused pathways are pruned, and increasingly myelinated neurons speed the connection between the frontal lobes and other areas of the brain. Without completed frontal lobe development, adolescents are often unable to exert adult impulse control. They may be more likely to indulge in risky behaviors despite understanding the possible consequences. When adolescents reach the formal operational stage, they have all of the cognitive abilities of earlier stages and can also think abstractly and hypothetically. With the ability to compare reality with a hypothetical ideal, adolescents may be disappointed in what exists, may detect hypocrisy, or may argue with those around them about how to achieve a more just world. During Erikson's identity versus role confusion stage, teenagers seek a sense of identity. Adolescents typically try out different versions of "self" before adopting a comfortable identity. This process can be difficult and can lead to conflicts with friends and family. Early maturation puts some girls out of sync with their emotional development and friends' experiences. They may begin associating with older teens or endure teasing or sexual harassment.

Name and describe the two major approaches to understanding psychological disorders.

The medical model attempts to first diagnose and then treat psychological disorders. The biopsychosocial approach attempts to understand psychological disorders as an interaction of biological, psychological, and social-cultural factors.

Mom is frustrated because 3-year-old Maya has started to spit frequently. She has decided to temporarily put away one of Maya's toys every time she spits. Mom is going to continue to do this until Maya has stopped spitting.- Explain whether Mom's plan uses reinforcement or punishment.- Explain whether Mom's plan is a positive or negative form of reinforcement or punishment.

The plan uses punishment, because it is designed to reduce the frequency of spitting. (Both the identification of punishment and the explanation are required to earn the point.)1 point: This is negative punishment because toys are being taken away from Maya. (Both the identification of negative reinforcement and the explanation are required to earn the point.)

Researchers surveyed 800 high school students enrolled in AP® Psychology to determine whether students with higher scores on anxiety scales had lower scores on standardized tests. Students with higher scores on anxiety scales were indeed found to have lower scores on standardized tests. Explain how each of the following terms or phrases applies to the situation described above:- Random sampling- Generalization- Correlation does not mean causation

The researchers could use random sampling to choose the 800 students for their survey. The names could, for example, be chosen in such a way (say, every fiftieth name of those taking the course) to ensure that every test taker has the same chance of being selected. If the random sample is used, it will be representative of the wider population from which it was drawn. Thus, the researchers will be able to generalize the results from their sample to the wider population of AP® Psychology students. The results of the survey would only apply to AP® Psychology students, not high school students in general. Even if anxiety and test scores correlate positively, the researchers would not be able to say that anxiety caused the lower standardized test scores.

Your friend agrees to be hypnotized as part of a school fundraiser and ends up behaving in a way that she later has difficulty believing. Describe how the following theories would explain her actions while hypnotized:- Social influence theory- Divided-consciousness theory

The social influence theory would explain that your friend did as the hypnotist suggested so that she would be successfully playing the role of being hypnotized. The divided-consciousness theory would explain that your friend was aware on some level of what she was doing while hypnotized, even if she does not later remember.

Describe two ways in which cognitive ability declines during adulthood. Name one factor that can slow the decline.

There is a decline in recall—the ability to remember factual information—over the course of adulthood. There is a decline in speed of processing, such as the solving of a novel problem or reaction time, over the adult years. Exercise has been shown to have beneficial results in reducing cognitive decline due to an increase of oxygen flow to the brain.

A teacher wants to know if nightmares are more common than dreams. He asks volunteers from his second-period class to report how many dreams they had last week. He asks volunteers from his third-period class to report the number of nightmares they had last week. Describe two things wrong with the design of this study.

There is no hypothesis stated. In asking for volunteers, the teacher is taking a nonrandom sample that is probably not representative of the population of interest. Neither "dreams" nor "nightmares" are operationally defined, so they might be interpreted differently by later researchers.

Name and describe Erik Erikson's stages of psychosocial development for each of the following:- Marek, age 1 - Pauline, age 17 - Jim, age 24- Elsie, age 85

Trust vs. Mistrust; Marek develops a basic sense of trust if his needs are dependably met. Identity vs. Role Confusion; Pauline refines an understanding of who she is, or she becomes confused as to who and/or what she is. Intimacy vs. Isolation; Jim forms intimate relationships with others, or ends up feeling socially isolated. Integrity vs. Despair; Elsie looks back on life with either a sense of satisfaction or of despair.

Describe how Lev Vygotsky viewed the role of the following in a child's cognitive development:- Language- Scaffolding (modern-day term)- Zone of proximal developmentHow did his theory differ from that of Jean Piaget?

Vygotsky believed that as children grow, they increasingly use words to solve problems and think. Adults help with this process by giving them words to internalize behaviors. Scaffolding is the way in which parents and others provide a framework that offers children temporary support as they move to higher levels of cognitive development. The zone of proximal development describes the space between what a child could learn with and without help. The major difference is that Piaget thought cognitive development resulted from children's interactions with their physical environment, while Vygotsky believed they learned through social interactions.

As a new student, Canya is hoping to fit in. If the students at her new school were embracing the ideas of Carl Rogers, how would each of these principles affect how they treat Canya?- Acceptance- Genuineness- Empathy

When employing Rogers' acceptance, people show unconditional positive regard—others are accepted despite their faults and failures. Canya will probably make mistakes at her new school, but the established students would understand that it is because she is new and not judge her because of them. When following Rogers' genuineness, people are open with their feelings. The students at the school would be themselves around Canya and provide her with advice about how to fit in. When employing Rogers' empathy, people share and mirror the feelings of others. In this case, students might remember a time that they were in a new place and understand how Canya is feeling.

Explain why each of the following people were significant in the history of psychology:- William James- Mary Whiton Calkins- Margaret Floy Washburn

William James was a key proponent of the functionalist school of thought. He authored the first psychology textbook and courageously mentored Mary Whiton Calkins. Mary Whiton Calkins was the first woman to complete the work necessary for a psychology Ph.D. (from Harvard), though she was denied that degree due to her gender. She was a distinguished memory researcher and was the first female president of the American Psychological Association (APA). Margaret Floy Washburn earned the first official psychology Ph.D. She wrote an influential book, The Animal Mind, and was the second female president of the APA.

Jacque learned to speak Italian when she was in the first grade and was able to speak, read, and write Italian fairly well by the fourth grade. She moved to a new school system that did not have Italian as a choice for World Languages, so she decided to take Spanish. Sometimes she found herself saying and writing words in Italian as she completed her Spanish assignments. Often, she remembered the vocabulary in Italian before she said the word in Spanish. Sometimes she felt like knowing Italian helped her learn Spanish, but sometimes she thought it just confused her! When Jacque was in her Spanish classroom, she felt more at ease with the Spanish language. When she went to a French restaurant, she was frustrated because the menu was unreadable to her. Use an example to show how each concept is related to Jacque's experiences.- Working memory- Explicit memory- Effortful processing- Context-dependent memory- Proactive interferenceExplain how these brain structures play a role in Jacque's memory processing.- Hippocampus- Amygdala

Working memory—Possible example: Jacque has to focus on what the teacher is saying and recall the correct vocabulary word when she is asked a question. Explicit memory—Possible example: Defining vocabulary words in any language relies on explicit memory. Effortful processing—Possible example: When reading, Jacque has to pay attention to new words and sentence construction to understand what is being conveyed. Context-dependent memory—Possible example: Jacque seems to be able to remember her Spanish best when in her Spanish classroom. Proactive interference—Possible example: Jacque learned Italian before she learned Spanish, and so sometimes her prior knowledge of Italian makes it difficult for her to recall Spanish words. The hippocampus—Possible example: Since the left hippocampus is important to storage and recall of verbal information—new terms, vocabulary, and so on—Jacque's hippocampus must be very active during her language classes.wszxThe amygdala—Possible example: When Jacque is stressed about mixing up her Spanish with Italian words, the stress may cause her to have trouble recalling the information because of hormones that are released. Her negative emotions, experienced in the French restaurant, may also be related to the amygdala.

Xavier has a huge math test coming up next Tuesday. Explain two ways appraisal can determine how stress will influence his test performance.

Xavier has a huge math test coming up next Tuesday. Explain two ways appraisal can determine how stress will influence his test performance.

Identify three commonly agreed-upon benefits shared by all psychotherapies.

hope for demoralized people. a new perspective that can lead to change. an empathic, trusting, and caring relationship.

Schizophrenia has been linked to brain and neurotransmitter abnormalities as well as genetics.Explain research findings related to two features of brain anatomy, one neurotransmitter, and one genetic factor that could cause someone to develop schizophrenia.

lower activity in the frontal lobe. smaller thalamus. an increase in dopamine is correlated with schizophrenia. identical twins have a nearly 1 in 2 chance of developing schizophrenia.

Alberto has an intense fear of dogs.- Explain how systematic desensitization could be used as a treatment for this phobia.- Describe how this therapy would be counterconditioning Alberto.

with systematic desensitization, a therapist would train alberto in the use of relaxation techniques while gradually exposing him to the feared stimulus - dogs. alberto would learn to tolerate situations involving closer and closer proximity to, and eventually interaction with a dog - until he no longer exhibits a fear response- therapists using counterconditioning assume that if a phobia had been learned, then it can be unlearned, and that we cant simultaneously experience anxiety and relaxation. so, if alberto learns to relax around dogs, then he will no longer experience fear in their presence. this relocation response will counter the fear response