AP Psychology // unit four

Drawbacks to Punishment

-doesn't train new behaviors -can lead to strong negative emotions -may become abusive -inappropriate modeling - generational abuse

Basic Principles of Operant Conditioning

1. reinforcement 1a. positive reinforcement (PR) 1b. negative reinforcement (NR) 2. punishment 2a. positive punishment (PP) 2b. negative punishment (NP)

Reinforcement

always strengthens behavior (positive and negative reinforcement)

CS - conditioned stimulus

something we *learn* to associate with the UCS

Immediate vs Delayed Reinforcement

children who delayed gratification later showed higher social competence -example: marshmallow test

John Watson

example of classical conditioning with Little Albert: UCS = gong UCR = startled NS/CS = rat CR = fear

Ivan Pavlov

example of classical conditioning with dogs: UCS = food UCR = salivation NS/CS = bell CR = salivation

Cognitive Map

mental representation of maze (rats & latent learning)

Partial Reinforcement Schedules

more resistant to extinction -interval and ratio

Variable Interval (VI)

time between reinforcement varies -slow and steady rate of response -resistant to extinction -example: checking email, pop quiz

Conditioned/Secondary Reinforcer

value is learned through experience example: money, appreciation/praise, approval of peers -token economy

Variable Ratio (VR)

# of behaviors required for reinforcement varies -high steady rates of response -most resistant to extinction -Gambler's schedule

Positive Punishment (PP)

*present* unpleasant stimulus to weaken behavior - example: bar of soap in the mouth, yelling, criticism, lecture, spanking

Negative Punishment (NP) (Omission Theory)

*remove* something desirable to weaken behavior - example: grounding, time out, taking away privileges

Biological Constraints on Learning

-Preparedness -Garcia and Koelling -Instinctive Drift

Types of Reinforcers

-Primary reinforcer -Conditioned/secondary reinforcer

Instinctive Drift

-animal's innate response tendencies interfere with conditioning (will do what comes naturally) -intervenes with operant conditioning - some behaviors just can't be trained

learning

-behaviorist model (nurture - deterministic) -learning is an enduring change in behavior brought about by experience with the environment

Social/Observational Learning

-occurs when behaviors are influenced by watching others (called models) -"monkey see, monkey do" -Albert Bandura and the Bobo Doll Study -results: children DID initiate imitative behaviors of modeled aggression -vicarious conditioning -the discovery of mirror neurons confirms findings

Principles of Effective Punishment

-swift -consistent -least severe - fits the "crime" -explain punishment

Classical Conditioning Basic Processes

1. Acquisition 2. Generalization 3. Discrimination 4. Extinction 5. Spontaneous Recovery

types of learning

1. associative models --classical conditioning (s-->r) --operant conditioning (r-->s) 2. observational learning 3. cognitive learning

Schedules of Reinforcement

1. continuous reinforcement 2. partial reinforcement

Other kinds of conditioning

1. counter-conditioning 2. higher order/second order conditioning

Classical conditioning in real life

1. enduring phobias 2. taste aversions 3. emotional responses 4. drug cravings

Little Albert & generalization

After John Watson's experiment, Little Albert then generalized his fear to the sight of all things white & furry, rather than just the sight of the rat

Law of Effect

Edward Thorndike & the puzzle box -if consequence is satisfying, behavior increases -if consequence is discomforting, behavior decreases -foundation for BF skinner's work

stimulus

anything that one can respond to

response

a behavior or action (may be natural/reflexive or learned)

Counter Conditioning

a behavior therapy procedure that conditions new responses to stimuli that trigger unwanted behaviors

Discriminative Stimulus

a cue that signals a reward will be available (someone's watching)

Positive Reinforcement (PR)

a desirable stimulus added or presented leads to an increased response (behavior) example: - behavior: studying // stimulus: getting a good grade - behavior: tantrum // stimulus: giving in - behavior: telling jokes // stimulus: kids laughing

Preparedness

certain taste aversions or phobias are acquired more readily than others (CC) -species specific predisposition -adaptive value -- natural selection

Social and Cognitive Learning

challenged Skinnerian/Behaviorist approach 1. latent learning 2. insight learning 3. social/observational learning

Token Economy

complete tasks and earns "tokens" (points, stars) later exchanged for privileges or treats

UCS - unconditioned stimulus

evokes a natural or reflexive response

Acquisition (classical conditioning)

initial stage of learning UCS(broken tooth) + NS/CS(dentist) -----> UCR(pain) & CR(avoidance)

Operant Conditioning

learning in which a voluntary behavior (response) is strengthened or weakened depending on its consequences (stimulus) R ---> S

Latent Learning

learning that becomes evident even when there is an incentive to demonstrate it -Tolman -3 mazes (no food, food each day, food after day 11) -rats rewarded after day 11 demonstrated learning without reinforcement, created a cognitive map

classical conditioning

learning that occurs as a result of the *pairing* of two stimuli

Insight Learning

learning that occurs suddenly after period of incubation (without reinforcement) -studied by Wolfgang Kohler (banana problem)

UCR - unconditioned response

naturally occurring/reflexive response to the UCS

Vicarious Conditioning (social/observational learning)

occurred when the model was rewarded or punished for behavior (when you watch someone get yelled at for something, you won't do that same thing)

Higher Order/Second Order Conditioning

once a CS elicits a CR, it is possible to use that CS as a US in order to condition a response to a new stimulus

Relearning

rapid return of extinguished behavior when reinforcement occurs again

Garcia and Koelling

rats -taste aversion occurred even after several hours had passed

Ratio Schedules

reinforcement based on # of responses (behaviors) that must be performed a. fixed ratio b. variable ratio

Interval Schedule

reinforcement based on a period of time that must pass a. fixed interval b. variable interval

Fixed Ratio (FI)

reinforcement given after a set # of responses -high level of response with slight dip after each reinforcement -examples: commission, buy 10 get 1 free -quality may suffer -rapid extinction

Fixed Interval (FI)

reinforcement given after a set interval of time -scalloped response rate -rapid extinction -examples: pay, allowance, weekly quiz

Negative Reinforcement (NR)

response is strengthened when it leads to the removal of an unpleasant stimulus (pain, cold, nagging, annoying noise) AKA: escape conditioning, avoidance conditioning example: - seat belt = escaping a ticket

Continuous Reinforcement

reward follows each occurrence of behavior -results in: most rapid learning, rapid extinction -when behavior is learned, transitions to partial reinforcement schedules

Shaping

reward successive approximations to desired response (piano lessons)

Primary Reinforcer

satisfies a biological need, works naturally example: Jolly rancher

NS - neutral stimulus

stimulus paired with the UCS to become the conditioned stimulus

Extinction Burst

temporary increase in behavior prior to extinction (bird pecking rapidly before it realizes it's not getting any food anymore)

Spontaneous Recovery

the CR reappears after extinction - can occur after just 1 pairing of UCS and CS

CR - conditioned response

the response we make to the CS alone after "learning" -may be the same as or similar to the UCR

Punishment

weakens or suppress behavior a. positive punishment b. negative punishment

Habit

when a conditioned behavior continues even without reinforcement

Generalization

when a stimulus similar to the CS, elicits the CR example: Little Albert being afraid of other white and fluffy things, rather than just the rat

Discrimination

when response is limited to the original CS

Extinction

when the CS is repeatedly presented without the UCS (eventually the CS no longer elicits CR)

Chaining

when trained behaviors are linked together for a reward (toothbrush, pj's, in bed ----> get book read to)