AP Psychology // unit four
Drawbacks to Punishment
-doesn't train new behaviors -can lead to strong negative emotions -may become abusive -inappropriate modeling - generational abuse
Basic Principles of Operant Conditioning
1. reinforcement 1a. positive reinforcement (PR) 1b. negative reinforcement (NR) 2. punishment 2a. positive punishment (PP) 2b. negative punishment (NP)
Reinforcement
always strengthens behavior (positive and negative reinforcement)
CS - conditioned stimulus
something we *learn* to associate with the UCS
Immediate vs Delayed Reinforcement
children who delayed gratification later showed higher social competence -example: marshmallow test
John Watson
example of classical conditioning with Little Albert: UCS = gong UCR = startled NS/CS = rat CR = fear
Ivan Pavlov
example of classical conditioning with dogs: UCS = food UCR = salivation NS/CS = bell CR = salivation
Cognitive Map
mental representation of maze (rats & latent learning)
Partial Reinforcement Schedules
more resistant to extinction -interval and ratio
Variable Interval (VI)
time between reinforcement varies -slow and steady rate of response -resistant to extinction -example: checking email, pop quiz
Conditioned/Secondary Reinforcer
value is learned through experience example: money, appreciation/praise, approval of peers -token economy
Variable Ratio (VR)
# of behaviors required for reinforcement varies -high steady rates of response -most resistant to extinction -Gambler's schedule
Positive Punishment (PP)
*present* unpleasant stimulus to weaken behavior - example: bar of soap in the mouth, yelling, criticism, lecture, spanking
Negative Punishment (NP) (Omission Theory)
*remove* something desirable to weaken behavior - example: grounding, time out, taking away privileges
Biological Constraints on Learning
-Preparedness -Garcia and Koelling -Instinctive Drift
Types of Reinforcers
-Primary reinforcer -Conditioned/secondary reinforcer
Instinctive Drift
-animal's innate response tendencies interfere with conditioning (will do what comes naturally) -intervenes with operant conditioning - some behaviors just can't be trained
learning
-behaviorist model (nurture - deterministic) -learning is an enduring change in behavior brought about by experience with the environment
Social/Observational Learning
-occurs when behaviors are influenced by watching others (called models) -"monkey see, monkey do" -Albert Bandura and the Bobo Doll Study -results: children DID initiate imitative behaviors of modeled aggression -vicarious conditioning -the discovery of mirror neurons confirms findings
Principles of Effective Punishment
-swift -consistent -least severe - fits the "crime" -explain punishment
Classical Conditioning Basic Processes
1. Acquisition 2. Generalization 3. Discrimination 4. Extinction 5. Spontaneous Recovery
types of learning
1. associative models --classical conditioning (s-->r) --operant conditioning (r-->s) 2. observational learning 3. cognitive learning
Schedules of Reinforcement
1. continuous reinforcement 2. partial reinforcement
Other kinds of conditioning
1. counter-conditioning 2. higher order/second order conditioning
Classical conditioning in real life
1. enduring phobias 2. taste aversions 3. emotional responses 4. drug cravings
Little Albert & generalization
After John Watson's experiment, Little Albert then generalized his fear to the sight of all things white & furry, rather than just the sight of the rat
Law of Effect
Edward Thorndike & the puzzle box -if consequence is satisfying, behavior increases -if consequence is discomforting, behavior decreases -foundation for BF skinner's work
stimulus
anything that one can respond to
response
a behavior or action (may be natural/reflexive or learned)
Counter Conditioning
a behavior therapy procedure that conditions new responses to stimuli that trigger unwanted behaviors
Discriminative Stimulus
a cue that signals a reward will be available (someone's watching)
Positive Reinforcement (PR)
a desirable stimulus added or presented leads to an increased response (behavior) example: - behavior: studying // stimulus: getting a good grade - behavior: tantrum // stimulus: giving in - behavior: telling jokes // stimulus: kids laughing
Preparedness
certain taste aversions or phobias are acquired more readily than others (CC) -species specific predisposition -adaptive value -- natural selection
Social and Cognitive Learning
challenged Skinnerian/Behaviorist approach 1. latent learning 2. insight learning 3. social/observational learning
Token Economy
complete tasks and earns "tokens" (points, stars) later exchanged for privileges or treats
UCS - unconditioned stimulus
evokes a natural or reflexive response
Acquisition (classical conditioning)
initial stage of learning UCS(broken tooth) + NS/CS(dentist) -----> UCR(pain) & CR(avoidance)
Operant Conditioning
learning in which a voluntary behavior (response) is strengthened or weakened depending on its consequences (stimulus) R ---> S
Latent Learning
learning that becomes evident even when there is an incentive to demonstrate it -Tolman -3 mazes (no food, food each day, food after day 11) -rats rewarded after day 11 demonstrated learning without reinforcement, created a cognitive map
classical conditioning
learning that occurs as a result of the *pairing* of two stimuli
Insight Learning
learning that occurs suddenly after period of incubation (without reinforcement) -studied by Wolfgang Kohler (banana problem)
UCR - unconditioned response
naturally occurring/reflexive response to the UCS
Vicarious Conditioning (social/observational learning)
occurred when the model was rewarded or punished for behavior (when you watch someone get yelled at for something, you won't do that same thing)
Higher Order/Second Order Conditioning
once a CS elicits a CR, it is possible to use that CS as a US in order to condition a response to a new stimulus
Relearning
rapid return of extinguished behavior when reinforcement occurs again
Garcia and Koelling
rats -taste aversion occurred even after several hours had passed
Ratio Schedules
reinforcement based on # of responses (behaviors) that must be performed a. fixed ratio b. variable ratio
Interval Schedule
reinforcement based on a period of time that must pass a. fixed interval b. variable interval
Fixed Ratio (FI)
reinforcement given after a set # of responses -high level of response with slight dip after each reinforcement -examples: commission, buy 10 get 1 free -quality may suffer -rapid extinction
Fixed Interval (FI)
reinforcement given after a set interval of time -scalloped response rate -rapid extinction -examples: pay, allowance, weekly quiz
Negative Reinforcement (NR)
response is strengthened when it leads to the removal of an unpleasant stimulus (pain, cold, nagging, annoying noise) AKA: escape conditioning, avoidance conditioning example: - seat belt = escaping a ticket
Continuous Reinforcement
reward follows each occurrence of behavior -results in: most rapid learning, rapid extinction -when behavior is learned, transitions to partial reinforcement schedules
Shaping
reward successive approximations to desired response (piano lessons)
Primary Reinforcer
satisfies a biological need, works naturally example: Jolly rancher
NS - neutral stimulus
stimulus paired with the UCS to become the conditioned stimulus
Extinction Burst
temporary increase in behavior prior to extinction (bird pecking rapidly before it realizes it's not getting any food anymore)
Spontaneous Recovery
the CR reappears after extinction - can occur after just 1 pairing of UCS and CS
CR - conditioned response
the response we make to the CS alone after "learning" -may be the same as or similar to the UCR
Punishment
weakens or suppress behavior a. positive punishment b. negative punishment
Habit
when a conditioned behavior continues even without reinforcement
Generalization
when a stimulus similar to the CS, elicits the CR example: Little Albert being afraid of other white and fluffy things, rather than just the rat
Discrimination
when response is limited to the original CS
Extinction
when the CS is repeatedly presented without the UCS (eventually the CS no longer elicits CR)
Chaining
when trained behaviors are linked together for a reward (toothbrush, pj's, in bed ----> get book read to)