AP World Exam Review multiple choice

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A painting shows a Japanese mother and her children receiving news that their husband/father has died fighting in an overseas war. The husband's/father's uniform and sword are lying on the floor. Japanese expansion in the late nineteenth century is most directly explained in the context of the decline of which of the following empires? a. The Qing Empire b. The Spanish Empire c. The Russian Empire d. The Portuguese Empire

A painting shows a Japanese mother and her children receiving news that their husband/father has died fighting in an overseas war. The husband's/father's uniform and sword are lying on the floor. In addition to Japan, which of the following non-European states created an empire in the Asia-Pacific region in the late nineteenth century? a. Korea b. Australia c. The United States d. China

"Iron smelting and steel making in the Shaoyang region of Hunan province are rapidly developing on a mass scale. In a short period in the fall of 1958, 12,378 local blast furnaces have been built in this area. The main reason for this remarkable progress in such a short time is that this region has fully carried out the Communist Party's directive to let all the people work in iron and steel production, in keeping with the party's general plan of building socialism. Iron and steel production is not simply a technical job; it is also a political task. Therefore, the first condition for the rapid increase in production was for local party leaders to have the entire party membership mobilized. When the current push to increase production began, many 'experts' wanted to have big foreign blast furnaces. They were not interested in building small local furnaces. They thought we should wait until we've had the opportunity to buy elaborate equipment. Actually, that line of thinking would have resulted in producing less, more slowly, and more expensively. Under the timely guidance of the Party, those tendencies were firmly rejected and the policy of throwing all resources into iron and steel production and letting political cadres take charge was carried out. The strength of the masses is tremendous. All the problems of funds, raw materials, equipment, provisions, etc., which in the past seemed so hard to solve, disappeared before the resourcefulness of the people. In one Hunan county, 67,000 people worked non-stop for three days and nights and built 1025 blast furnaces. Many people, hearing the Party's call, walked over 30 miles to join the work, carrying timber and bamboo and their own food and clothes. In the town of Szetu, local people collected more than 1.6 million yuan [Chinese unit of currency] for the iron and steel effort, with one 50-year-old woman contributing more than 200 yuan, her life savings. Shoemakers donated more than 180,000 pairs of sandals for those building the furnaces. In the town of Tienping, the people solved the housing crisis [of furnace workers coming to the town but not having a place to sleep] by vacating more than 500 rooms in their houses and turning them over to the workers. The people also composed the following song: The Communist Party is really wonderful. In three days more than a thousand furnaces were built. The American imperialists will run off, tails between legs. The Chinese people will now surpass Britain. The East wind will always prevail over the West wind." Yin Zeming, Chinese government official, The Strength of the Masses is Limitless, pamphlet published in English by the Beijing Foreign Languages Press, a Chinese government publishing house, 1958 Which of the following best explains why the passage is likely NOT a reliable source of information regarding the level of popular support and enthusiasm for the Chinese government's push for iron and steel in 1958? a. As a Chinese author writing in English for a Western audience, the author could have feared persecution from the Chinese communist authorities for openly expressing his views. b. As a government official, the author would have felt compelled to overstate the success of communist policies of resource redistribution to demonstrate his loyalty to the party. c. Communist ideology typically emphasized the importance of urban industrial workers as the primary agents of revolutionary change and minimized the contributions of the peasantry. d. Chinese peasants were likely unaware of the economic and social problems created by rapid industrialization policies in other communist countries such as the Soviet Union.

Source 1 "Beloved brothers in Christ, here again we should see and admire the boundless love of God toward us, that He has placed over us this great empire of the Ottomans. The Empire is a mighty obstacle to the Latin heretics in the West. By contrast, to us, the Orthodox people of the East, the Empire has been a means of salvation. For God has continued to put into the heart of the Sultan of these Ottomans an inclination to keep free the religious beliefs of our Orthodox faith and to protect us, even to the point of occasionally chastising Christians who deviate from their faith. Brothers, lately you would have heard a lot about this new system of 'liberty' originating in France. But let us examine the concept more carefully to see if it can be reconciled with good civil government and safety for the citizens. We see from the example of the French Republic that a national, democratic form of government can only provide 'liberty' if the word is taken to mean the freedom to simply act upon one's appetites and desires. But true Christian liberty, properly understood, means something quite different: to be free to live according to both divine and human laws. In other words, it is to live free to follow your conscience and free of any trouble with the authorities. Seen in this light, the new French system of liberty is a path leading to destruction, confusion, overturning of good government, or, simply speaking, a new ambush of the devil to lead us Orthodox Christians astray." Anthimos, Greek Orthodox Patriarch of Jerusalem [then part of the Ottoman Empire], Paternal Instruction, leaflet printed in Greek for distribution among Christian communities in the Ottoman Empire, 1798 Source 2 "I address you in Hungarian today* because reviving our language is like cleansing the mirror of our history, so that the flies buzzing around may not deprive us of its light. It is a sad fate for a nation to perish—especially a nation such as ours that can boast of brilliant feats and that has only sunk to its present condition through the bitter workings of fate. It is of no use to try to accept with stern philosophy, common sense, and cold blood that all men are equal in everything, that the whole human race is a single nation. No! We are national beings and we were raised with our Hungarian selves that way, so that we can never be Germans, or French, or Poles, or Spaniards. We long for glory in this life as Hungarian sons of the Hungarian nation and, in the next, we pray that the angels of the heavens may know us as Hungarians. It is time for the mind of the Hungarian nation to be clarified through a revival of our mother-tongue. How can our educated classes study the languages of Europe, if we are forgetting our own? How could we lift up our people, most of whom live in the countryside, if we cannot offer them books to read in the language they speak? What we urgently need is a group of scholars who would be paid solely to translate works from Latin, French, German, and Greek into Hungarian—this would do more good for the refinement of the country's mind than a thousand Latin and German schools." *At the time, many educated Hungarians preferred to communicate in German, the language of the Austrian Empire of which Hungary was a part. György Bessenyei, Hungarian writer, "Oration on the Subject Matter of the Nation," essay published in 1817 Which of the following is an accurate comparison of the positions expressed by the authors of the two sources regarding the idea that existing political boundaries should be changed so that each nation has its own state? a. Both Source 1 and Source 2 explicitly support the idea. b. Source 1 explicitly supports the idea, but Source 2 explicitly rejects it. c. Neither Source 1 nor Source 2 explicitly supports the idea. d. Source 1 explicitly rejects the idea, but Source 2 explicitly supports it.

Image: B-24 LIBERATOR BOMBERS NEARING COMPLETION AT THE CONSOLIDATED AIRCRAFT CORPORATION PLANT, FORT WORTH, TEXAS, 1942 The image could best be understood as evidence for which of the following developments? a. The shift in the global balance of power associated with the Second World War b. The greater technical skills of individual workers necessitated by wartime production c. The reluctance of the two Cold War superpowers to engage in direct military conflict with each other d. The increasing importance of unconventional methods of warfare as global conflict intensified

Based on the graph, which of the following best describes the development of transportation and communication in the twentieth century? a. New technologies made transportation and communication more expensive over time. b. New methods of transportation and communication became more affordable over time. c. Although methods of transportation became more expensive, methods of communication became less expensive over time. d. Between 1980 and 1990, the cost of all forms of transportation and communication increased.

"I argue that the current state of affairs is unsound and unsustainable. Financial markets are inherently unstable and there are social needs that cannot be met by giving market forces free rein. Unfortunately, these defects are not recognized. Instead, there is a widespread belief that markets are self-correcting. . . . It is claimed that the common interest is best served by allowing everyone to look out for his or her own interests and that attempts to protect the common interest by collective decision making distort the market mechanism. This idea was called laissez-faire in the nineteenth century. . . . I have found a better name for it: market fundamentalism. . . . To put the matter simply, market forces, if they are given complete authority even in the purely economic and financial arenas, produce chaos and could ultimately lead to the downfall of the global financial system. . . . Capitalism needs a counterweight because the capitalist system by itself shows no tendency toward equilibrium. The owners of capital seek to maximize their profits. Left to their own devices, they would continue to accumulate capital until the situation became unbalanced." George Soros, United States financial investment mogul and philanthropist, The Crisis of Global Capitalism, 1998 Which of the following developments in the late twentieth century would most likely be cited to explain a flaw in Soros' arguments regarding "social needs" and "collective decision making" in the first paragraph? a. The emergence of major financial crises in Asia still did not convince governments about the need to enact banking and stock-market reforms. b. Governments in the Asia-Pacific region and Latin America often offered generous tax incentives to Western multinational corporations to relocate manufacturing facilities to their countries. c. The Soviet Union and other communist states in Eastern Europe collapsed largely because of economic inefficiencies created by centralized economic planning and attempts to eliminate all economic and social inequalities. d. Technological innovations enhanced global communication and led to the development of knowledge economies.

"The Russian strategy can be seen at work on many fronts. In Austria the Russians claim 50% of all Austrian industry. In Paris they fight for an arrangement that will allow Yugoslavia to dominate Trieste. In Berlin they carry on a continued press campaign against the Western world but ban our newspapers from the sector if they contain the slightest criticism of Soviet policy. They control the University of Berlin because it is in their sector and impose rigid political tests upon the student body, but they also control the schools of all sectors through the domination of the Berlin Magistrate, established before our entrance. Thus far, it has been impossible to eliminate their Communist textbooks from the western sectors. They always appeal to the Potsdam accord* when it serves their ends and violate it when it suits their purposes. Their officers travel in our zone, marking factory equipment for dismantlement and shipment to Russia. But what they do in their zone is shrouded in mystery and there is some evidence that they are setting this equipment up, not in Russia but in Russian Germany. With millions of troops spread through the whole of Eastern Europe, they are now engaged in a press campaign against Western armies of occupation." *an agreement reached between the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Soviet Union regarding the administration and occupation of Germany following the Second World War Reinhold Niebuhr, United States theologian and political commentator, "The Fight for Germany," article published in Life magazine, 1946 Which of the following best explains Niebuhr's sense of alarm about Soviet intentions in occupied Eastern Europe? a. He wanted to prevent the United States government from enacting censorship of the press similar to the policies of the Soviet authorities in Eastern Europe. b. He was afraid that Soviet success would encourage a socialist revolution in the United States. c. He was concerned that Americans would be reluctant to see their recent allies in the Second World War as a threat. d. He feared that a new military buildup would interfere with the reconstruction of countries devastated by the Second World War.

"The main promise which Britain held out to South Asian migrants [in the early 1950s] was the promise of relief from the economic stagnation which affected rural life. In this respect, Indian and Pakistani migrants had a lot in common with the peripheral European countrymen and women who moved to the cities of the industrial north during the 1950s and 1960s—the Portuguese who powered French industrial expansion, the Turks in Germany, the Cypriots and Maltese in Britain. . . . Subsistence farmers as far apart as Ireland, Calabria* and the Punjab** were propelled to post-war Britain by the same economic laws. Their only chance of altering their circumstances, indeed of imagining a future at all that was different from the present, lay abroad. . . . Nonetheless, although the villager from India and the villager from Ireland or Italy may have been subject to the same economic laws, they were poles apart when it came to their migrant experiences. 'Before I came [to England] my mother told me not to cut off my hair,*** but I told her frankly, "Ma, they cut it off in Bombay, even before we board the ship." ' The straightforward acceptance by a Sikh immigrant that the symbols of his religion would have to go if he were to find work in British foundries and factories suggests a profoundly pragmatic attitude that was shared by most other Indian migrants—they were not going to let religion get in the way of livelihood. The Partition of India in 1947 had a profound effect on Indian emigration to Britain. During the Partition, in Punjab alone . . . over 5 million Muslims fled or were forced to go, on trains, ox-cart and by foot, from India to West Punjab in Pakistan. Over 3 million Hindus and Sikhs escaped the other way, to settle in East Punjab. But the population transfer was carried out with terrible violence and slaughter . . . as religious communities took revenge on one another. Refugees flooded into Delhi, others tried to settle on newly divided parcels of land on both sides of the border. But the influx of newcomers also meant that the landholdings of residents already settled in East Punjab had to be sliced up, into smaller and smaller pieces, with the new parcels averaging as little as two and a half acres in some places. Punjabis had been shaken loose from their land and . . . for those of them on both sides of the border who decided to move on from this precarious existence, England was merely the last in a series of migrations." *a region in southern Italy **a region on both sides of the India-Pakistan border ***many Sikh men let their hair grow naturally as a sign of respect for God's creation. Clair Wills, British historian, Lovers and Strangers: An Immigrant History of Post-War Britain, book published in 2017 Contrary to the author's implicit argument in the second paragraph regarding South Asian migrants' determination to integrate into British society, the migration of former colonial subjects to imperial metropoles typically resulted in a. the preservation of cultural and economic ties between former colonies and metropoles, as immigrant communities maintained some connections to their countries of origin b. the strengthening of the economic dependency of former colonies on their metropoles, as immigrant communities in the metropoles invested heavily in the economies of their countries of origin c. internal divisions within migrant communities as most second-generation immigrants rejected the proassimilation ideas of their parents d. a resurgence of ethnic nationalism and separatism in the former colonial metropoles, as immigrants turned against their host countries

"The main promise which Britain held out to South Asian migrants [in the early 1950s] was the promise of relief from the economic stagnation which affected rural life. In this respect, Indian and Pakistani migrants had a lot in common with the peripheral European countrymen and women who moved to the cities of the industrial north during the 1950s and 1960s—the Portuguese who powered French industrial expansion, the Turks in Germany, the Cypriots and Maltese in Britain. . . . Subsistence farmers as far apart as Ireland, Calabria* and the Punjab** were propelled to post-war Britain by the same economic laws. Their only chance of altering their circumstances, indeed of imagining a future at all that was different from the present, lay abroad. . . . Nonetheless, although the villager from India and the villager from Ireland or Italy may have been subject to the same economic laws, they were poles apart when it came to their migrant experiences. 'Before I came [to England] my mother told me not to cut off my hair,*** but I told her frankly, "Ma, they cut it off in Bombay, even before we board the ship." ' The straightforward acceptance by a Sikh immigrant that the symbols of his religion would have to go if he were to find work in British foundries and factories suggests a profoundly pragmatic attitude that was shared by most other Indian migrants—they were not going to let religion get in the way of livelihood. The Partition of India in 1947 had a profound effect on Indian emigration to Britain. During the Partition, in Punjab alone . . . over 5 million Muslims fled or were forced to go, on trains, ox-cart and by foot, from India to West Punjab in Pakistan. Over 3 million Hindus and Sikhs escaped the other way, to settle in East Punjab. But the population transfer was carried out with terrible violence and slaughter . . . as religious communities took revenge on one another. Refugees flooded into Delhi, others tried to settle on newly divided parcels of land on both sides of the border. But the influx of newcomers also meant that the landholdings of residents already settled in East Punjab had to be sliced up, into smaller and smaller pieces, with the new parcels averaging as little as two and a half acres in some places. Punjabis had been shaken loose from their land and . . . for those of them on both sides of the border who decided to move on from this precarious existence, England was merely the last in a series of migrations." *a region in southern Italy **a region on both sides of the India-Pakistan border ***many Sikh men let their hair grow naturally as a sign of respect for God's creation. Clair Wills, British historian, Lovers and Strangers: An Immigrant History of Post-War Britain, book published in 2017 The argument in the third paragraph regarding the connection between the Partition of India in 1947 and Punjabi migrations to Britain in the 1950s is most directly supported by the author's claim that a. resettling Partition refugees led to an economic crisis in rural Punjab, leading to further population movements b. more Muslims than Hindus were displaced by the Partition in Punjab, leading to disproportionate numbers of migrants to Britain being Muslim c. India's cities were flooded with Punjabi refugees from the Partition seeking economic opportunity there d. the Partition was accompanied by large-scale mass violence, leading to significant loss of life

Source 1 "Beloved brothers in Christ, here again we should see and admire the boundless love of God toward us, that He has placed over us this great empire of the Ottomans. The Empire is a mighty obstacle to the Latin heretics in the West. By contrast, to us, the Orthodox people of the East, the Empire has been a means of salvation. For God has continued to put into the heart of the Sultan of these Ottomans an inclination to keep free the religious beliefs of our Orthodox faith and to protect us, even to the point of occasionally chastising Christians who deviate from their faith. Brothers, lately you would have heard a lot about this new system of 'liberty' originating in France. But let us examine the concept more carefully to see if it can be reconciled with good civil government and safety for the citizens. We see from the example of the French Republic that a national, democratic form of government can only provide 'liberty' if the word is taken to mean the freedom to simply act upon one's appetites and desires. But true Christian liberty, properly understood, means something quite different: to be free to live according to both divine and human laws. In other words, it is to live free to follow your conscience and free of any trouble with the authorities. Seen in this light, the new French system of liberty is a path leading to destruction, confusion, overturning of good government, or, simply speaking, a new ambush of the devil to lead us Orthodox Christians astray." Anthimos, Greek Orthodox Patriarch of Jerusalem [then part of the Ottoman Empire], Paternal Instruction, leaflet printed in Greek for distribution among Christian communities in the Ottoman Empire, 1798 Source 2 "I address you in Hungarian today* because reviving our language is like cleansing the mirror of our history, so that the flies buzzing around may not deprive us of its light. It is a sad fate for a nation to perish—especially a nation such as ours that can boast of brilliant feats and that has only sunk to its present condition through the bitter workings of fate. It is of no use to try to accept with stern philosophy, common sense, and cold blood that all men are equal in everything, that the whole human race is a single nation. No! We are national beings and we were raised with our Hungarian selves that way, so that we can never be Germans, or French, or Poles, or Spaniards. We long for glory in this life as Hungarian sons of the Hungarian nation and, in the next, we pray that the angels of the heavens may know us as Hungarians. It is time for the mind of the Hungarian nation to be clarified through a revival of our mother-tongue. How can our educated classes study the languages of Europe, if we are forgetting our own? How could we lift up our people, most of whom live in the countryside, if we cannot offer them books to read in the language they speak? What we urgently need is a group of scholars who would be paid solely to translate works from Latin, French, German, and Greek into Hungarian—this would do more good for the refinement of the country's mind than a thousand Latin and German schools." *At the time, many educated Hungarians preferred to communicate in German, the language of the Austrian Empire of which Hungary was a part. György Bessenyei, Hungarian writer, "Oration on the Subject Matter of the Nation," essay published in 1817 Which of the following is an accurate comparison between the views expressed in the two sources? a. Source 1 emphasizes the importance of religious identities and solidarities as drivers of human behavior, whereas Source 2 emphasizes the importance of ethno-linguistic identities and solidarities as drivers of human behavior. b. Source 1 asserts that liberty is synonymous with individual freedom of action, whereas Source 2 asserts that true liberty involves a collective obligation to act in the best interests of the community. c. Source 1 assumes that people are fundamentally rational and capable of being persuaded by rational arguments, whereas Source 2 assumes that people are fundamentally irrational and motivated by instincts and passions. d. Source 1 argues that members of the elite should follow the democratically expressed will of the people, whereas Source 2 argues that members of the elite should lead and lift up the people by providing them with education.

Source 1: "Wartime travel brought soldiers and carriers into contact with foreign ways of life, resulting in cultural exchange. . . . There is evidence also of Hausa [a West African people] 'experiments in architecture of grass and bamboo construction' while the troops were in East Africa, as well as enthusiasm for gathering souvenirs such as cowries and other East African shells 'with the intention of presenting necklaces and waist belts to their women folk.' . . . . Contact with European science and technology was another factor that contributed to change in Nigeria. Before the war, the men know only the casual, nature-oriented time-sense of the village; army life taught them a new concept of punctuality, compatible with reveille, parades, drills, and deadlines. Many Nigerians took their first ride on a train and saw their first car, aeroplane, and motion picture. Large numbers learned to shoot and care for modern weapons—not only rifles, but machine-guns and artillery. Also, soldiers learned basic hygiene, water sterilization, and other methods of disease control and health care. Thousands of Nigerians received their first vaccination and took their first pill during the war." James K. Matthews, United States military historian, "World War I and the Rise of African Nationalism," The Journal of Modern African Studies, 1982 Source 2: "African deaths in combat can be contrasted with those suffered by the French using a variety of standards. As a percentage of all the soldiers mobilized during the war, Senegalese losses were slightly less than those incurred by the French. The picture changes significantly, however, when only combatants are considered. Using this criterion, Senegalese losses were nearly 20 per cent higher than those sustained by their French counterparts. . . . African soldiers seldom served in the cavalry, artillery, engineering and aviation units, where casualties were substantially lower. . . . If only infantry fatalities are considered, . . . French and African losses between 1914 and 1918 were virtually identical: they amounted to slightly over 22 per cent in both cases. . . . This interpretation . . . neglects, however, to consider [that] . . . the Senegalese were not employed in significant numbers as combatants in Europe before July 1916. Prior to this time, African losses accounted for less than 10 per cent of their eventual wartime total, . . . it was precisely because of the staggering dimensions of French losses during the first 22 months of the war . . . that resistance to the massive recruitment of West Africans and their deployment on the Western Front was overcome. If the time factor is taken into consideration, a very different picture begins to emerge. It indicates that during the last two-and-a-half years of the war, Senegalese casualties in Europe were approximately twice as high as those suffered by French infantry combatants." Joe Lunn, military historian, "Les Races Guerrières': Racial Preconceptions in the French Military about West African Soldiers during the First World War," Journal of Contemporary History, 1999 Which of the following does the author of Source 1 NOT cite as evidence of European science and technology contributing to cultural change in Nigeria? a. Gift gathering for women back home b. Adoption of European hygiene concepts c. New concepts of timekeeping d. Encounters with modern transportation technology

Source 1: "Wartime travel brought soldiers and carriers into contact with foreign ways of life, resulting in cultural exchange. . . . There is evidence also of Hausa [a West African people] 'experiments in architecture of grass and bamboo construction' while the troops were in East Africa, as well as enthusiasm for gathering souvenirs such as cowries and other East African shells 'with the intention of presenting necklaces and waist belts to their women folk.' . . . . Contact with European science and technology was another factor that contributed to change in Nigeria. Before the war, the men know only the casual, nature-oriented time-sense of the village; army life taught them a new concept of punctuality, compatible with reveille, parades, drills, and deadlines. Many Nigerians took their first ride on a train and saw their first car, aeroplane, and motion picture. Large numbers learned to shoot and care for modern weapons—not only rifles, but machine-guns and artillery. Also, soldiers learned basic hygiene, water sterilization, and other methods of disease control and health care. Thousands of Nigerians received their first vaccination and took their first pill during the war." James K. Matthews, United States military historian, "World War I and the Rise of African Nationalism," The Journal of Modern African Studies, 1982 Source 2: "African deaths in combat can be contrasted with those suffered by the French using a variety of standards. As a percentage of all the soldiers mobilized during the war, Senegalese losses were slightly less than those incurred by the French. The picture changes significantly, however, when only combatants are considered. Using this criterion, Senegalese losses were nearly 20 per cent higher than those sustained by their French counterparts. . . . African soldiers seldom served in the cavalry, artillery, engineering and aviation units, where casualties were substantially lower. . . . If only infantry fatalities are considered, . . . French and African losses between 1914 and 1918 were virtually identical: they amounted to slightly over 22 per cent in both cases. . . . This interpretation . . . neglects, however, to consider [that] . . . the Senegalese were not employed in significant numbers as combatants in Europe before July 1916. Prior to this time, African losses accounted for less than 10 per cent of their eventual wartime total, . . . it was precisely because of the staggering dimensions of French losses during the first 22 months of the war . . . that resistance to the massive recruitment of West Africans and their deployment on the Western Front was overcome. If the time factor is taken into consideration, a very different picture begins to emerge. It indicates that during the last two-and-a-half years of the war, Senegalese casualties in Europe were approximately twice as high as those suffered by French infantry combatants." Joe Lunn, military historian, "Les Races Guerrières': Racial Preconceptions in the French Military about West African Soldiers during the First World War," Journal of Contemporary History, 1999 Which of the following does the author of Source 1 cite as evidence of cultural exchange between East and West Africa during the First World War? a. Experiments in architecture and the gathering of souvenirs b. Spreading methods of disease control and health care c. Learning the care and maintenance of modern weapons d. Learning parades and drill

Source 1: "Wartime travel brought soldiers and carriers into contact with foreign ways of life, resulting in cultural exchange. . . . There is evidence also of Hausa [a West African people] 'experiments in architecture of grass and bamboo construction' while the troops were in East Africa, as well as enthusiasm for gathering souvenirs such as cowries and other East African shells 'with the intention of presenting necklaces and waist belts to their women folk.' . . . . Contact with European science and technology was another factor that contributed to change in Nigeria. Before the war, the men know only the casual, nature-oriented time-sense of the village; army life taught them a new concept of punctuality, compatible with reveille, parades, drills, and deadlines. Many Nigerians took their first ride on a train and saw their first car, aeroplane, and motion picture. Large numbers learned to shoot and care for modern weapons—not only rifles, but machine-guns and artillery. Also, soldiers learned basic hygiene, water sterilization, and other methods of disease control and health care. Thousands of Nigerians received their first vaccination and took their first pill during the war." James K. Matthews, United States military historian, "World War I and the Rise of African Nationalism," The Journal of Modern African Studies, 1982 Source 2: "African deaths in combat can be contrasted with those suffered by the French using a variety of standards. As a percentage of all the soldiers mobilized during the war, Senegalese losses were slightly less than those incurred by the French. The picture changes significantly, however, when only combatants are considered. Using this criterion, Senegalese losses were nearly 20 per cent higher than those sustained by their French counterparts. . . . African soldiers seldom served in the cavalry, artillery, engineering and aviation units, where casualties were substantially lower. . . . If only infantry fatalities are considered, . . . French and African losses between 1914 and 1918 were virtually identical: they amounted to slightly over 22 per cent in both cases. . . . This interpretation . . . neglects, however, to consider [that] . . . the Senegalese were not employed in significant numbers as combatants in Europe before July 1916. Prior to this time, African losses accounted for less than 10 per cent of their eventual wartime total, . . . it was precisely because of the staggering dimensions of French losses during the first 22 months of the war . . . that resistance to the massive recruitment of West Africans and their deployment on the Western Front was overcome. If the time factor is taken into consideration, a very different picture begins to emerge. It indicates that during the last two-and-a-half years of the war, Senegalese casualties in Europe were approximately twice as high as those suffered by French infantry combatants." Joe Lunn, military historian, "Les Races Guerrières': Racial Preconceptions in the French Military about West African Soldiers during the First World War," Journal of Contemporary History, 1999 Which of the following does the author of Source 2 most directly cite as evidence of a higher casualty rate among Senegalese soldiers in combat than among French soldiers in combat? a. The casualty rate after July 1916 b. The casualty rate among cavalry, artillery, engineering, and aviation units c. The casualty rate as a percentage of all soldiers mobilized for the war d. The casualty rate among infantry units

"The main promise which Britain held out to South Asian migrants [in the early 1950s] was the promise of relief from the economic stagnation which affected rural life. In this respect, Indian and Pakistani migrants had a lot in common with the peripheral European countrymen and women who moved to the cities of the industrial north during the 1950s and 1960s—the Portuguese who powered French industrial expansion, the Turks in Germany, the Cypriots and Maltese in Britain. . . . Subsistence farmers as far apart as Ireland, Calabria* and the Punjab** were propelled to post-war Britain by the same economic laws. Their only chance of altering their circumstances, indeed of imagining a future at all that was different from the present, lay abroad. . . . Nonetheless, although the villager from India and the villager from Ireland or Italy may have been subject to the same economic laws, they were poles apart when it came to their migrant experiences. 'Before I came [to England] my mother told me not to cut off my hair,*** but I told her frankly, "Ma, they cut it off in Bombay, even before we board the ship." ' The straightforward acceptance by a Sikh immigrant that the symbols of his religion would have to go if he were to find work in British foundries and factories suggests a profoundly pragmatic attitude that was shared by most other Indian migrants—they were not going to let religion get in the way of livelihood. The Partition of India in 1947 had a profound effect on Indian emigration to Britain. During the Partition, in Punjab alone . . . over 5 million Muslims fled or were forced to go, on trains, ox-cart and by foot, from India to West Punjab in Pakistan. Over 3 million Hindus and Sikhs escaped the other way, to settle in East Punjab. But the population transfer was carried out with terrible violence and slaughter . . . as religious communities took revenge on one another. Refugees flooded into Delhi, others tried to settle on newly divided parcels of land on both sides of the border. But the influx of newcomers also meant that the landholdings of residents already settled in East Punjab had to be sliced up, into smaller and smaller pieces, with the new parcels averaging as little as two and a half acres in some places. Punjabis had been shaken loose from their land and . . . for those of them on both sides of the border who decided to move on from this precarious existence, England was merely the last in a series of migrations." *a region in southern Italy **a region on both sides of the India-Pakistan border ***many Sikh men let their hair grow naturally as a sign of respect for God's creation. Clair Wills, British historian, Lovers and Strangers: An Immigrant History of Post-War Britain, book published in 2017 Which of the following best explains why the author brings up the example of the Sikh migrant cutting his hair before coming to England as a way of supporting his argument that the experiences of South Asian and European immigrants to Britain were "poles apart"? a. Unlike European immigrants, South Asian immigrants brought to Britain cultural norms and religious symbols that gave them advantages in competing for industrial jobs. b. Unlike European immigrants, South Asian immigrants had to suppress parts of their culture and remove important religious symbols to fit into British society. c. Unlike European immigrants, South Asian immigrants could count on the support of existing large migrant communities from their countries of birth. d. Unlike European immigrants, South Asian immigrants were escaping poverty and economic stagnation in their homeland.

"Throughout the period of Nigeria's short and precarious existence as a single political entity, we Eastern Nigerians have always believed in fundamental human rights as they are accepted and enjoyed in civilized countries. Impelled by our belief in these rights and our sense of common citizenship with other Nigerians, we contributed our ideas and skills, our resourcefulness and dynamism, in the development of areas of Nigeria outside the East. We set up businesses and industries throughout the country, overlooked the neglect of our homeland in the division of national institutions, development projects, and financial resources, made our region's abundant natural resources available to the rest of the country, and confidently invested in the general economic and social development of Nigeria. . . . We used to oppose those who told us that what our former colonial masters made into 'Nigeria' was merely an agglomeration of different peoples, distinct in every way except in the color of their skin, and organized in as a unit solely for the commercial interests and administrative convenience of the colonists. . . . But we have come to realize that national unity is no longer possible. The Nigerian constitution that was adopted after independence in 1960 installed the North in perpetual dominance over Nigeria. Thus were sown, by design or by default, the seeds of factionalism and hate, of struggle for power, and the worst type of political deception. National independence was followed by successive crises, each leading to the near disintegration of the country. Last year alone, tens of thousands of Eastern and Southern Nigerians were killed in pogroms by Northerners in all parts of the country, including the capital, Lagos. We are now facing a situation in which there are only two possible outcomes: either perpetual domination of the rest of the country by the North, not by consent but by force and fraud, or a dissolution of the [Nigerian] federation bond." Lieutenant Colonel C. Odumegwu Ojukwu, Nigerian army officer, proclamation of the breakaway Republic of Biafra [Eastern Nigeria], 19 Which of the following best explains how the immediate historical situation of the proclamation of Biafran independence from Nigeria informed the author's statements in the third paragraph? a. Adopting the principles of the Non-Aligned Movement allowed many leaders of new states in Asia and Africa to remain above the proxy conflicts of the Cold War. b. Claiming to uphold the rule of law and oppose government corruption had become the norm for those seeking political power, even for military leaders seeking to challenge elected governments. c. Presenting their struggle as one against European imperialism was the best way for leaders of African and Asian states to justify their corrupt practices. d. Explicitly seeking the support of one of the two superpowers was the expected course of action from most new national governments in Asia and Africa.

"Iron smelting and steel making in the Shaoyang region of Hunan province are rapidly developing on a mass scale. In a short period in the fall of 1958, 12,378 local blast furnaces have been built in this area. The main reason for this remarkable progress in such a short time is that this region has fully carried out the Communist Party's directive to let all the people work in iron and steel production, in keeping with the party's general plan of building socialism. Iron and steel production is not simply a technical job; it is also a political task. Therefore, the first condition for the rapid increase in production was for local party leaders to have the entire party membership mobilized. When the current push to increase production began, many 'experts' wanted to have big foreign blast furnaces. They were not interested in building small local furnaces. They thought we should wait until we've had the opportunity to buy elaborate equipment. Actually, that line of thinking would have resulted in producing less, more slowly, and more expensively. Under the timely guidance of the Party, those tendencies were firmly rejected and the policy of throwing all resources into iron and steel production and letting political cadres take charge was carried out. The strength of the masses is tremendous. All the problems of funds, raw materials, equipment, provisions, etc., which in the past seemed so hard to solve, disappeared before the resourcefulness of the people. In one Hunan county, 67,000 people worked non-stop for three days and nights and built 1025 blast furnaces. Many people, hearing the Party's call, walked over 30 miles to join the work, carrying timber and bamboo and their own food and clothes. In the town of Szetu, local people collected more than 1.6 million yuan [Chinese unit of currency] for the iron and steel effort, with one 50-year-old woman contributing more than 200 yuan, her life savings. Shoemakers donated more than 180,000 pairs of sandals for those building the furnaces. In the town of Tienping, the people solved the housing crisis [of furnace workers coming to the town but not having a place to sleep] by vacating more than 500 rooms in their houses and turning them over to the workers. The people also composed the following song: The Communist Party is really wonderful. In three days more than a thousand furnaces were built. The American imperialists will run off, tails between legs. The Chinese people will now surpass Britain. The East wind will always prevail over the West wind." Yin Zeming, Chinese government official, The Strength of the Masses is Limitless, pamphlet published in English by the Beijing Foreign Languages Press, a Chinese government publishing house, 1958 Which of the following best explains the significance of the intended audience of Yin Zeming's pamphlet in shaping the author's narrative? a. Since it targets an international audience across the Cold War divide, the pamphlet presents an idealized, propaganda-tinged vision of Chinese accomplishments. b. Since it was intended for a domestic Chinese audience skeptical of the economic reforms, the pamphlet seeks to rally the people behind the party line. c. Since it was mostly intended to document the technological and economic achievements of Communist China, the pamphlet refrains from making any overtly political statements. d. Since it was aimed at an audience of Communist Party cadres, the pamphlet discusses at length the responsibilities of party officials in implementing the reforms.

Source 1 "Beloved brothers in Christ, here again we should see and admire the boundless love of God toward us, that He has placed over us this great empire of the Ottomans. The Empire is a mighty obstacle to the Latin heretics in the West. By contrast, to us, the Orthodox people of the East, the Empire has been a means of salvation. For God has continued to put into the heart of the Sultan of these Ottomans an inclination to keep free the religious beliefs of our Orthodox faith and to protect us, even to the point of occasionally chastising Christians who deviate from their faith. Brothers, lately you would have heard a lot about this new system of 'liberty' originating in France. But let us examine the concept more carefully to see if it can be reconciled with good civil government and safety for the citizens. We see from the example of the French Republic that a national, democratic form of government can only provide 'liberty' if the word is taken to mean the freedom to simply act upon one's appetites and desires. But true Christian liberty, properly understood, means something quite different: to be free to live according to both divine and human laws. In other words, it is to live free to follow your conscience and free of any trouble with the authorities. Seen in this light, the new French system of liberty is a path leading to destruction, confusion, overturning of good government, or, simply speaking, a new ambush of the devil to lead us Orthodox Christians astray." Anthimos, Greek Orthodox Patriarch of Jerusalem [then part of the Ottoman Empire], Paternal Instruction, leaflet printed in Greek for distribution among Christian communities in the Ottoman Empire, 1798 Source 2 "I address you in Hungarian today* because reviving our language is like cleansing the mirror of our history, so that the flies buzzing around may not deprive us of its light. It is a sad fate for a nation to perish—especially a nation such as ours that can boast of brilliant feats and that has only sunk to its present condition through the bitter workings of fate. It is of no use to try to accept with stern philosophy, common sense, and cold blood that all men are equal in everything, that the whole human race is a single nation. No! We are national beings and we were raised with our Hungarian selves that way, so that we can never be Germans, or French, or Poles, or Spaniards. We long for glory in this life as Hungarian sons of the Hungarian nation and, in the next, we pray that the angels of the heavens may know us as Hungarians. It is time for the mind of the Hungarian nation to be clarified through a revival of our mother-tongue. How can our educated classes study the languages of Europe, if we are forgetting our own? How could we lift up our people, most of whom live in the countryside, if we cannot offer them books to read in the language they speak? What we urgently need is a group of scholars who would be paid solely to translate works from Latin, French, German, and Greek into Hungarian—this would do more good for the refinement of the country's mind than a thousand Latin and German schools." *At the time, many educated Hungarians preferred to communicate in German, the language of the Austrian Empire of which Hungary was a part. György Bessenyei, Hungarian writer, "Oration on the Subject Matter of the Nation," essay published in 1817 Which of the following is an accurate comparison of the arguments made in the two sources regarding ideas of liberty and equality? a. Both sources embrace the ideas for the same reason, namely that liberty and equality are inalienable natural rights and governments' attempts to restrict those rights are doomed to fail. b. Source 1 embraces the ideas because of the promise of emancipation they hold to oppressed minority groups, whereas Source 2 embraces the ideas because of their origins in Enlightenment thought. c. Source 1 rejects the ideas because of the threat they represent to multinational empires, whereas Source 2 rejects the ideas because of the universal and equalizing nature of their claims. d. Both sources reject the ideas for the same reason, namely that demands for liberty and equality would lead to political instability and sweeping social changes in Europe.

The expansion of the Ottoman Empire can be attributed mostly to which of the following? a. The Ottoman alliance with France against rival Christian powers b. The Ottoman Empire's unrivaled naval superiority in the Mediterranean c. The decline of surrounding empires and the Ottoman Empire's use of gunpowder weapons d. The power vacuum left by the collapse of the Umayyad caliphate

WORKERS AND SOLDIERS MARCHING IN THE STREETS OF SAINT PETERSBURG, RUSSIAN EMPIRE, AFTER TAKING OVER CONTROL OF THE CITY, FEBRUARY 1917 The unrest reflected in the image is best explained by which of the following features of the Russian government at the time of the photograph? a. The Russian Empire was composed of many different ethnic groups that had varying degrees of autonomy. b. The Russian Empire covered a vast land area, much of which was undeveloped economically. c. The Tsarist regime that governed Russia was autocratic and unresponsive to calls for reform. d. The Tsarist monarchy was tied to the monarchies of Germany and Great Britain by common family links.

"Dear Comrade Lenin! I cannot avoid pointing out an outrageous phenomenon that can still be observed all over our Soviet Russia. Even though it has been more than two years since power in Russia has been in the hands of the Soviets, in all major cities certain things can be observed that do not at all indicate the existence of a dictatorship of the proletariat. I want to point out the most insulting one. In our city, Kazan (and as I mentioned, this also happens in all major cities), there live many former factory owners and other members of the bourgeoisie. Even though their factories and businesses have been nationalized, if you enter their apartments you would see them still living as they did in the 'good old times.' These gentlemen do not seem to know that the Civil War is still raging and that power is in the hands of the workers. As in the past, they continue to reside in the most luxurious, spacious, and warm apartments, with luxurious furniture. In their kitchens, you would still see hired cooks with white caps and uniforms, and in their households you would still see a variety of servants. In the summer they still go out to their country houses to 'relax.' When I see this, I become almost ashamed of our proletarian revolution. Why has no attention been paid to this yet? Why are workers not being moved into the bourgeois apartments and the bourgeois into workers' cellars? Why is their furniture and other belongings not being confiscated and distributed to the workers? And anyway, why has this gang of bourgeois parasites not yet been destroyed? I am turning to you, Comrade Lenin, as our leader and the most loyal friend of the proletariat, and I am waiting so that this issue, which concerns me and many other honest communists, can be resolved by an appropriate decree." Letter to Soviet leader Vladimir Lenin from a member of the Communist Party living in Kazan, Russia, November, 1920 The letter's significance as a source of information on popular attitudes to Bolshevik revolutionary policies lies in the fact that it suggests that some Soviet citizens a. supported the Bolsheviks in their nationalization of industrial property but urged them to seize the upper classes' private property as well b. condemned the revolution for leaving the means of production in the hands of the bourgeoisie c. were grateful to the Bolshevik revolutionary government for providing them with improved living conditions in newly built public housing d. felt that the Bolsheviks had gone too far in curtailing the property rights of wealthy Soviet citizens

"I, Edward, by the grace of God king of England, sent this decree to the reverend father in Christ William, by the grace of God archbishop of Canterbury, supreme Church leader of all England: Know that, because of the great number of people who died in the recent pestilence, those who survive see that masters need servants, which have become scarce, and so they now refuse to serve as workmen unless they receive excessive wages. That is why, I, considering the grave inconveniences that might come from the lack of such workmen, especially plowmen, and after consultations with the nobles and clergy of the realm, have decided that every man and woman of our realm of England shall be required to serve his or her lord at the wages that were provided five years ago, in the year 1346. The lords are entitled to keep their serfs. If any such serf, man or woman, who is required to serve their lord will not do so, they shall be immediately committed to jail." King Edward III of England, the Statute of Laborers, royal decree, 1351 The need for legal action to address the "grave inconveniences" that might result from the labor shortages described in the passage most likely resulted from a. the agrarian nature of medieval European economies and their reliance on coerced labor b. the inability of members of the nobility and other feudal lords to take direct legal action against their workers and serfs c. the high social rank and economic standing of plowmen in medieval English society d. the presence of guild regulations prohibiting agricultural laborers from working more than a certain number of hours each week

"In that year [1450 c.e.] there came to Naples a three-man embassy from the King of Ethiopia to His Highness, our King Alfonso. Among the ambassadors was a certain Pietro Rombulo, an Italian, native of the city of Messina. This Pietro claimed that he had lived among the Ethiopians for over 40 years. And he described to me how in Ethiopia there are innumerable Christians—since both the people and the king there worship Christ—among whom he had been able to live a good Christian life safely and honorably. The ruler of Ethiopia, King David, whom they call Zara Yacob, was said by the ambassadors to be the most civilized, the most just, and the most pious of princes." Pietro Ranzano, Catholic Church official in Naples and Sicily, universal history written circa 1480 Which of the following continuities in the development of African states in the period circa 1200-1450 most likely explains the prevalence of Christianity in Ethiopia? a. Some African states' religious traditions continued to be influenced by cultural transfers dating back to earlier centuries. b. Some African states were famous for their religious toleration and for allowing multiple religious traditions to coexist in their territories. c. African states' official religions were typically syncretic mixtures of several different religious traditions. d. While African populations mostly continued to adhere to indigenous polytheistic religions, African political elites often adopted monotheistic religions such as Christianity and Islam.

"In the Name of God, the Merciful, the Compassionate. The Holy Qur'an says, "Rise not up against me, but come to me in surrender." This letter has been graciously issued by me Sultan Selim, the most glorious sovereign, the Caliph of God Most High in this world, haloed in victory, slayer of the wicked and of the infidel, guardian of the noble and the pious, the warrior in the path of God, the defender of the Faith, the standard-bearer of justice and righteousness—and is addressed to you, prince Ismail, the ruler of the kingdom of the Persians, the possessor of the land of tyranny and wickedness, the captain of the vicious, the chief of the malicious, the usurper of the throne of the ancient Persian kings. I have heard repeatedly that you have subjected the upright Muslims under your rule to your devious will, that you have undermined the firm foundation of the Faith, and that you no longer uphold the commandments and prohibitions of the Divine Law, but have incited your heretical faction to commit abominable deeds in the lands that you possess. Be informed, then, that both the opinion of the learned Islamic scholars and the consensus of the Sunni community agree that it is my obligation to extinguish and extirpate the evil heresy that you represent. But should you take up a course of repentance, become like one blameless, and return to the sublime straight path of Muhammad (Prayers and salutations be upon him), and should you proclaim your lands and their people part of my Ottoman state, then you shall be granted my royal favor and imperial protection and patronage." Letter by the Ottoman Sultan Selim I to the Safavid Shah Ismail I, circa 1514 A historian would most likely interpret the rhetoric in the passage as evidence that rulers of imperial states in the period circa 1450-1750 continued to a. use religious ideas to highlight their political legitimacy and attack the legitimacy of their enemies b. prefer to resolve interstate conflicts through warfare rather than through diplomatic means c. seek to unite forces to prevent the spread of secular ideas d. patronize religious establishments and preside over religious ceremonies

"Muslim-Christian relations were at a low ebb when the Ottomans arrived in the Arab lands [in 1516]. The Mamluk sultans of Egypt, the previous rulers of the area, had embarked on an ideological as well as a military campaign against the various Christian communities still living in the Middle East. . . . In the aftermath of this disaster, Christianity in the Arab east was in psychological and numerical decline. Jewish communities in the region fared somewhat better than their Christian neighbors but could hardly be characterized as flourishing on the eve of the Ottoman conquest. The Jews and Christians in the region were at first probably ambivalent, if not indifferent or hostile, to the change in the dynastic succession from Mamluk to Ottoman sultans who exercised sovereignty over their lives, but their fortunes were about to improve under the new regime. The Ottoman sultans were still winning victories against European armies on the battlefield, and the presence of Christians so distant from the war zone in Central Europe must not have felt particularly threatening or indeed important (beyond the collection of their taxes) to most Ottoman officials posted in the Arab lands. In the case of the Sephardic Jews,* the Ottoman sultans welcomed them into their realm as potentially revenue-producing subjects. Most importantly, the political tradition honored by the Ottoman sultans was to grant autonomy to the various religious groups of their empire. This afforded the Christians and Jews in the Ottoman Middle East fairly wide-ranging freedoms and allowed them to recover some of the losses they had endured under the Mamluks, including the right to repair damaged churches and synagogues and, in a few cases, permission to build new ones." *Jewish communities from the Iberian Peninsula who were forced to leave after the Christian reconquest of what became Spain and Portugal Bruce Masters, historian, Christians and Jews in the Ottoman Arab World, book published in 2001 Which of the following would a historian most likely cite as evidence in support of the author's argument in the second paragraph of the passage? a. The Ottoman millet system, an arrangement designed to utilize the economic contributions of non-Muslim groups within the empire while granting them limited autonomy to organize their communal affairs under their own religious leaders b. The Ottoman practice of farming out the collection of taxes to local private individuals (some of them non-Muslim), because of the shortage of trained government financial officials c. The Ottoman sultans' continued powers of granting final approval for any high-ranking appointment of a non-Muslim religious leader, including the power to approve patriarchs and bishops of the various Christian communities and chief rabbis of the Jewish community d. The Ottoman practice of devshirme, a military levy of Christian boys who would be converted to Islam and trained as Ottoman Janissary soldiers or bureaucrats in state service

"OBJECTIVES OF YOUR JOURNEY In these parts of West Africa, France has obtained a few treaties with powerful chiefs, on the basis of which she claims immense regions in the great bend of the Niger River. She also sends French adventurers into a recognized British sphere of influence to make further treaties with native persons who claim to be the rulers or kings of certain regions. The goal of your journey therefore will be to (a) in places where the French pretend they have made treaties with the native rulers, to obtain a written declaration from the rulers that such statements are false, and then to make treaties for us; (b) in places where the French have made no such pretense, to secure treaties accompanied by a short declaration that no previous treaties have been made with any European; . . . (d) to collect detailed information of every kind about the regions you visit, but especially to make inquiries as to the existence of gold—either gold sands in rivers or gold lodes in rock; . . . (f) to impress upon all African chiefs how advantageous it would be for them to have Europeans bringing goods to their country, which can only be done if they sign the treaties; . . . (h) to note especially carefully the prevalence of gum arabic trees, shea butter trees, and rubber vines* in each region you visit." Letter from the directors of the British Royal Niger Company to its agent, Captain Frederick Lugard, directing him to travel up the Niger River in West Africa, 1894 *African trees that were used by Europeans in the production of cosmetics and processed food additives (gum Arabic), soap and candles (Shea butter), and tires and machine transmission belts (rubber) The instructions to Lugard in articles (d) and (f) best reflect which of the following regarding the purpose of the board of directors' letter? a. As a commercial enterprise, the British Royal Niger Company hoped that Lugard's voyage would allow it to expand its exports of African raw materials to Europe and its imports of European finished goods to Africa. b. As a high-ranking agent of the British Royal Niger Company, Lugard would have been likely to recognize on his own the economic potential of the areas he was about to explore. c. As tropical disease made travel in Africa dangerous to Europeans, the board of directors needed to emphasize the economic rewards that Lugard would personally reap if his mission was successful. d. As a transnational company competing for business on the global market, the British Royal Niger Company wished to obtain information about the financial resources of its competitors.

"On several occasions, Ghazan Khan* went to the observatory at Maragha** and watched the Muslim, Christian, and Chinese astronomers make their observations. He looked at all the operations and instruments, studied them, and asked about their procedures, which he understood in spite of their difficulty. He also ordered the construction of a dome in order to investigate the Sun's motion and he spoke out with his astronomers about it. All of them said that although they had never seen such an instrument, it was reasonable and sensible. He gave orders for the construction of an observatory next to his tomb in Tabriz in Persia. He explained how to construct the observatory with such clarity that local wise men marveled at his intelligence, because such work had not been done in any era. Those wise men said that constructing the observatory would be extremely difficult. He guided them, whereupon they commenced building it and they finished it following his instructions. Those wise men and all the engineers agreed that nobody had done such a thing before nor had imagined doing it." *ruler of the Mongol Ilkhanate, whose territories included most of the Muslim Middle East; reigned 1295-1304 **an astronomical observatory in present-day Azerbaijan, established by a grant from the first Ilkhanid ruler in the mid-thirteenth century Rashid al-Din Hamdani, Persian Muslim historian and government minister in Ghazan Khan's court, excerpt from a universal history commissioned by Ghazan Khan, completed circa 1316 Which of the following best describes the historical situation in Eurasia at the time the passage was written? a. Political upheaval and reorganization increased cultural and scientific exchanges across regions. b. Frequent warfare limited the opportunities for cultural, scientific, and artistic innovation. c. The invention and spread of new weapons and military tactics radically transformed the global balance of power. d. Revived long-distance trade spread pathogens and infections to regions that had not been previously affected by them.

"One of the most important aspects of the Maya economy was the exchange of exotic goods. Maya rulers and elites needed such goods to maintain and reinforce their social status and power. Many of these goods were used in the formal dress of kings, nobles, and priests. Without them, the elites could not carry out the rituals that were their principal duties in the eyes of the people. Jaguar pelts, fine textiles, feathers, and other such products were exchanged over long distances within the Maya lowlands. . . . Such items were probably exchanged as dowry, gifts at royal marriages, coronations, funerals, or at religious pilgrimages. Exotic goods were also probably given as tribute to rulers by their vassals. These high-status goods held together the Maya world and unified patterns of behavior in religion, science, and warfare. Their exchange surely went hand in hand with exchanges of information, including scientific knowledge, early writing, and, most importantly, models of political organization." Arthur Demarest, United States anthropologist, Ancient Maya: The Rise and Fall of a Rainforest Civilization, 2004 Which of the following pieces of evidence most strongly supports the author's conclusion about the importance of exotic goods to the Maya region's economy? a. Exotic goods were exchanged over long distances within the Maya lowlands. b. Exotic goods were traded between the Maya city-states and neighboring states. c. The exchange of exotic goods went hand in hand with the exchange of information. d. The Maya region depended on the trade in exotic goods because of relatively low levels of agricultural production.

"The Cossack commander Bohdan Khmelnytsky and all his Cossacks of the Zaporozhian Host,* humbly bowing to His Majesty Tsar Alexey Mikhaylovich, ruler of all Russia, pledge that they shall serve the Tsar's sovereign wishes forever, and in exchange for that they request that His Majesty grant them the following privileges: Firstly, that town and city officials in the territories controlled by the Zaporozhian Host be selected from the Cossacks' own ranks. These Cossack city officials shall endeavor to serve His Majesty's wishes in all their actions, collecting His tax revenues and administering His justice and punishments. In the past, His Majesty several times sent His royal appointees from Moscow, but those appointees habitually violated our Cossacks' rights and tried to impose this or that royal decree or regulation on our Host's people, which frustrated our people greatly. By contrast, if our Host's people are governed by their own, they are not going to resist or complain. So ordered. His Majesty approved this request, provided the Cossacks will not interfere with the collection of taxes nor will they impede royal acts of justice from being carried out. Secondly, that should rulers of foreign countries continue to send ambassadors to commander Khmelnytsky and the Zaporozhian Host directly, as they have done before, the Cossack commander can continue to receive and conduct business with those who come in peace. The commander should only inform His Majesty of those foreign ambassadors that come and express hostility toward Russia or seek to do it harm. So ordered. His Majesty approved this request, with the exception being ambassadors from the Polish king and the Ottoman Sultan—if such ambassadors arrive in the lands of the Zaporozhian Host, they should be apprehended regardless of their intentions, and the Cossacks should not release them until they hear back from His Majesty." Agreement between the Cossacks of the Zaporozhian Host and the tsar of Russia, 1654 As outlined in the passage, the provisions of the agreement can best be used to illustrate which of the following aspects of state building in Eurasia in the period circa 1450-1750 ? a. Local elites successfully resisted attempts at state centralization and asserted their autonomy from central rule. b. Mercantilist philosophy continued to inform the economic and social policies of many states. c. Many states were able to consolidate their political systems and eliminate challenges to monarchical power. d. Religious differences stopped being a significant factor in the weakening and fragmentation of imperial states.

"The Cossack commander Bohdan Khmelnytsky and all his Cossacks of the Zaporozhian Host,* humbly bowing to His Majesty Tsar Alexey Mikhaylovich, ruler of all Russia, pledge that they shall serve the Tsar's sovereign wishes forever, and in exchange for that they request that His Majesty grant them the following privileges: Firstly, that town and city officials in the territories controlled by the Zaporozhian Host be selected from the Cossacks' own ranks. These Cossack city officials shall endeavor to serve His Majesty's wishes in all their actions, collecting His tax revenues and administering His justice and punishments. In the past, His Majesty several times sent His royal appointees from Moscow, but those appointees habitually violated our Cossacks' rights and tried to impose this or that royal decree or regulation on our Host's people, which frustrated our people greatly. By contrast, if our Host's people are governed by their own, they are not going to resist or complain. So ordered. His Majesty approved this request, provided the Cossacks will not interfere with the collection of taxes nor will they impede royal acts of justice from being carried out. Secondly, that should rulers of foreign countries continue to send ambassadors to commander Khmelnytsky and the Zaporozhian Host directly, as they have done before, the Cossack commander can continue to receive and conduct business with those who come in peace. The commander should only inform His Majesty of those foreign ambassadors that come and express hostility toward Russia or seek to do it harm. So ordered. His Majesty approved this request, with the exception being ambassadors from the Polish king and the Ottoman Sultan—if such ambassadors arrive in the lands of the Zaporozhian Host, they should be apprehended regardless of their intentions, and the Cossacks should not release them until they hear back from His Majesty." Agreement between the Cossacks of the Zaporozhian Host and the tsar of Russia, 1654 The fact that the Russian tsar insisted in the last paragraph that some ambassadors be treated differently from others best illustrates which of the following about international politics in the period circa 1650-1750 ? a. Russia had encountered significant resistance to its plans for further territorial expansion from some of the established states in eastern and southern Europe. b. Poland and the Ottoman Empire both felt threatened by the rising military might of Russia. c. The Zaporozhian Cossacks, Russia, and most other European countries were bound by international treaties prohibiting the mistreatment of ambassadors. d. The Christian countries of Europe had banded together to defeat the threat from the Muslim Ottoman Empire.

"The eleventh king of the sultanate of Kano* was Yaji Ali [reigned 1349-1385]. In Yaji's time merchants came from the north bringing Islam. They commanded the king Yaji to observe the times of prayer. He complied, and made one man an imam (prayer leader) and another a muezzin (the person reciting the call to prayer from a mosque). The king commanded every town in his kingdom to observe the times of prayer. So they all did so. A mosque was built beneath the sacred tree facing east, and prayers were made at the five appointed times in it. The nineteenth king of the Hausa kingdom was Yakubu [reigned 1452-1463]. He was a good king. In his time traders came to Kano from Mali bringing with them books on Islamic divinity and the study of the Arabic language. Formerly our religious scholars had, in addition to the Qur'an, only a few books of Islamic law. At this time too, salt became common in Kano. In the following year merchants from the region of Gwanja in the south began coming, and from the north Berbers** came in large numbers, and a colony of Arabs arrived." *a West African state established by the Hausa people of present-day northern Nigeria **ethnic group from the western part of North Africa Excerpts from The Kano Chronicle, an oral tradition that records the exploits of the kings of Kano, written down in the late nineteenth century The integration of West African states into wider regional and transregional economic networks in the period circa 1200-1450 was carried out mostly via the a. trans-Saharan trade routes b. Indian Ocean trade routes c. Swahili coast trade routes d. Silk Road trade networks

"The eleventh king of the sultanate of Kano* was Yaji Ali [reigned 1349-1385]. In Yaji's time merchants came from the north bringing Islam. They commanded the king Yaji to observe the times of prayer. He complied, and made one man an imam (prayer leader) and another a muezzin (the person reciting the call to prayer from a mosque). The king commanded every town in his kingdom to observe the times of prayer. So they all did so. A mosque was built beneath the sacred tree facing east, and prayers were made at the five appointed times in it. The nineteenth king of the Hausa kingdom was Yakubu [reigned 1452-1463]. He was a good king. In his time traders came to Kano from Mali bringing with them books on Islamic divinity and the study of the Arabic language. Formerly our religious scholars had, in addition to the Qur'an, only a few books of Islamic law. At this time too, salt became common in Kano. In the following year merchants from the region of Gwanja in the south began coming, and from the north Berbers** came in large numbers, and a colony of Arabs arrived." *a West African state established by the Hausa people of present-day northern Nigeria **ethnic group from the western part of North Africa Excerpts from The Kano Chronicle, an oral tradition that records the exploits of the kings of Kano, written down in the late nineteenth century The spread of Islam into sub-Saharan West Africa in the period circa 1200-1450 was mostly a result of the conversion of the rulers of which of the following states? a. The Mali Empire b. The Mongol khanates c. Mamluk Egypt d. The Ming dynasty

"Throughout its history, Central Asia has provided the ancient civilized empires on its borders with new Shahs, Sultans, or Sons of Heaven. These periodic invasions by the nomads of the steppe, whose khans ascended the thrones of Changan, Luoyang, Kaifeng, or Beijing*, of Isfahan or Tabriz**, Delhi or Constantinople, became one of the geographic laws of history. But there was another, opposing law which brought about the slow absorption of the invaders by the ancient civilized lands. The civilizations of China and Persia, though conquered, would in the long run vanquish their conquerors, intoxicating them with the pleasures of settled life, lulling them to sleep, and assimilating them culturally. Often, only fifty years after a conquest, the culturally Sinicized or Persianized former barbarian would be the first to stand guard over his adopted civilization and protect it against fresh nomadic onslaughts." *capital cities of various Chinese dynasties **capital cities of various Persian dynasties René Grousset, French historian of Central Asia, The Empire of the Steppes: A History of Central Asia, 1939 The Mongol conquests resulted in all of the following developments EXCEPT a. the initial diffusion of Buddhism and Christianity to East Asia b. the spread of pathogens across Eurasia, including the bubonic plague c. a revival of trade on the overland Silk Roads d. transfers of scientific and technological knowledge

"When the initial siege failed to take the city,* [the Ottoman] Sultan Mehmet II summoned the cannon-makers and spoke to them about what cannon could be used to demolish the northern wall of the city, along the bay of the Golden Horn. They assured him it would be easy to demolish that wall if they could construct another massive cannon. The Sultan immediately provided them with everything they needed. So they constructed the cannon, a thing most fearsome to see and altogether unbelievable. With an astounding thunder and a flame that lit up all the surroundings, the canon hurled stones that hit the wall with tremendous force and velocity and immediately knocked it down. After a long and bitter struggle, the Ottomans prevailed and their entire army poured into the city through the breach in the walls. They robbed and plundered, and the whole city was despoiled and blackened as if by fire. The Sultan then entered the city and saw its great size, grandeur, and beauty. When he saw what a large number had been killed and the wholesale ruin and destruction of the city, he was filled with compassion. Tears fell from his eyes as he groaned: 'What a great city we have given over to plunder and destruction!'" *The Byzantine capital Constantinople, which was conquered by the Ottoman Empire in 1453 and renamed Istanbul Michael Kritovoulos, Byzantine noble, History of Mehmet the Conqueror, written in the 1460s The conduct of the siege as described in the passage could best be used to explain which of the following processes in the period 1450-1750 ? a. The use of new weapons by expanding imperial states b. The development of new processes of manufacturing to create new weapons c. The transmission of new weapons along trade networks d. The use of new weapons to establish trading-post empires

"[Between the eleventh and fifteenth centuries] . . . Muslim maritime traders from Egypt sought goods coming from China and Southeast Asia [and] purchased these items on India's southwestern coast. . . . Sea voyages between Egypt and India were still dangerous and still involved long voyages, as well as long stays in harbors where they waited, sometimes for several months, for the winds to shift direction. . . . To protect themselves, Muslim merchants organized karim, convoyed merchant fleets. The rulers of Egypt began providing an armed escort for the fleets and succeeded in making the trade between the Red Sea and India a government-protected, regularly accomplished endeavor. The karim merchants were organized in large family firms with substantial assets and clients in markets all over the trading networks. In the Indian Ocean trade, Muslim traders not only dealt with other Muslims, but also Hindus, Zoroastrians, Christians, and Jews. Traders of various religious backgrounds boarded the same ships or stayed in the same caravanserai. In Egypt, many Jewish traders actually operated their businesses within the framework of Muslim business networks." Xinru Liu and Lynda Norene Shaffer, historians, Connections across Eurasia, published in 2007 Based on the pattern of trade described in the third paragraph, the Egyptian karim merchants were most likely directly involved in which of the following broader developments in the Indian Ocean in the period circa 1200-1450 ? a. The establishment of diasporic merchant communities b. The transfer of European scientific knowledge to South Asia c. The creation of new monotheistic religions d. The introduction of new financial innovations such as paper money

"[Between the eleventh and fifteenth centuries] . . . Muslim maritime traders from Egypt sought goods coming from China and Southeast Asia [and] purchased these items on India's southwestern coast. . . . Sea voyages between Egypt and India were still dangerous and still involved long voyages, as well as long stays in harbors where they waited, sometimes for several months, for the winds to shift direction. . . . To protect themselves, Muslim merchants organized karim, convoyed merchant fleets. The rulers of Egypt began providing an armed escort for the fleets and succeeded in making the trade between the Red Sea and India a government-protected, regularly accomplished endeavor. The karim merchants were organized in large family firms with substantial assets and clients in markets all over the trading networks. In the Indian Ocean trade, Muslim traders not only dealt with other Muslims, but also Hindus, Zoroastrians, Christians, and Jews. Traders of various religious backgrounds boarded the same ships or stayed in the same caravanserai. In Egypt, many Jewish traders actually operated their businesses within the framework of Muslim business networks." Xinru Liu and Lynda Norene Shaffer, historians, Connections across Eurasia, published in 2007 The pattern of trade described in the passage was most characteristic of which of the following types of goods in the period 1200-1450 ? a. Luxury goods such as spices or porcelain b. Livestock such as pigs or cattle c. Bulk commodities such as grain or coal d. Daily food staples such as bread or milk

In circa 1550, the Ottoman Empire had 140,000 personnel in the armed forces. The state revenue back then was 100 tons of silver. In circa 1700, the Ottoman Empire had 160,000 personnel in the armed forces. The state revenue then was 110 tons of silver. The relationship between levels of military personnel and state revenues is best understood in the context of which of the following global developments in the period 1450-1750? a. As military forces expanded and became more professionalized, states were forced to develop new ways to generate revenue. b. As agricultural technology became more advanced, less people were needed to farm and more people were able to be enrolled in state militaries. c. As commercial profits and urbanization increased, states were able to obtain more revenue. d. As states expanded their territories, they were able to acquire access to more natural resources.

"After long periods of error, philosophers have at last discovered the true rights of man and how they can all be deduced from the single truth: that man is a perceptive being capable of reason and acquiring moral ideas. At last, man could proclaim his rights out loud, rights that for so long had been ignored. He could submit all opinions to his own reason and use that reason to search for truth. Every man learned with pride that nature had not forever condemned him to base his beliefs on the opinions of others or the superstitions of antiquity. Thus developed an understanding that the natural rights of man are inalienable and cannot be forfeited and a strongly expressed desire for freedom of thought, trade, and profession. There also developed a desire to alleviate people's suffering, to eliminate all criminal laws against political dissenters, and to abolish torture. A desire arose for a milder system of criminal legislation that could give complete security to the innocent. All of these principles gradually filtered down from philosophical works to every class of society whose education went beyond basic literacy. These principles became the common faith of all people." Marquis de Condorcet, French nobleman and philosopher, Sketch for a Historical Picture of the Progress of the Human Mind, published in 1794 Which of the following is an implicit claim that the author makes in the third paragraph? a. The calls to reform the criminal justice system do not take into account the severity of the social problems posed by France's high crime rates. b. The French Revolution has advanced the principles of Enlightenment. c. The failure to grant political rights to women is at odds with the idea of natural rights. d. The economic policies of the French monarchy have been the main cause of the revolution.

"By 1830 an English textile worker was already producing with his mechanical spinning machine 350 to 400 times as much yarn per hour as an Indian craftsman with his traditional spinning wheel. The consequences for Indian textile production were fatal. In 1814 India imported one million meters of English textiles, in 1820 it imported 13 million and in 1890 more than two billion. British rule in India gave the British manufacturers free rein and made the protection of indigenous producers impossible. It stands to reason that Karl Marx condemned the driving force behind British expansion in India by calling it the 'millocracy' [meaning rule by the owners of textile mills]. . . . To be sure, the immense productivity of English textile workers from the early nineteenth century on made this branch of British industry superior to all of its former competitors, colonial and noncolonial alike. But while other countries could shield themselves from this danger by introducing protectionist tariffs, such protection did not exist in the British colonies. So here, in the case of the destruction of Indian textile industry, we see the importance of the colonial situation, namely the colonies' political dependence on the West, in arresting their economic development." Henk L. Wesseling, Dutch historian of colonial South and Southeast Asia, The European Colonial Empires, 1815-1919, book published in 2003 Which other process in the mid to late nineteenth century most directly led to situations in which non-Western countries found it very difficult to protect their indigenous industries from Western competition, as described in the passage? a. The evolution of White settler colonies, such as Canada and Australia, into mostly self-governing dominion territories within the British Empire b. The imposition of free-trade regimes on countries such as China, the Ottoman Empire, and Latin American countries through military or diplomatic pressure from Western countries c. The emergence and spread of anti-imperialist sentiments and political movements in some European colonies, such as British India and Dutch Indonesia, as a result of the spread of nationalism d. The successful modernization and Westernization of countries such as Japan and Russia, through domestic economic reforms and efforts to attract foreign investments

"I, Edward, by the grace of God king of England, sent this decree to the reverend father in Christ William, by the grace of God archbishop of Canterbury, supreme Church leader of all England: Know that, because of the great number of people who died in the recent pestilence, those who survive see that masters need servants, which have become scarce, and so they now refuse to serve as workmen unless they receive excessive wages. That is why, I, considering the grave inconveniences that might come from the lack of such workmen, especially plowmen, and after consultations with the nobles and clergy of the realm, have decided that every man and woman of our realm of England shall be required to serve his or her lord at the wages that were provided five years ago, in the year 1346. The lords are entitled to keep their serfs. If any such serf, man or woman, who is required to serve their lord will not do so, they shall be immediately committed to jail." King Edward III of England, the Statute of Laborers, royal decree, 1351 The process of "consultations with the nobles and clergy of the realm" in the making of Edward III's decree best reflects which of the following? a. The emergence of the concept that parliaments, rather than kings, had ultimate political authority in European states b. The fragmented, decentralized nature of European feudal monarchies c. The legacy of Roman imperial political traditions on medieval European states d. European rulers' practice of making harsh legislation more palatable by claiming it was part of God's will

"I, the reverend Buddhist teacher Dharmasekhara, dedicated this statue of the bodhisattva Amoghapasa* on the orders of His Majesty King Adityawarman, for the benefit and salvation and happiness of all creatures. Hail to the King—experienced in the arts of war, well versed in the sciences, he is an ocean of all virtues practiced by the followers of the Buddha! He is free from all physical desire. Hail to the King—he who supports the entire world. He has collected jewels by the millions, taken them from the hands of his enemies among the other rulers of this world. He who is like God among kings, crowned, protected by heavenly beings, King of kings! He orders what should be known to all!" Sanskrit inscription on a statue of a bodhisattva produced in the Malayapura kingdom, Sumatra, Indonesia, circa 1350 c.e. *a major figure worshipped in Mahayana Buddhism The claim in the second paragraph that the king has become "free from all physical desire" can best be understood to mean that a. Southeast Asian states' ruling elites were very wealthy. b. in Vedic religions, rejecting worldly concerns in order to attain spiritual perfection was considered a virtue. c. Buddhist monks and nuns in Southeast Asian societies were required to maintain an ascetic lifestyle. d. Hindus believed that members of each caste had different rights and responsibilities.

"In that year [1450 c.e.] there came to Naples a three-man embassy from the King of Ethiopia to His Highness, our King Alfonso. Among the ambassadors was a certain Pietro Rombulo, an Italian, native of the city of Messina. This Pietro claimed that he had lived among the Ethiopians for over 40 years. And he described to me how in Ethiopia there are innumerable Christians—since both the people and the king there worship Christ—among whom he had been able to live a good Christian life safely and honorably. The ruler of Ethiopia, King David, whom they call Zara Yacob, was said by the ambassadors to be the most civilized, the most just, and the most pious of princes." Pietro Ranzano, Catholic Church official in Naples and Sicily, universal history written circa 1480 Which of the following was a continuity in the development of African states in the period circa 1200-1450 ? a. African states such as Ethiopia maintained close contacts with South and East Asian states across the Indian Ocean but rarely had contacts with Europe. b. Despite geographical barriers, some African states were able to maintain diplomatic and cultural contacts with the broader Afro-Eurasian world. c. Most African states rejected traditional forms of international diplomacy, such as dynastic marriages and tribute payments. d. African states needed to maintain friendly diplomatic relations with Europe in order to expand their empires.

"In that year [1450 c.e.] there came to Naples a three-man embassy from the King of Ethiopia to His Highness, our King Alfonso. Among the ambassadors was a certain Pietro Rombulo, an Italian, native of the city of Messina. This Pietro claimed that he had lived among the Ethiopians for over 40 years. And he described to me how in Ethiopia there are innumerable Christians—since both the people and the king there worship Christ—among whom he had been able to live a good Christian life safely and honorably. The ruler of Ethiopia, King David, whom they call Zara Yacob, was said by the ambassadors to be the most civilized, the most just, and the most pious of princes." Pietro Ranzano, Catholic Church official in Naples and Sicily, universal history written circa 1480 Which of the following was a key similarity in the policies of the rulers of African states such as Ethiopia in the period circa 1200-1450 ? a. They granted their subjects unrestricted freedom of speech. b. They used religion and laws to bolster their legitimacy. c. They faced challenges to their power from powerful merchant elites. d. They sought to achieve economic self-sufficiency by restricting trade contacts with other societies.

"In the Name of God, the Merciful, the Compassionate. The Holy Qur'an says, "Rise not up against me, but come to me in surrender." This letter has been graciously issued by me Sultan Selim, the most glorious sovereign, the Caliph of God Most High in this world, haloed in victory, slayer of the wicked and of the infidel, guardian of the noble and the pious, the warrior in the path of God, the defender of the Faith, the standard-bearer of justice and righteousness—and is addressed to you, prince Ismail, the ruler of the kingdom of the Persians, the possessor of the land of tyranny and wickedness, the captain of the vicious, the chief of the malicious, the usurper of the throne of the ancient Persian kings. I have heard repeatedly that you have subjected the upright Muslims under your rule to your devious will, that you have undermined the firm foundation of the Faith, and that you no longer uphold the commandments and prohibitions of the Divine Law, but have incited your heretical faction to commit abominable deeds in the lands that you possess. Be informed, then, that both the opinion of the learned Islamic scholars and the consensus of the Sunni community agree that it is my obligation to extinguish and extirpate the evil heresy that you represent. But should you take up a course of repentance, become like one blameless, and return to the sublime straight path of Muhammad (Prayers and salutations be upon him), and should you proclaim your lands and their people part of my Ottoman state, then you shall be granted my royal favor and imperial protection and patronage." Letter by the Ottoman Sultan Selim I to the Safavid Shah Ismail I, circa 1514 Which of the following aspects of the international situation in early sixteenth-century southwest Asia is most relevant to understanding Sultan Selim's letter? a. Both the Ottoman and Safavid empires developed extensive trade connections with European states and states in the Indian Ocean region. b. The Ottoman and Safavid empires fought numerous wars for control over Iraq, Syria, and other regions of the Middle East. c. Both the Ottoman and Safavid empires made use of gunpowder weapons in the course of their territorial expansion. d. The Ottoman and Safavid empires brought a high degree of centralization to parts of southwest Asia that had been politically fragmented before.

"Muslim-Christian relations were at a low ebb when the Ottomans arrived in the Arab lands [in 1516]. The Mamluk sultans of Egypt, the previous rulers of the area, had embarked on an ideological as well as a military campaign against the various Christian communities still living in the Middle East. . . . In the aftermath of this disaster, Christianity in the Arab east was in psychological and numerical decline. Jewish communities in the region fared somewhat better than their Christian neighbors but could hardly be characterized as flourishing on the eve of the Ottoman conquest. The Jews and Christians in the region were at first probably ambivalent, if not indifferent or hostile, to the change in the dynastic succession from Mamluk to Ottoman sultans who exercised sovereignty over their lives, but their fortunes were about to improve under the new regime. The Ottoman sultans were still winning victories against European armies on the battlefield, and the presence of Christians so distant from the war zone in Central Europe must not have felt particularly threatening or indeed important (beyond the collection of their taxes) to most Ottoman officials posted in the Arab lands. In the case of the Sephardic Jews,* the Ottoman sultans welcomed them into their realm as potentially revenue-producing subjects. Most importantly, the political tradition honored by the Ottoman sultans was to grant autonomy to the various religious groups of their empire. This afforded the Christians and Jews in the Ottoman Middle East fairly wide-ranging freedoms and allowed them to recover some of the losses they had endured under the Mamluks, including the right to repair damaged churches and synagogues and, in a few cases, permission to build new ones." *Jewish communities from the Iberian Peninsula who were forced to leave after the Christian reconquest of what became Spain and Portugal Bruce Masters, historian, Christians and Jews in the Ottoman Arab World, book published in 2001 All of the following statements are factually accurate. Which might best be used to undermine or modify the author's argument in the second paragraph? a. The Ottoman Empire was a preferred destination for Jews fleeing religious persecution in Europe, as well as for Protestant Christian groups fleeing Catholic persecution in Central and Eastern Europe. b. Christians and Jews in the Ottoman Empire faced considerable restrictions on their religious practices, legal rights, and social freedoms. c. Many Ottoman Christians and Jews achieved great financial success through commercial activities, including long-distance trade. d. Christian and Jewish communities in many other Muslim states in the period circa 1450-1750 enjoyed some of the same rights as Ottoman Christians and Jews did.

"On several occasions, Ghazan Khan* went to the observatory at Maragha** and watched the Muslim, Christian, and Chinese astronomers make their observations. He looked at all the operations and instruments, studied them, and asked about their procedures, which he understood in spite of their difficulty. He also ordered the construction of a dome in order to investigate the Sun's motion and he spoke out with his astronomers about it. All of them said that although they had never seen such an instrument, it was reasonable and sensible. He gave orders for the construction of an observatory next to his tomb in Tabriz in Persia. He explained how to construct the observatory with such clarity that local wise men marveled at his intelligence, because such work had not been done in any era. Those wise men said that constructing the observatory would be extremely difficult. He guided them, whereupon they commenced building it and they finished it following his instructions. Those wise men and all the engineers agreed that nobody had done such a thing before nor had imagined doing it." *ruler of the Mongol Ilkhanate, whose territories included most of the Muslim Middle East; reigned 1295-1304 **an astronomical observatory in present-day Azerbaijan, established by a grant from the first Ilkhanid ruler in the mid-thirteenth century Rashid al-Din Hamdani, Persian Muslim historian and government minister in Ghazan Khan's court, excerpt from a universal history commissioned by Ghazan Khan, completed circa 1316 Which of the following best describes the historical circumstances of Rashid al-Din's career? a. His career illustrates the importance of traveler accounts written by foreign visitors to the Mongol court. b. His career illustrates the possibilities for diffusion and intermingling of cultures brought about by the Mongol conquests. c. His career illustrates the destructive impact of the Mongol conquests on many established urban centers. d. His career illustrates the Mongols' success in preserving their nomadic and tribal culture despite the growing diversity of their subjects.

"One of the most important aspects of the Maya economy was the exchange of exotic goods. Maya rulers and elites needed such goods to maintain and reinforce their social status and power. Many of these goods were used in the formal dress of kings, nobles, and priests. Without them, the elites could not carry out the rituals that were their principal duties in the eyes of the people. Jaguar pelts, fine textiles, feathers, and other such products were exchanged over long distances within the Maya lowlands. . . . Such items were probably exchanged as dowry, gifts at royal marriages, coronations, funerals, or at religious pilgrimages. Exotic goods were also probably given as tribute to rulers by their vassals. These high-status goods held together the Maya world and unified patterns of behavior in religion, science, and warfare. Their exchange surely went hand in hand with exchanges of information, including scientific knowledge, early writing, and, most importantly, models of political organization." Arthur Demarest, United States anthropologist, Ancient Maya: The Rise and Fall of a Rainforest Civilization, 2004 The author directly uses all of the following pieces of evidence to support his argument about the relationship between exotic goods and the power of Maya rulers EXCEPT that Maya rulers a. used exotic goods to carry out rituals that their subjects expected them to perform b. prohibited nobles and priests from wearing certain types of exotic goods reserved for rulers c. used exotic goods in royal coronations d. received exotic goods as tribute payments from vassals

"The Cossack commander Bohdan Khmelnytsky and all his Cossacks of the Zaporozhian Host,* humbly bowing to His Majesty Tsar Alexey Mikhaylovich, ruler of all Russia, pledge that they shall serve the Tsar's sovereign wishes forever, and in exchange for that they request that His Majesty grant them the following privileges: Firstly, that town and city officials in the territories controlled by the Zaporozhian Host be selected from the Cossacks' own ranks. These Cossack city officials shall endeavor to serve His Majesty's wishes in all their actions, collecting His tax revenues and administering His justice and punishments. In the past, His Majesty several times sent His royal appointees from Moscow, but those appointees habitually violated our Cossacks' rights and tried to impose this or that royal decree or regulation on our Host's people, which frustrated our people greatly. By contrast, if our Host's people are governed by their own, they are not going to resist or complain. So ordered. His Majesty approved this request, provided the Cossacks will not interfere with the collection of taxes nor will they impede royal acts of justice from being carried out. Secondly, that should rulers of foreign countries continue to send ambassadors to commander Khmelnytsky and the Zaporozhian Host directly, as they have done before, the Cossack commander can continue to receive and conduct business with those who come in peace. The commander should only inform His Majesty of those foreign ambassadors that come and express hostility toward Russia or seek to do it harm. So ordered. His Majesty approved this request, with the exception being ambassadors from the Polish king and the Ottoman Sultan—if such ambassadors arrive in the lands of the Zaporozhian Host, they should be apprehended regardless of their intentions, and the Cossacks should not release them until they hear back from His Majesty." Agreement between the Cossacks of the Zaporozhian Host and the tsar of Russia, 1654 The privileges discussed in the last two paragraphs of the passage best demonstrate that in some instances in the period 1450-1750 a. monarchs had to resort to deploying standing armies to crush regional revolts by hereditary local elites b. internal challenges to state power could lead to the establishment of new state-like structures within existing states c. states successfully established professional bureaucracies to reduce reliance on mercenaries and tax farming d. states implemented policies seeking to restrict the role of certain minority groups in economic and social life

"The adoption of the mamluk* institutions by the Abbasids was followed almost immediately by [the] . . . disintegration of the state. . . . The disintegration of the Abbasid state was an intensely painful process in which it seemed at times as if the very venture of Islam was coming to an end, like that of Alexander the Great before it. . . . Indeed, that Islam was soon to disappear was the very premise upon which the [Shi'ite] revolutionaries held out their promise of a moral and material recovery: nothing less . . . could now save the marriage between religion and power to which the Islamic [state] owed its existence." *an Arabic term designating a slave, in this case, a slave soldier of Turkic origin Patricia Crone, Danish-American historian of Islamic history, Slaves on Horses: The Evolution of the Islamic Polity, 1980 Despite the disintegration of the Abbasid Caliphate, Islam continued to spread across Afro-Eurasia in the period 1200-1450 primarily because of which of the following? a. The conquest of the Christian Crusader States in the Levant b. The activities of Sufi missionaries c. The voyages of the Muslim eunuch Zheng He d. The translation activities of Muslim scholars

"The adoption of the mamluk* institutions by the Abbasids was followed almost immediately by [the] . . . disintegration of the state. . . . The disintegration of the Abbasid state was an intensely painful process in which it seemed at times as if the very venture of Islam was coming to an end, like that of Alexander the Great before it. . . . Indeed, that Islam was soon to disappear was the very premise upon which the [Shi'ite] revolutionaries held out their promise of a moral and material recovery: nothing less . . . could now save the marriage between religion and power to which the Islamic [state] owed its existence." *an Arabic term designating a slave, in this case, a slave soldier of Turkic origin Patricia Crone, Danish-American historian of Islamic history, Slaves on Horses: The Evolution of the Islamic Polity, 1980 The disintegration of the Abbasid Caliphate most directly led to which of the following political developments in the Islamic world in the thirteenth century? a. The Russian conquest of Central Asia b. The rise of Turkic states c. The conversion of most of the Islamic world to Shi'a Islam d. The collapse of trade along the Silk Road networks

"This spring, those Indians who lived in their trading house here fell sick with smallpox, and died most miserably. They fear smallpox more than any other disease because it is very common among them. The condition of this people was so lamentable, and they suffered so greatly from this disease that they were, in the end, not able to help each other, or make a fire, or fetch water to drink. Those of us in the English settlement, seeing their woeful and sad condition, took pity on the Indians and daily fetched them wood and water, and food. Nonetheless, very few of the Indians survived. But by the marvelous goodness of God, not one of the English colonists was stricken or infected by the disease at all, though many performed these favors for the Indians for weeks." William Bradford, English settler in the Plymouth Colony in North America, diary entry for the year 1633 The author invokes which of the following to support his claim that smallpox's impact on European settlers was different from its impact on Native Americans? a. Protestant ideas about hard work and economic success as markers of personal virtue b. Ideas about the role of divine providence in human affairs c. Evidence from population genetics d. Pseudoscientific theories of European racial superiority

"This spring, those Indians who lived in their trading house here fell sick with smallpox, and died most miserably. They fear smallpox more than any other disease because it is very common among them. The condition of this people was so lamentable, and they suffered so greatly from this disease that they were, in the end, not able to help each other, or make a fire, or fetch water to drink. Those of us in the English settlement, seeing their woeful and sad condition, took pity on the Indians and daily fetched them wood and water, and food. Nonetheless, very few of the Indians survived. But by the marvelous goodness of God, not one of the English colonists was stricken or infected by the disease at all, though many performed these favors for the Indians for weeks." William Bradford, English settler in the Plymouth Colony in North America, diary entry for the year 1633 The passage implies that the author was aware of smallpox being an infectious disease. Which of the following can best be cited as evidence of that claim? a. The author's statement that the English settlers "took pity" at the sight of the Native Americans' suffering b. The author's statement that no English settlers fell ill, even though "many performed these favors for the Indians for weeks" c. The author's statement that smallpox was so debilitating that those afflicted with it could not "make a fire, or fetch water to drink" d. The author's statement that Native Americans lived in a "trading house" near the English settlement

"To Your Highnesses of the States General:* We have been informed by our agent Joris Pietersen, who recently returned from the coast of Angola, that a war arose between the king of Kongo and the Portuguese. The war started because the Portuguese, according to their nature, attacked the region of Mpemba, which the king of Kongo also claims, without any reason but to enslave the inhabitants and conquer the entire country. In this war, the king of Kongo's armies performed so well that all of the Portuguese were driven out of the conquered region with many losses. After this victory, the king took the hats and shoes of all captured Portuguese soldiers as a sign of contempt and took the sails and rudders off their two ships that were anchored off Mpemba. Then the king of Kongo, being of the opinion that all the Portuguese should be driven off his lands forever, sent letters to Joris Pietersen, our agent in Angola, requesting to enter into an alliance with the Dutch state and asking your Highnesses to provide them with four or five warships as well as five or six hundred soldiers for assistance on the water as well as the land, in order that he might secure the coasts from the Portuguese and their supporters. The king is offering to pay for the ships and the monthly wages of the soldiers with gold, silver, or ivory. If successful, he promises to put into your hands the fort and city of Luanda—a place so useful to the king of Spain that more than twenty-four thousand Africans are shipped annually from there to the West-Indies and other places in the Americas. Your Highnesses, it is the Company's judgment that the king of Kongo's proposal will likely bring harm to our enemies and increase our commerce. Therefore, if the king's proposal is accepted, the Company will contribute according to its capacity." *a legislative body of the Dutch Republic, comprising representatives of the various provinces of the Netherlands Letter from the directors of the Dutch West India Company to the States General of the Netherlands, 1623 The report's position on the proposed transfer of Luanda to the Dutch is best understood in light of the authors' goal to a. highlight the gender and family imbalances created by the slave trade b. secure profits from the rapidly expanding trans-Atlantic slave trade c. offer a comparison between the profitability of East African versus West African slave trade routes d. recommend that the company expand its operations to the Indian Ocean and the spice islands of Southeast Asia

"To Your Highnesses of the States General:* We have been informed by our agent Joris Pietersen, who recently returned from the coast of Angola, that a war arose between the king of Kongo and the Portuguese. The war started because the Portuguese, according to their nature, attacked the region of Mpemba, which the king of Kongo also claims, without any reason but to enslave the inhabitants and conquer the entire country. In this war, the king of Kongo's armies performed so well that all of the Portuguese were driven out of the conquered region with many losses. After this victory, the king took the hats and shoes of all captured Portuguese soldiers as a sign of contempt and took the sails and rudders off their two ships that were anchored off Mpemba. Then the king of Kongo, being of the opinion that all the Portuguese should be driven off his lands forever, sent letters to Joris Pietersen, our agent in Angola, requesting to enter into an alliance with the Dutch state and asking your Highnesses to provide them with four or five warships as well as five or six hundred soldiers for assistance on the water as well as the land, in order that he might secure the coasts from the Portuguese and their supporters. The king is offering to pay for the ships and the monthly wages of the soldiers with gold, silver, or ivory. If successful, he promises to put into your hands the fort and city of Luanda—a place so useful to the king of Spain that more than twenty-four thousand Africans are shipped annually from there to the West-Indies and other places in the Americas. Your Highnesses, it is the Company's judgment that the king of Kongo's proposal will likely bring harm to our enemies and increase our commerce. Therefore, if the king's proposal is accepted, the Company will contribute according to its capacity." *a legislative body of the Dutch Republic, comprising representatives of the various provinces of the Netherlands Letter from the directors of the Dutch West India Company to theStates General of the Netherlands, 1623 The contents of the letter are best understood in the context of which of the following aspects of the historical situation in sub-Saharan Africa in the early 1600s? a. The arrival of Europeans led to the conquest and destruction of many native African states. b. Political, religious, and economic rivalries shaped European colonial policies in Africa. c. Religious conflicts stemming from the spread of Islam from North Africa made sub-Saharan African states vulnerable to European conquest. d. State centralization in Europe led to a change from joint-stock company control to direct imperial control in many colonial territories.

"When the initial siege failed to take the city,* [the Ottoman] Sultan Mehmet II summoned the cannon-makers and spoke to them about what cannon could be used to demolish the northern wall of the city, along the bay of the Golden Horn. They assured him it would be easy to demolish that wall if they could construct another massive cannon. The Sultan immediately provided them with everything they needed. So they constructed the cannon, a thing most fearsome to see and altogether unbelievable. With an astounding thunder and a flame that lit up all the surroundings, the canon hurled stones that hit the wall with tremendous force and velocity and immediately knocked it down. After a long and bitter struggle, the Ottomans prevailed and their entire army poured into the city through the breach in the walls. They robbed and plundered, and the whole city was despoiled and blackened as if by fire. The Sultan then entered the city and saw its great size, grandeur, and beauty. When he saw what a large number had been killed and the wholesale ruin and destruction of the city, he was filled with compassion. Tears fell from his eyes as he groaned: 'What a great city we have given over to plunder and destruction!'" *The Byzantine capital Constantinople, which was conquered by the Ottoman Empire in 1453 and renamed Istanbul Michael Kritovoulos, Byzantine noble, History of Mehmet the Conqueror, written in the 1460s The type of warfare described in the passage most directly helps to explain which of the following sixteenth-century developments? a. The granting of substantial religious and legal autonomy to Christian subjects in the Ottoman Empire b. The intensification of political rivalries between the Ottoman Empire and neighboring states in Europe and the Middle East c. The decline of the importance of the Janissaries in the Ottoman army d. The growing political influence of religious scholars at the Ottoman court

"Your Highness, dear Major Leutwein! I received your long letter late last night. I take it from this letter that you accuse me of various misdeeds and seem to claim the right to condemn me to death as if I were a common criminal. You seem to try to reason with me by force of guns. You say that I arrogantly claim to be the ruler over certain territories. This is my answer: You white men know very well that this territory of which you speak has been under my rule since the death of my grandfather. The Herero nation attacked my grandfather's Nama nation without any cause, but he fought them back and conquered them. Later these same tribes attacked me as well. I conquered them a second time. So these lands that you seek are mine by double right of conquest. This has been an old rule of war. Obviously you cannot see any other way of getting hold of these lands, so you are attacking me by force. You say that you are sorry that I do not accept German protection and do not pledge my allegiance to the German emperor. Here is my answer: I have never in my life seen the German emperor and I am sure he has never seen me. Therefore, I could not have possibly hurt him. God has made us both rulers in different parts of the world. I don't think that one can call someone guilty if he wants to remain an independent ruler over his land and his people. If you intend now to have me killed because of my love of independence, this is not shame or harm. If I have to die, I shall do so as an honest man defending my property and my rights." Hendrik Witbooi, leader of the Nama people in the German colony of South West Africa, letter to the commanding officer of the German colonial army, 1894 Witbooi's statement in the last paragraph that he would likely be killed in the process of resisting the Germans is historically significant because it shows that Africans understood the a. inevitability of the conquest because of the supposed racial superiority of Europeans b. low probability that armed resistance would be successful because of the military advantages of Europeans c. importance of concealing the true extent of African military forces in order to lull the Europeans into complacency d. need to appeal to the Europeans' sense of lawfulness and due process

An image shows Ottoman officials forcibly enlisting boys from the empire's Christian subjects in the Balkans to train them for service in the Ottoman army and bureaucracy. The recruitment depicted in the image is best understood in the context of which of the following developments in the period 1450-1750 ? a. Attempts by imperial states to expand their economic power b. Attempts by imperial states to centralize their authority c. Attempts by imperial states to control population growth d. Attempts by imperial states to prevent religious conflict

Source 1: A Mughal painting depicting a Mughal official (the kneeling figure holding a piece of paper near the center of the image) and his companions meeting a group of Hindu holy men (sadhus), circa 1635 C.E. Source 2: Sayings attributed to Guru Nanak, the founder of Sikhism, circa 1500 C.E: • "Oh God, the tongue of man has given Thee numerous names; but 'the Truth' is Thy real name from time immemorial." • "We human beings are neither Hindus nor Muslims; but are bodies and soul of the Supreme Being; call Him Allah, or call Him Rama." • "Everyone is chanting: 'Rama, Rama'; but mere repetition is no remembrance of Rama. Only when the heart of man becomes saturated with God is such remembrance fruitful." • "Worthless is caste and worthless an exalted name; for all humankind there is but a single refuge in God." Source 2 indicates that all of the following were likely factors contributing to Sikhism's popularity in India EXCEPT: a. It offered a set of religious beliefs that combined elements of both Hinduism and Islam. b. It offered a set of principles around which all Indians could rally in resisting British imperial encroachment c. It advocated a direct and personal approach to God that paralleled Islamic beliefs. d. It appealed to members of the lower socioeconomic strata by rejecting the rigid social hierarchy of Hinduism.

WORKERS AND SOLDIERS MARCHING IN THE STREETS OF SAINT PETERSBURG, RUSSIAN EMPIRE, AFTER TAKING OVER CONTROL OF THE CITY, FEBRUARY 1917 Which of the following best characterizes the significance of the events in Russia in the winter of 1917, as shown in the image? a. They convinced Tsarist government leaders to take Russia out of the First World War by concluding a separate peace treaty. b. They started a process that eventually led to a communist revolution. c. They led to the abolition of the Russian parliament (Duma) and the beginning of direct personal rule by Tsar Nicholas II. d. They led directly to the collapse of other land-based empires such as the Ottoman Empire and the Austro-Hungarian Empire.

"After long periods of error, philosophers have at last discovered the true rights of man and how they can all be deduced from the single truth: that man is a perceptive being capable of reason and acquiring moral ideas. At last, man could proclaim his rights out loud, rights that for so long had been ignored. He could submit all opinions to his own reason and use that reason to search for truth. Every man learned with pride that nature had not forever condemned him to base his beliefs on the opinions of others or the superstitions of antiquity. Thus developed an understanding that the natural rights of man are inalienable and cannot be forfeited and a strongly expressed desire for freedom of thought, trade, and profession. There also developed a desire to alleviate people's suffering, to eliminate all criminal laws against political dissenters, and to abolish torture. A desire arose for a milder system of criminal legislation that could give complete security to the innocent. All of these principles gradually filtered down from philosophical works to every class of society whose education went beyond basic literacy. These principles became the common faith of all people." Marquis de Condorcet, French nobleman and philosopher, Sketch for a Historical Picture of the Progress of the Human Mind, published in 1794 Which of the following is the main claim that the author makes in the passage? a. Europeans should learn from the knowledge and wisdom of classical Greece and Rome. b. Philosophy and science are fundamentally incompatible. c. People have natural rights that can be established through rational inquiry. d. Ethics and morality are subjective and culture-specific.

"By 1830 an English textile worker was already producing with his mechanical spinning machine 350 to 400 times as much yarn per hour as an Indian craftsman with his traditional spinning wheel. The consequences for Indian textile production were fatal. In 1814 India imported one million meters of English textiles, in 1820 it imported 13 million and in 1890 more than two billion. British rule in India gave the British manufacturers free rein and made the protection of indigenous producers impossible. It stands to reason that Karl Marx condemned the driving force behind British expansion in India by calling it the 'millocracy' [meaning rule by the owners of textile mills]. . . . To be sure, the immense productivity of English textile workers from the early nineteenth century on made this branch of British industry superior to all of its former competitors, colonial and noncolonial alike. But while other countries could shield themselves from this danger by introducing protectionist tariffs, such protection did not exist in the British colonies. So here, in the case of the destruction of Indian textile industry, we see the importance of the colonial situation, namely the colonies' political dependence on the West, in arresting their economic development." Henk L. Wesseling, Dutch historian of colonial South and Southeast Asia, The European Colonial Empires, 1815-1919, book published in 2003 The economic statistics cited by Wesseling in the first paragraph are most likely intended to illustrate which aspect of the nineteenth-century global context? a. The deteriorating working conditions of British industrial workers b. The growing demand for calicoes and other Indian textiles in Britain c. The role of British imperial policy in reversing the development of Indian textile manufacturing d. The spread of socialist ideology in the colonies in response to European economic exploitation

"Dear Comrade Lenin! I cannot avoid pointing out an outrageous phenomenon that can still be observed all over our Soviet Russia. Even though it has been more than two years since power in Russia has been in the hands of the Soviets, in all major cities certain things can be observed that do not at all indicate the existence of a dictatorship of the proletariat. I want to point out the most insulting one. In our city, Kazan (and as I mentioned, this also happens in all major cities), there live many former factory owners and other members of the bourgeoisie. Even though their factories and businesses have been nationalized, if you enter their apartments you would see them still living as they did in the 'good old times.' These gentlemen do not seem to know that the Civil War is still raging and that power is in the hands of the workers. As in the past, they continue to reside in the most luxurious, spacious, and warm apartments, with luxurious furniture. In their kitchens, you would still see hired cooks with white caps and uniforms, and in their households you would still see a variety of servants. In the summer they still go out to their country houses to 'relax.' When I see this, I become almost ashamed of our proletarian revolution. Why has no attention been paid to this yet? Why are workers not being moved into the bourgeois apartments and the bourgeois into workers' cellars? Why is their furniture and other belongings not being confiscated and distributed to the workers? And anyway, why has this gang of bourgeois parasites not yet been destroyed? I am turning to you, Comrade Lenin, as our leader and the most loyal friend of the proletariat, and I am waiting so that this issue, which concerns me and many other honest communists, can be resolved by an appropriate decree." Letter to Soviet leader Vladimir Lenin from a member of the Communist Party living in Kazan, Russia, November, 1920 Which of the following aspects of the immediate historical situation in which the letter was written best explains the author's demands toward the end of the second paragraph? a. Because of Russia's late industrialization, its working class was numerically small, limiting popular support for the Bolshevik seizure of power. b. Soviet leaders scrambled for influence as they sought to replace an ailing Vladimir Lenin. c. The Soviet government used the pretext of the ongoing civil war to engage in repressive policies against entire sections of its population. d. The implementation of the first Five Year Plan had resulted in widespread famine and high death rates in the Soviet countryside.

"I admit that the punishments of the slaves on Barbados for all sorts of offenses are indeed very cruel, but one must consider before condemning the [White] inhabitants that they often have no choice but to set moderation aside and use punishment as a way to intimidate their slaves. The Whites need to impress fear and respect upon their slaves in order not to one day find themselves the victims of their fury. Unless the slaves are kept in a constant state of fear of punishment, they would always be ready to revolt, to take over everything, and to commit the most horrible crimes in order to liberate themselves. The plantations on Barbados are smaller than those in the French [Caribbean] islands. This is not surprising because although the island is small, its population is very large, and land is scarce and therefore very valuable. Nonetheless, the plantation owners are very wealthy and the houses on the plantations are even better built than those in the towns. The plantation houses are large in size, have numerous glass windows, and have fine rooms that are conveniently arranged. Nearly all plantation houses have rows of shade trees around them to keep them cool. One observes the wealth and good taste of the inhabitants in their furniture, which is very fine, and their silver, of which they have so large a quantity that if this island were to be sacked the silver utensils from the plantations alone would be worth more than the value of several Spanish galleons." Jean-Baptiste Labat, French clergyman and travel writer,account of his visit to the British Caribbean island of Barbados, 1690s Which of the following best describes the author's argument in the first paragraph? a. The punishments of slaves in Barbados are the result of a long experience of deadly slave uprisings and anti-planter violence on the island. b. Barbadian slaves are punished more leniently than slaves working on the larger plantations of French Caribbean islands. c. The demographic makeup of Barbadian society and the structure of its economy make existing punishments for slaves justified. d. Plantation owners who punish their slaves too harshly are not fulfilling their duties as Christians to treat the less fortunate kindly.

"I, Edward, by the grace of God king of England, sent this decree to the reverend father in Christ William, by the grace of God archbishop of Canterbury, supreme Church leader of all England: Know that, because of the great number of people who died in the recent pestilence, those who survive see that masters need servants, which have become scarce, and so they now refuse to serve as workmen unless they receive excessive wages. That is why, I, considering the grave inconveniences that might come from the lack of such workmen, especially plowmen, and after consultations with the nobles and clergy of the realm, have decided that every man and woman of our realm of England shall be required to serve his or her lord at the wages that were provided five years ago, in the year 1346. The lords are entitled to keep their serfs. If any such serf, man or woman, who is required to serve their lord will not do so, they shall be immediately committed to jail." King Edward III of England, the Statute of Laborers, royal decree, 1351 The terminology used in the opening sentence of the decree was most directly influenced by which of the following? a. The notion that the Pope is the supreme leader of the Church b. The medieval rules of chivalry and courtly etiquette c. The deep influence of Christianity on medieval society and culture d. The slow and uncertain nature of communications in medieval Europe

"I, the reverend Buddhist teacher Dharmasekhara, dedicated this statue of the bodhisattva Amoghapasa* on the orders of His Majesty King Adityawarman, for the benefit and salvation and happiness of all creatures. Hail to the King—experienced in the arts of war, well versed in the sciences, he is an ocean of all virtues practiced by the followers of the Buddha! He is free from all physical desire. Hail to the King—he who supports the entire world. He has collected jewels by the millions, taken them from the hands of his enemies among the other rulers of this world. He who is like God among kings, crowned, protected by heavenly beings, King of kings! He orders what should be known to all!" Sanskrit inscription on a statue of a bodhisattva produced in the Malayapura kingdom, Sumatra, Indonesia, circa 1350 c.e. *a major figure worshipped in Mahayana Buddhism Which of the following best describes a claim made in the first paragraph of the inscription? a. King Adityawarman was a bodhisattva. b. King Adityawarman was a Buddhist teacher. c. Statues of Buddhist divine figures could spiritually benefit everyone. d. Statues of Buddhist teachers were revered by rulers and common people.

"In the Name of God, the Merciful, the Compassionate. The Holy Qur'an says, "Rise not up against me, but come to me in surrender." This letter has been graciously issued by me Sultan Selim, the most glorious sovereign, the Caliph of God Most High in this world, haloed in victory, slayer of the wicked and of the infidel, guardian of the noble and the pious, the warrior in the path of God, the defender of the Faith, the standard-bearer of justice and righteousness—and is addressed to you, prince Ismail, the ruler of the kingdom of the Persians, the possessor of the land of tyranny and wickedness, the captain of the vicious, the chief of the malicious, the usurper of the throne of the ancient Persian kings. I have heard repeatedly that you have subjected the upright Muslims under your rule to your devious will, that you have undermined the firm foundation of the Faith, and that you no longer uphold the commandments and prohibitions of the Divine Law, but have incited your heretical faction to commit abominable deeds in the lands that you possess. Be informed, then, that both the opinion of the learned Islamic scholars and the consensus of the Sunni community agree that it is my obligation to extinguish and extirpate the evil heresy that you represent. But should you take up a course of repentance, become like one blameless, and return to the sublime straight path of Muhammad (Prayers and salutations be upon him), and should you proclaim your lands and their people part of my Ottoman state, then you shall be granted my royal favor and imperial protection and patronage." Letter by the Ottoman Sultan Selim I to the Safavid Shah Ismail I, circa 1514 Based on the purpose of the letter, Selim's description of the followers of Shah Ismail I as a "heretical faction" can best be interpreted as a commentary of the Safavid Empire's a. Turkic origins b. use of the Persian language c. adherence to Shi'a Islam d. military strength

"Muslim-Christian relations were at a low ebb when the Ottomans arrived in the Arab lands [in 1516]. The Mamluk sultans of Egypt, the previous rulers of the area, had embarked on an ideological as well as a military campaign against the various Christian communities still living in the Middle East. . . . In the aftermath of this disaster, Christianity in the Arab east was in psychological and numerical decline. Jewish communities in the region fared somewhat better than their Christian neighbors but could hardly be characterized as flourishing on the eve of the Ottoman conquest. The Jews and Christians in the region were at first probably ambivalent, if not indifferent or hostile, to the change in the dynastic succession from Mamluk to Ottoman sultans who exercised sovereignty over their lives, but their fortunes were about to improve under the new regime. The Ottoman sultans were still winning victories against European armies on the battlefield, and the presence of Christians so distant from the war zone in Central Europe must not have felt particularly threatening or indeed important (beyond the collection of their taxes) to most Ottoman officials posted in the Arab lands. In the case of the Sephardic Jews,* the Ottoman sultans welcomed them into their realm as potentially revenue-producing subjects. Most importantly, the political tradition honored by the Ottoman sultans was to grant autonomy to the various religious groups of their empire. This afforded the Christians and Jews in the Ottoman Middle East fairly wide-ranging freedoms and allowed them to recover some of the losses they had endured under the Mamluks, including the right to repair damaged churches and synagogues and, in a few cases, permission to build new ones." *Jewish communities from the Iberian Peninsula who were forced to leave after the Christian reconquest of what became Spain and Portugal Bruce Masters, historian, Christians and Jews in the Ottoman Arab World, book published in 2001 All of the following statements are factually accurate. Which would best support the author's argument in the first paragraph of the passage? a. The Jewish community in Mamluk Cairo included many prominent figures, including royal physicians, scholars, and administrators. b. The Mamluk ruling elites of Egypt were made up of slave soldiers of various ethnic origins, including Turco-Mongolic peoples from the Black Sea steppes and peoples from the Caucasus Mountains. c. The period of Mamluk rule in Egypt saw a high number of conversions to Islam and a considerable reduction in the percentage of Coptic Christians in the overall population of Egypt. d. The Mamluks were one of the very few Muslim dynasties to have successfully defeated invading Mongol armies in battle.

"OBJECTIVES OF YOUR JOURNEY In these parts of West Africa, France has obtained a few treaties with powerful chiefs, on the basis of which she claims immense regions in the great bend of the Niger River. She also sends French adventurers into a recognized British sphere of influence to make further treaties with native persons who claim to be the rulers or kings of certain regions. The goal of your journey therefore will be to (a) in places where the French pretend they have made treaties with the native rulers, to obtain a written declaration from the rulers that such statements are false, and then to make treaties for us; (b) in places where the French have made no such pretense, to secure treaties accompanied by a short declaration that no previous treaties have been made with any European; . . . (d) to collect detailed information of every kind about the regions you visit, but especially to make inquiries as to the existence of gold—either gold sands in rivers or gold lodes in rock; . . . (f) to impress upon all African chiefs how advantageous it would be for them to have Europeans bringing goods to their country, which can only be done if they sign the treaties; . . . (h) to note especially carefully the prevalence of gum arabic trees, shea butter trees, and rubber vines* in each region you visit." Letter from the directors of the British Royal Niger Company to its agent, Captain Frederick Lugard, directing him to travel up the Niger River in West Africa, 1894 *African trees that were used by Europeans in the production of cosmetics and processed food additives (gum Arabic), soap and candles (Shea butter), and tires and machine transmission belts (rubber) The rival British and French claims over the Niger River region in the 1890s were most directly a part of which of the following processes? a. The response of established colonial powers to the ambitions of new imperial states such as Germany and Italy b. The British efforts to safeguard the routes to India, Great Britain's most important colony c. The European "scramble" to acquire territories in Africa through both peaceful and military means d. The shift from "imperialism by company" to direct imperial rule in many European colonies

"Throughout its history, Central Asia has provided the ancient civilized empires on its borders with new Shahs, Sultans, or Sons of Heaven. These periodic invasions by the nomads of the steppe, whose khans ascended the thrones of Changan, Luoyang, Kaifeng, or Beijing*, of Isfahan or Tabriz**, Delhi or Constantinople, became one of the geographic laws of history. But there was another, opposing law which brought about the slow absorption of the invaders by the ancient civilized lands. The civilizations of China and Persia, though conquered, would in the long run vanquish their conquerors, intoxicating them with the pleasures of settled life, lulling them to sleep, and assimilating them culturally. Often, only fifty years after a conquest, the culturally Sinicized or Persianized former barbarian would be the first to stand guard over his adopted civilization and protect it against fresh nomadic onslaughts." *capital cities of various Chinese dynasties **capital cities of various Persian dynasties René Grousset, French historian of Central Asia, The Empire of the Steppes: A History of Central Asia, 1939 The general pattern of nomadic conquest followed by the assimilation of the conquerors into the cultures of the conquered societies was most clearly expressed in which of the following developments in the period circa 1250-1450 ? a. Chinese, Persian, and Indian artisans expanding their output because of a rising demand for luxury goods in Afro-Eurasia b. Trading states in Southeast Asia such as the Khmer and Srivijaya empires adopting syncretic Hindu-Buddhist practices c. The rulers of the Yuan dynasty adopting Chinese court culture and methods of rule d. The rulers of the Mali Empire converting to Islam through the influence of North African merchants and missionaries

"To Your Highnesses of the States General:* We have been informed by our agent Joris Pietersen, who recently returned from the coast of Angola, that a war arose between the king of Kongo and the Portuguese. The war started because the Portuguese, according to their nature, attacked the region of Mpemba, which the king of Kongo also claims, without any reason but to enslave the inhabitants and conquer the entire country. In this war, the king of Kongo's armies performed so well that all of the Portuguese were driven out of the conquered region with many losses. After this victory, the king took the hats and shoes of all captured Portuguese soldiers as a sign of contempt and took the sails and rudders off their two ships that were anchored off Mpemba. Then the king of Kongo, being of the opinion that all the Portuguese should be driven off his lands forever, sent letters to Joris Pietersen, our agent in Angola, requesting to enter into an alliance with the Dutch state and asking your Highnesses to provide them with four or five warships as well as five or six hundred soldiers for assistance on the water as well as the land, in order that he might secure the coasts from the Portuguese and their supporters. The king is offering to pay for the ships and the monthly wages of the soldiers with gold, silver, or ivory. If successful, he promises to put into your hands the fort and city of Luanda—a place so useful to the king of Spain that more than twenty-four thousand Africans are shipped annually from there to the West-Indies and other places in the Americas. Your Highnesses, it is the Company's judgment that the king of Kongo's proposal will likely bring harm to our enemies and increase our commerce. Therefore, if the king's proposal is accepted, the Company will contribute according to its capacity." *a legislative body of the Dutch Republic, comprising representatives of the various provinces of the Netherlands Letter from the directors of the Dutch West India Company to the States General of the Netherlands, 1623 The point of view expressed by the Dutch West India Company's directors in the letter can best be described as a. shaped by views of European cultural and religious superiority over African peoples, which the States General representatives would have been likely to share b. dismissive in its evaluation of the military and strategic importance of the kingdom of Kongo to the Netherlands c. seeking to steer the States General representatives into taking action that would benefit the company financially d. evenhanded in describing the benefits and detriments of various proposed options to the States General

"When the initial siege failed to take the city,* [the Ottoman] Sultan Mehmet II summoned the cannon-makers and spoke to them about what cannon could be used to demolish the northern wall of the city, along the bay of the Golden Horn. They assured him it would be easy to demolish that wall if they could construct another massive cannon. The Sultan immediately provided them with everything they needed. So they constructed the cannon, a thing most fearsome to see and altogether unbelievable. With an astounding thunder and a flame that lit up all the surroundings, the canon hurled stones that hit the wall with tremendous force and velocity and immediately knocked it down. After a long and bitter struggle, the Ottomans prevailed and their entire army poured into the city through the breach in the walls. They robbed and plundered, and the whole city was despoiled and blackened as if by fire. The Sultan then entered the city and saw its great size, grandeur, and beauty. When he saw what a large number had been killed and the wholesale ruin and destruction of the city, he was filled with compassion. Tears fell from his eyes as he groaned: 'What a great city we have given over to plunder and destruction!'" *The Byzantine capital Constantinople, which was conquered by the Ottoman Empire in 1453 and renamed Istanbul Michael Kritovoulos, Byzantine noble, History of Mehmet the Conqueror, written in the 1460s The type of weaponry used in the siege, as described in the passage, could also help to explain the expansion of all of the following states in the period 1450-1750 EXCEPT the a. Mughal Empire b. Qing dynasty c. Aztec (Mexica) Empire d. Safavid Empire

"[Between the eleventh and fifteenth centuries] . . . Muslim maritime traders from Egypt sought goods coming from China and Southeast Asia [and] purchased these items on India's southwestern coast. . . . Sea voyages between Egypt and India were still dangerous and still involved long voyages, as well as long stays in harbors where they waited, sometimes for several months, for the winds to shift direction. . . . To protect themselves, Muslim merchants organized karim, convoyed merchant fleets. The rulers of Egypt began providing an armed escort for the fleets and succeeded in making the trade between the Red Sea and India a government-protected, regularly accomplished endeavor. The karim merchants were organized in large family firms with substantial assets and clients in markets all over the trading networks. In the Indian Ocean trade, Muslim traders not only dealt with other Muslims, but also Hindus, Zoroastrians, Christians, and Jews. Traders of various religious backgrounds boarded the same ships or stayed in the same caravanserai. In Egypt, many Jewish traders actually operated their businesses within the framework of Muslim business networks." Xinru Liu and Lynda Norene Shaffer, historians, Connections across Eurasia, published in 2007 The "long stays in harbors" mentioned in the description of the sea journeys in the first paragraph were most likely necessary because Indian Ocean maritime trade in the period circa 1200-1450 a. required the approval of Muslim religious authorities to make sure it was carried out in accordance with Islamic principles b. could only be carried out if ships stayed close to shore through the entire journey from Egypt to India c. had to take into account environmental factors such as the timing and direction of the monsoons d. increased significantly in volume, creating bottlenecks in key ports

A caption below an image from a French textbook reads: The White Race, the most perfect of the human races, lives mostly in Europe, West Asia, North Africa, and North America. It is characterized by its oval head and rather thin lips. The complexion may vary in color but is generally light. The Yellow Race occupies mostly East Asia, China, and Japan. It is characterized by its high cheekbones and almond- shaped eyes.The Red Race, which once upon a time inhabited all of North and South America, has reddish skin, deeply set eyes, and a long and arched nose.↵ (PPT) The Black Race, which occupies mostly Africa and the southern parts of Oceania, has skin that is very dark, dark brown eyes, and curly hair. Although ideas of European superiority over non-Europeans had existed for centuries, views such as those expressed in the passage provide evidence of an important change in the late nineteenth century that is best explained by the fact that they a. were based on the premise that the biological diversity of the human species should be reduced through support of interracial marriages b. reflected new anthropological and linguistic research that showed that all humans share a common African ancestor c. combined old cultural prejudice with supposedly "scientific" new ideas of the biological and evolutionary basis of human differences d. romanticized non-European peoples by portraying them as "noble savages" closer to nature than "overcivilized" Europeans

A caption below an image from a French textbook reads: The White Race, the most perfect of the human races, lives mostly in Europe, West Asia, North Africa, and North America. It is characterized by its oval head and rather thin lips. The complexion may vary in color but is generally light. The Yellow Race occupies mostly East Asia, China, and Japan. It is characterized by its high cheekbones and almond- shaped eyes.The Red Race, which once upon a time inhabited all of North and South America, has reddish skin, deeply set eyes, and a long and arched nose.↵ (PPT) The Black Race, which occupies mostly Africa and the southern parts of Oceania, has skin that is very dark, dark brown eyes, and curly hair. Based on the context of European imperialism in the late nineteenth century, a historian examining the image and its caption would likely explain that they provide evidence of how France sought to a. demonstrate that the transfer of its republican system of government to French colonies would prepare those colonies for eventual independence b. remind students that African states directly threatened France and its way of life c. reassure students that France's inhumane colonial policies were justified by a so-called "civilizing mission" d. help integrate migrants from its colonies into French society

In circa 1550, the Ottoman Empire had 140,000 personnel in the armed forces. The state revenue back then was 100 tons of silver. In circa 1700, the Ottoman Empire had 160,000 personnel in the armed forces. The state revenue then was 110 tons of silver. The trends in military personnel and state revenue are best understood in the context of which of the following changes in the relationship between states and local elites in the period 1450-1750 ? a. Local elites began to command their own military forces. b. Local elites began looking to the state to provide titles that demonstrated their legitimacy. c. States increasingly centralized their authority at the expense of local elites. d. States often relied on local elites to supervise provincial administration.

The sixteenth- and seventeenth-century maritime exploration efforts by England, France, and the Netherlands were most directly connected to which of the following historical processes? a. The transfer of engineering and navigational knowledge from the classical and Islamic worlds to Europe b. The need to ease population pressures in Europe by establishing settlement colonies c. Economic competition against Spain and Portugal and a desire to find new sailing routes to Asia d. The Protestant Reformation and the Catholic Reformation

Tramroads were iron rail tracks that used horse-drawn wagons to carry loads of coal from the mines to the ports at Cardiff and Newport. Waterways such as canals and rivers were important in the process of early industrialization because they provided a. access to leisure activities for the growing middle class b. cheap electrical power needed for industrial production c. a means for integrating economic activities in regional and national markets d. a source for improved sanitation for the rapidly urbanizing population centers

"After long periods of error, philosophers have at last discovered the true rights of man and how they can all be deduced from the single truth: that man is a perceptive being capable of reason and acquiring moral ideas. At last, man could proclaim his rights out loud, rights that for so long had been ignored. He could submit all opinions to his own reason and use that reason to search for truth. Every man learned with pride that nature had not forever condemned him to base his beliefs on the opinions of others or the superstitions of antiquity. Thus developed an understanding that the natural rights of man are inalienable and cannot be forfeited and a strongly expressed desire for freedom of thought, trade, and profession. There also developed a desire to alleviate people's suffering, to eliminate all criminal laws against political dissenters, and to abolish torture. A desire arose for a milder system of criminal legislation that could give complete security to the innocent. All of these principles gradually filtered down from philosophical works to every class of society whose education went beyond basic literacy. These principles became the common faith of all people." Marquis de Condorcet, French nobleman and philosopher, Sketch for a Historical Picture of the Progress of the Human Mind, published in 1794 Which of the following is an implicit claim that the author makes in the second paragraph? a. Loyalty to one's nation is the greatest virtue a person can aspire to have. b. In some cases, governments need to stifle freedom of speech. c. Man's natural condition is one of suffering and a struggle for survival. d. Religion has been a force holding back the progress of humanity.

"By 1830 an English textile worker was already producing with his mechanical spinning machine 350 to 400 times as much yarn per hour as an Indian craftsman with his traditional spinning wheel. The consequences for Indian textile production were fatal. In 1814 India imported one million meters of English textiles, in 1820 it imported 13 million and in 1890 more than two billion. British rule in India gave the British manufacturers free rein and made the protection of indigenous producers impossible. It stands to reason that Karl Marx condemned the driving force behind British expansion in India by calling it the 'millocracy' [meaning rule by the owners of textile mills]. . . . To be sure, the immense productivity of English textile workers from the early nineteenth century on made this branch of British industry superior to all of its former competitors, colonial and noncolonial alike. But while other countries could shield themselves from this danger by introducing protectionist tariffs, such protection did not exist in the British colonies. So here, in the case of the destruction of Indian textile industry, we see the importance of the colonial situation, namely the colonies' political dependence on the West, in arresting their economic development." Henk L. Wesseling, Dutch historian of colonial South and Southeast Asia, The European Colonial Empires, 1815-1919, book published in 2003 Wesseling's argument in the second paragraph best illustrates which of the following important distinctions within the practice of imperialism in the nineteenth century? a. The difference between the economic costs of imperialism and its economic benefits b. The difference between European and non-European imperialism c. The difference between land-based imperial expansion and overseas or maritime imperial expansion d. The difference between the economic effects of direct and indirect imperialism

"By 1830 an English textile worker was already producing with his mechanical spinning machine 350 to 400 times as much yarn per hour as an Indian craftsman with his traditional spinning wheel. The consequences for Indian textile production were fatal. In 1814 India imported one million meters of English textiles, in 1820 it imported 13 million and in 1890 more than two billion. British rule in India gave the British manufacturers free rein and made the protection of indigenous producers impossible. It stands to reason that Karl Marx condemned the driving force behind British expansion in India by calling it the 'millocracy' [meaning rule by the owners of textile mills]. . . . To be sure, the immense productivity of English textile workers from the early nineteenth century on made this branch of British industry superior to all of its former competitors, colonial and noncolonial alike. But while other countries could shield themselves from this danger by introducing protectionist tariffs, such protection did not exist in the British colonies. So here, in the case of the destruction of Indian textile industry, we see the importance of the colonial situation, namely the colonies' political dependence on the West, in arresting their economic development." Henk L. Wesseling, Dutch historian of colonial South and Southeast Asia, The European Colonial Empires, 1815-1919, book published in 2003 Which of the following aspects of the Marxist critique of capitalism would be most useful in understanding why the author of the passage chose to invoke Karl Marx's thought in the first paragraph? a. Many Marxists argued that imperialism is the last and final stage of capitalism, and Wesseling's analysis is premised on the same belief. b. Most Marxists believed that capitalism would be overthrown by a workers' revolution, and Wesseling is arguing that colonial workers were also beginning to organize for a revolution. c. Some Marxists emphasized imperialism's positive economic impacts in introducing more modern modes of production into the colonies, and Wesseling seems to agree with that assessment. d. Many Marxists criticized imperialism for arresting the economic development of the colonies and reducing them to mere raw material export economies, and Wesseling appears to agree with that criticism.

"Just yesterday, you sent me a telegram appealing to my friendship and called upon me to act as an intermediary and help resolve the conflict between you and the Austro-Hungarian government. But I understand that, even as you did that, your troops were being mobilized against Austria-Hungary. This makes my attempts at meditation almost pointless. Nonetheless, I continued in my efforts today. I now receive fresh news of even more serious Russian preparations for war on my Eastern frontier. Responsibility for the safety of my empire forces me to take defensive and preventive measures. In my endeavors to maintain the peace of the world, I have gone to the utmost limit possible. The responsibility for the disaster that is now threatening the civilized world will not be laid at my door. At this moment, you still have the power to avert war. Nobody is threatening the honor or power of Russia, and you can well afford to await the result of my mediation. My friendship for you and your empire, transmitted to me by my grandfather on his deathbed, has always been sacred to me and I have often supported Russia in the past when she was in serious trouble." Wilhelm II, emperor of Germany, telegram to Tsar Nicholas II of Russia, July 31, 1914 Which of the following events that preceded the outbreak of the First World War best explains why Russian troops were being mobilized against Austria-Hungary, as stated in the first paragraph? a. Russia was confident that its mutual defense treaties with France and Great Britain would ensure that Austria-Hungary would not dare attack it. b. Russia wanted to divert its people's attention away from its pressing economic problems and stop the growth of socialist parties. c. Russia wanted to demonstrate to Austria-Hungary that its military forces had recovered from their defeat during the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905. d. Russia was acting in support of Serbia, which was facing an imminent Austro-Hungarian attack following the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand.

"Just yesterday, you sent me a telegram appealing to my friendship and called upon me to act as an intermediary and help resolve the conflict between you and the Austro-Hungarian government. But I understand that, even as you did that, your troops were being mobilized against Austria-Hungary. This makes my attempts at meditation almost pointless. Nonetheless, I continued in my efforts today. I now receive fresh news of even more serious Russian preparations for war on my Eastern frontier. Responsibility for the safety of my empire forces me to take defensive and preventive measures. In my endeavors to maintain the peace of the world, I have gone to the utmost limit possible. The responsibility for the disaster that is now threatening the civilized world will not be laid at my door. At this moment, you still have the power to avert war. Nobody is threatening the honor or power of Russia, and you can well afford to await the result of my mediation. My friendship for you and your empire, transmitted to me by my grandfather on his deathbed, has always been sacred to me and I have often supported Russia in the past when she was in serious trouble." Wilhelm II, emperor of Germany, telegram to Tsar Nicholas II of Russia, July 31, 1914 Wilhelm II's assurances in the second paragraph that "nobody is threatening the honor or power of Russia" and that the tsar can "well afford" to await the results of attempts to defuse the crisis best testify to the importance of which of the following factors in the outbreak of the First World War? a. Religious and cultural traditions emphasizing honor and chivalry often led monarchs to disregard the will of their people. b. Because of the rise of pacifism, using force to resolve political disputes had come to be seen as immoral by most segments of European society. c. Regional conflicts in Europe were typically resolved by the great powers, with little attention paid to the needs of smaller states. d. Intense nationalism, fueled by mass media, often forced the hand of military and political leaders.

"OBJECTIVES OF YOUR JOURNEY In these parts of West Africa, France has obtained a few treaties with powerful chiefs, on the basis of which she claims immense regions in the great bend of the Niger River. She also sends French adventurers into a recognized British sphere of influence to make further treaties with native persons who claim to be the rulers or kings of certain regions. The goal of your journey therefore will be to (a) in places where the French pretend they have made treaties with the native rulers, to obtain a written declaration from the rulers that such statements are false, and then to make treaties for us; (b) in places where the French have made no such pretense, to secure treaties accompanied by a short declaration that no previous treaties have been made with any European; . . . (d) to collect detailed information of every kind about the regions you visit, but especially to make inquiries as to the existence of gold—either gold sands in rivers or gold lodes in rock; . . . (f) to impress upon all African chiefs how advantageous it would be for them to have Europeans bringing goods to their country, which can only be done if they sign the treaties; . . . (h) to note especially carefully the prevalence of gum arabic trees, shea butter trees, and rubber vines* in each region you visit." Letter from the directors of the British Royal Niger Company to its agent, Captain Frederick Lugard, directing him to travel up the Niger River in West Africa, 1894 *African trees that were used by Europeans in the production of cosmetics and processed food additives (gum Arabic), soap and candles (Shea butter), and tires and machine transmission belts (rubber) Which aspect of the historical situation in West Africa in the 1890s best explains the board of directors' instructions to Lugard in article (h) of the letter? a. High levels of local resistance to imperialism effectively prevented Europeans from extending their control in West Africa beyond coastal regions until the very end of the twentieth century. b. In the aftermath of the abolition of the trans-Atlantic slave trade, Europeans lost interest in West Africa, both politically and economically. c. Europeans still had very limited information about the physical geography of the West African interior. d. West Africa was becoming a source of important raw materials for Europe's industrializing economies.

"On several occasions, Ghazan Khan* went to the observatory at Maragha** and watched the Muslim, Christian, and Chinese astronomers make their observations. He looked at all the operations and instruments, studied them, and asked about their procedures, which he understood in spite of their difficulty. He also ordered the construction of a dome in order to investigate the Sun's motion and he spoke out with his astronomers about it. All of them said that although they had never seen such an instrument, it was reasonable and sensible. He gave orders for the construction of an observatory next to his tomb in Tabriz in Persia. He explained how to construct the observatory with such clarity that local wise men marveled at his intelligence, because such work had not been done in any era. Those wise men said that constructing the observatory would be extremely difficult. He guided them, whereupon they commenced building it and they finished it following his instructions. Those wise men and all the engineers agreed that nobody had done such a thing before nor had imagined doing it." *ruler of the Mongol Ilkhanate, whose territories included most of the Muslim Middle East; reigned 1295-1304 **an astronomical observatory in present-day Azerbaijan, established by a grant from the first Ilkhanid ruler in the mid-thirteenth century Rashid al-Din Hamdani, Persian Muslim historian and government minister in Ghazan Khan's court, excerpt from a universal history commissioned by Ghazan Khan, completed circa 1316 Which of the following best describes the author's purpose in the passage? a. To provide detailed descriptions of the instruments used at the Maragha and Tabriz observatories b. To evaluate the importance of the astronomical discoveries made by Ilkhanid scientists c. To criticize Ghazan for his vanity and remind him to focus on religious and spiritual pursuits d. To portray his patron as a generous supporter of the sciences and a man of unusual intelligence

"One of the most important aspects of the Maya economy was the exchange of exotic goods. Maya rulers and elites needed such goods to maintain and reinforce their social status and power. Many of these goods were used in the formal dress of kings, nobles, and priests. Without them, the elites could not carry out the rituals that were their principal duties in the eyes of the people. Jaguar pelts, fine textiles, feathers, and other such products were exchanged over long distances within the Maya lowlands. . . . Such items were probably exchanged as dowry, gifts at royal marriages, coronations, funerals, or at religious pilgrimages. Exotic goods were also probably given as tribute to rulers by their vassals. These high-status goods held together the Maya world and unified patterns of behavior in religion, science, and warfare. Their exchange surely went hand in hand with exchanges of information, including scientific knowledge, early writing, and, most importantly, models of political organization." Arthur Demarest, United States anthropologist, Ancient Maya: The Rise and Fall of a Rainforest Civilization, 2004 Which of the following does the author cite most directly to support his argument in the third paragraph about the importance of exotic goods in the Maya region? a. The existence of sophisticated astronomical tables b. The emergence of a unified Maya kingdom based on new political models c. The emergence of new systems of writing based on earlier Mesoamerican systems d. The existence of unified patterns of behavior in warfare, science, and religion

"The adoption of the mamluk* institutions by the Abbasids was followed almost immediately by [the] . . . disintegration of the state. . . . The disintegration of the Abbasid state was an intensely painful process in which it seemed at times as if the very venture of Islam was coming to an end, like that of Alexander the Great before it. . . . Indeed, that Islam was soon to disappear was the very premise upon which the [Shi'ite] revolutionaries held out their promise of a moral and material recovery: nothing less . . . could now save the marriage between religion and power to which the Islamic [state] owed its existence." *an Arabic term designating a slave, in this case, a slave soldier of Turkic origin Patricia Crone, Danish-American historian of Islamic history, Slaves on Horses: The Evolution of the Islamic Polity, 1980 The combination between religious and political aspects in the Abbasid state's concept of rulership is best reflected in which of the following? a. The Abbasid state had an influential Sunni religious class that often came into conflict with the state. b. The Abbasid state often allowed local rulers considerable autonomy. c. The Abbasid state patronized the construction of religious buildings such as mosques. d. The Abbasid state was headed by a caliph who was theoretically the state's supreme religious and political leader.

"The eleventh king of the sultanate of Kano* was Yaji Ali [reigned 1349-1385]. In Yaji's time merchants came from the north bringing Islam. They commanded the king Yaji to observe the times of prayer. He complied, and made one man an imam (prayer leader) and another a muezzin (the person reciting the call to prayer from a mosque). The king commanded every town in his kingdom to observe the times of prayer. So they all did so. A mosque was built beneath the sacred tree facing east, and prayers were made at the five appointed times in it. The nineteenth king of the Hausa kingdom was Yakubu [reigned 1452-1463]. He was a good king. In his time traders came to Kano from Mali bringing with them books on Islamic divinity and the study of the Arabic language. Formerly our religious scholars had, in addition to the Qur'an, only a few books of Islamic law. At this time too, salt became common in Kano. In the following year merchants from the region of Gwanja in the south began coming, and from the north Berbers** came in large numbers, and a colony of Arabs arrived." *a West African state established by the Hausa people of present-day northern Nigeria **ethnic group from the western part of North Africa Excerpts from The Kano Chronicle, an oral tradition that records the exploits of the kings of Kano, written down in the late nineteenth century In the period circa 1200-1450, which of the following most directly enabled merchants to bring salt and other bulk products to markets in sub-Saharan Africa? a. The shared use of the Arabic language and common practice of Islam by both North African and sub-Saharan merchant communities b. The diffusion of new maritime technologies such as the lateen sail c. The transfer of East Asian technologies to western Afro-Eurasia during the period of Pax Mongolica d. The adoption of innovative practices in overland trading, such as the use of camel caravans and saddles

"Throughout its history, Central Asia has provided the ancient civilized empires on its borders with new Shahs, Sultans, or Sons of Heaven. These periodic invasions by the nomads of the steppe, whose khans ascended the thrones of Changan, Luoyang, Kaifeng, or Beijing*, of Isfahan or Tabriz**, Delhi or Constantinople, became one of the geographic laws of history. But there was another, opposing law which brought about the slow absorption of the invaders by the ancient civilized lands. The civilizations of China and Persia, though conquered, would in the long run vanquish their conquerors, intoxicating them with the pleasures of settled life, lulling them to sleep, and assimilating them culturally. Often, only fifty years after a conquest, the culturally Sinicized or Persianized former barbarian would be the first to stand guard over his adopted civilization and protect it against fresh nomadic onslaughts." *capital cities of various Chinese dynasties **capital cities of various Persian dynasties René Grousset, French historian of Central Asia, The Empire of the Steppes: A History of Central Asia, 1939 Which of the following developments in the period circa 1250-1450 represents a situation that is the opposite of nomadic conquerors assimilating into the cultures of the conquered societies? a. Settled societies successfully resisting nomadic encroachments, as illustrated by the Mamluks of Egypt defeating the Mongols or Muscovy expelling the Golden Horde from Russia b. Merchants establishing diasporic communities and introducing their own traditions into the indigenous cultures, as illustrated by South Asian Muslim merchants spreading Islam to the islands of Southeast Asia c. Conquering states fragmenting into several units because of political and social friction, as illustrated by the breakup of the Mongol Empire into individual khanates d. Conquered peoples being drawn into their conquerors' economic and cultural orbits, as illustrated by Turkic peoples converting to Islam and integrating into Muslim societies

"Your Highness, dear Major Leutwein! I received your long letter late last night. I take it from this letter that you accuse me of various misdeeds and seem to claim the right to condemn me to death as if I were a common criminal. You seem to try to reason with me by force of guns. You say that I arrogantly claim to be the ruler over certain territories. This is my answer: You white men know very well that this territory of which you speak has been under my rule since the death of my grandfather. The Herero nation attacked my grandfather's Nama nation without any cause, but he fought them back and conquered them. Later these same tribes attacked me as well. I conquered them a second time. So these lands that you seek are mine by double right of conquest. This has been an old rule of war. Obviously you cannot see any other way of getting hold of these lands, so you are attacking me by force. You say that you are sorry that I do not accept German protection and do not pledge my allegiance to the German emperor. Here is my answer: I have never in my life seen the German emperor and I am sure he has never seen me. Therefore, I could not have possibly hurt him. God has made us both rulers in different parts of the world. I don't think that one can call someone guilty if he wants to remain an independent ruler over his land and his people. If you intend now to have me killed because of my love of independence, this is not shame or harm. If I have to die, I shall do so as an honest man defending my property and my rights." Hendrik Witbooi, leader of the Nama people in the German colony of South West Africa, letter to the commanding officer of the German colonial army, 1894 Witbooi's perspective in the last paragraph is historically significant because it most directly illustrates which of the following rationales for African people resisting European imperial encroachment? a. Resistance to protect the right to practice native African religions threatened by European missionary activities b. Resistance to safeguard valuable natural resources threatened by European economic imperialism c. Resistance to restore pre-nineteenth-century native states and empires destroyed by earlier waves of European colonialism d. Resistance to preserve traditional political structures threatened by direct European territorial expansion

APPROXIMATE POPULATION OF MALES AGE 12 AND OLDER ON SELECTED MANORS IN ESSEX COUNTY, ENGLAND, CIRCA 1320-1450 Year- 1320 1350 1400 Great Waltham- 260 120 156 Hatfield Broadoak- 500 325 200 High Easter- 260 120 140 Total- 1,020 565 496 The data is based on manorial population surveys ordered by the earls of Essex and on the court records of the earls' manor courts.Source: Data adapted from L. R. Poos, "The Rural Population of Essex in the Later Middle Ages," The Economic History Review 38:4 (1985): 522-3. Which of the following best describes the change in the total population of males age 12 and older in the three manors shown in the table from 1320 to 1400 ? a. It declined to less than a quarter of its 1320 level (over 75% decline). b. It stayed virtually unchanged compared to its 1320 level. c. It increased to more than double its 1320 level (over 50% increase). d. It declined to less than a half of its 1320 level (over 50% decline).

Which of the following processes most immediately led to the global expansion of European political power in the period circa 1500? a. Advances in medicine that improved Europeans' ability to survive in tropical climates b. The Ottoman conquest of Constantinople c. The Columbian Exchange d. Advances in shipbuilding and navigational methods

"I admit that the punishments of the slaves on Barbados for all sorts of offenses are indeed very cruel, but one must consider before condemning the [White] inhabitants that they often have no choice but to set moderation aside and use punishment as a way to intimidate their slaves. The Whites need to impress fear and respect upon their slaves in order not to one day find themselves the victims of their fury. Unless the slaves are kept in a constant state of fear of punishment, they would always be ready to revolt, to take over everything, and to commit the most horrible crimes in order to liberate themselves. The plantations on Barbados are smaller than those in the French [Caribbean] islands. This is not surprising because although the island is small, its population is very large, and land is scarce and therefore very valuable. Nonetheless, the plantation owners are very wealthy and the houses on the plantations are even better built than those in the towns. The plantation houses are large in size, have numerous glass windows, and have fine rooms that are conveniently arranged. Nearly all plantation houses have rows of shade trees around them to keep them cool. One observes the wealth and good taste of the inhabitants in their furniture, which is very fine, and their silver, of which they have so large a quantity that if this island were to be sacked the silver utensils from the plantations alone would be worth more than the value of several Spanish galleons." Jean-Baptiste Labat, French clergyman and travel writer,account of his visit to the British Caribbean island of Barbados, 1690s Which of the following best describes the author's claim in the second paragraph? a. Despite the small size of Barbadian plantations, the landowners on Barbados are very wealthy. b. Slave political grievances are threatening the political order in American colonial societies. c. Barbadian plantation owners are the wealthiest social group in the Caribbean. d. The extensive mining of precious metals on Caribbean islands has destroyed the islands' natural environment.

PETITION "To the Honorable Members of the Government of the Province of Manitoba (Canada), and the Honorable Members of the Legislative Assembly of the said Province. WHEREAS the following resolution forms part of the platform of the Liberal Party: 'The Liberal Party believing that there are no just grounds for denying women the right to vote, will enact a measure providing for equal suffrage upon it being established by petition that it is desired by women numbering 15% of the votes cast in the Province in the preceding general election.' AND WHEREAS the Liberal Party is now the party in office in the said Province. NOW THEREFORE the petition of the undersigned humbly shows that: - We, the Petitioners, are women over the age of twenty-one years old and are resident in the Province of Manitoba. - We, the Petitioners, are desirous that a measure be enacted forthwith extending the franchise to women on equal terms with men, in accordance with the ideas of equality. - We, the Petitioners, number 39,584 women, which is in excess of the required number of 17,000 [to meet the 15% requirement in the Liberal Party's program]. THEREFORE, We, the Petitioners, pray that there shall be enacted by the Legislative Assembly during this Session a measure extending the franchise to women on equal terms with men." [39,584 signatures follow] Petition presented by the Political Equality League, a women's rights organization, to the Legislative Assembly of the Province of Manitoba, Canada, 23 December, 1915 The policy position of the Manitoba Liberal Party quoted in the appeal is best seen as a continuation of which of the following broader trends in the late 1800s and early 1900s? a. Political parties embracing mass politics and broader popular participation in the democratic process b. Mainstream political parties teaming up to defeat challenges from socialist parties c. The increasing influence on politics of ethnic nationalism and its ideas of women as essential to the moral character of the nation d. The growing acceptance of free-trade and laissez-faire economic philosophy by both liberals and conservatives

Tramroads were iron rail tracks that used horse-drawn wagons to carry loads of coal from the mines to the ports at Cardiff and Newport. Together with access to coal deposits, which environmental factor most directly contributed to Great Britain's early industrialization? a. Its abundance of iron ore b. Its cold climate, unsuitable for cultivating many crops c. Its plentiful domestic sources of gold and silver d. Its location on an island group separate from continental Europe

WORKERS AND SOLDIERS MARCHING IN THE STREETS OF SAINT PETERSBURG, RUSSIAN EMPIRE, AFTER TAKING OVER CONTROL OF THE CITY, FEBRUARY 1917 The makeup of the force shown in the image is best explained by the fact that by 1917 a. Russia's army morale and home-front effort were collapsing because of the strains of total war b. new military technologies had made it possible to transport soldiers more rapidly c. nationalism in Russia had intensified sharply as a result of the shared experiences of the First World War d. wartime propaganda had fueled fanatical loyalty to the Tsarist regime among ordinary Russians

Which of the following contributed directly to Great Britain's ability to consolidate or expand its colonial control of interior regions of Asia and Africa in the late nineteenth century? a. The industrialization of travel technology, both overseas and overland (built steamships and steam trains) b. Industrialized cities, with new technology that came from industrialization. c. Only the industrialization of travel technology overland (built steam trains). d. Only the industrialization of travel technology overseas (built steamships and steam trains)

Which of the following developments can be most directly attributed to Portuguese and Spanish state sponsorship of maritime exploration in the late fifteenth century? a. Improvements in European geographic knowledge of Africa and the Indian Ocean b. The development of theories of natural rights and representative government c. Religious divisions in Europe related to the Protestant Reformation d. Improvements in Europeans' ability to prevent the spread of infectious diseases

Which of the following empires in the period 1450-1750 engaged in a type of territorial expansion most similar to the Russian Empire- a land-based expansion with the conquering of land? a. The Mughal Empire b. The Portuguese Empire c. The Spanish Empire d. The British Empire

"Dear Comrade Lenin! I cannot avoid pointing out an outrageous phenomenon that can still be observed all over our Soviet Russia. Even though it has been more than two years since power in Russia has been in the hands of the Soviets, in all major cities certain things can be observed that do not at all indicate the existence of a dictatorship of the proletariat. I want to point out the most insulting one. In our city, Kazan (and as I mentioned, this also happens in all major cities), there live many former factory owners and other members of the bourgeoisie. Even though their factories and businesses have been nationalized, if you enter their apartments you would see them still living as they did in the 'good old times.' These gentlemen do not seem to know that the Civil War is still raging and that power is in the hands of the workers. As in the past, they continue to reside in the most luxurious, spacious, and warm apartments, with luxurious furniture. In their kitchens, you would still see hired cooks with white caps and uniforms, and in their households you would still see a variety of servants. In the summer they still go out to their country houses to 'relax.' When I see this, I become almost ashamed of our proletarian revolution. Why has no attention been paid to this yet? Why are workers not being moved into the bourgeois apartments and the bourgeois into workers' cellars? Why is their furniture and other belongings not being confiscated and distributed to the workers? And anyway, why has this gang of bourgeois parasites not yet been destroyed? I am turning to you, Comrade Lenin, as our leader and the most loyal friend of the proletariat, and I am waiting so that this issue, which concerns me and many other honest communists, can be resolved by an appropriate decree." Letter to Soviet leader Vladimir Lenin from a member of the Communist Party living in Kazan, Russia, November, 1920 Considering the purpose of the letter, it most likely overstates which of the following? a. The period of time that has elapsed since power in Russia has been in the hands of the Soviets (first paragraph). b. The extent to which wealthy Russians continued to live exactly as they did before the revolution (second paragraph). c. The author's sense of indignation and shame at the perceived injustices of Soviet revolutionary society (second paragraph). d. The author's estimation of Lenin as "the most loyal friend of the proletariat" (third paragraph).

"Throughout the period of Nigeria's short and precarious existence as a single political entity, we Eastern Nigerians have always believed in fundamental human rights as they are accepted and enjoyed in civilized countries. Impelled by our belief in these rights and our sense of common citizenship with other Nigerians, we contributed our ideas and skills, our resourcefulness and dynamism, in the development of areas of Nigeria outside the East. We set up businesses and industries throughout the country, overlooked the neglect of our homeland in the division of national institutions, development projects, and financial resources, made our region's abundant natural resources available to the rest of the country, and confidently invested in the general economic and social development of Nigeria. . . . We used to oppose those who told us that what our former colonial masters made into 'Nigeria' was merely an agglomeration of different peoples, distinct in every way except in the color of their skin, and organized in as a unit solely for the commercial interests and administrative convenience of the colonists. . . . But we have come to realize that national unity is no longer possible. The Nigerian constitution that was adopted after independence in 1960 installed the North in perpetual dominance over Nigeria. Thus were sown, by design or by default, the seeds of factionalism and hate, of struggle for power, and the worst type of political deception. National independence was followed by successive crises, each leading to the near disintegration of the country. Last year alone, tens of thousands of Eastern and Southern Nigerians were killed in pogroms by Northerners in all parts of the country, including the capital, Lagos. We are now facing a situation in which there are only two possible outcomes: either perpetual domination of the rest of the country by the North, not by consent but by force and fraud, or a dissolution of the [Nigerian] federation bond." Lieutenant Colonel C. Odumegwu Ojukwu, Nigerian army officer, proclamation of the breakaway Republic of Biafra [Eastern Nigeria], 19 Based on the author's point of view, it is most likely that the information presented in the passage a. inadvertently misrepresents the extent of regional differences and identities in Nigerian society b. overstates the extent to which Northern Nigerians were responsible for undermining the united Nigerian state c. understates the economic contributions Eastern Nigerians had made to the unified Nigerian state d. glosses over the responsibility of corrupt politicians in creating the problems facing the unified Nigerian state

"Iron smelting and steel making in the Shaoyang region of Hunan province are rapidly developing on a mass scale. In a short period in the fall of 1958, 12,378 local blast furnaces have been built in this area. The main reason for this remarkable progress in such a short time is that this region has fully carried out the Communist Party's directive to let all the people work in iron and steel production, in keeping with the party's general plan of building socialism. Iron and steel production is not simply a technical job; it is also a political task. Therefore, the first condition for the rapid increase in production was for local party leaders to have the entire party membership mobilized. When the current push to increase production began, many 'experts' wanted to have big foreign blast furnaces. They were not interested in building small local furnaces. They thought we should wait until we've had the opportunity to buy elaborate equipment. Actually, that line of thinking would have resulted in producing less, more slowly, and more expensively. Under the timely guidance of the Party, those tendencies were firmly rejected and the policy of throwing all resources into iron and steel production and letting political cadres take charge was carried out. The strength of the masses is tremendous. All the problems of funds, raw materials, equipment, provisions, etc., which in the past seemed so hard to solve, disappeared before the resourcefulness of the people. In one Hunan county, 67,000 people worked non-stop for three days and nights and built 1025 blast furnaces. Many people, hearing the Party's call, walked over 30 miles to join the work, carrying timber and bamboo and their own food and clothes. In the town of Szetu, local people collected more than 1.6 million yuan [Chinese unit of currency] for the iron and steel effort, with one 50-year-old woman contributing more than 200 yuan, her life savings. Shoemakers donated more than 180,000 pairs of sandals for those building the furnaces. In the town of Tienping, the people solved the housing crisis [of furnace workers coming to the town but not having a place to sleep] by vacating more than 500 rooms in their houses and turning them over to the workers. The people also composed the following song: The Communist Party is really wonderful. In three days more than a thousand furnaces were built. The American imperialists will run off, tails between legs. The Chinese people will now surpass Britain. The East wind will always prevail over the West wind." Yin Zeming, Chinese government official, The Strength of the Masses is Limitless, pamphlet published in English by the Beijing Foreign Languages Press, a Chinese government publishing house, 1958 Which of the following aspects of the immediate historical situation in China in 1958 best explains the author's perspective in the passage? a. The Chinese Communist Party was buoyed by its recent victory in the country's long civil war. b. Mao Zedong's Cultural Revolution had created severe social upheavals and caused widespread suffering among those accused of political dissent. c. Chinese leaders had made it clear that meeting the goals of the Great Leap Forward was the highest priority facing the country. d. The new Chinese Communist leadership implemented economic liberalization reform in the aftermath of Mao Zedong's death.

"Japan's colonial policy aims at extending into its colonies the principle of paternalistic protection followed in the home land. The protection of industry and education, which is a characteristic feature of Japanese administration at home, has largely been transplanted to the Korean peninsula. The results that have followed the industrialization of Korea, for both the native population and the Japanese administration, may be summarized as follows: 1. The development of industries has increased capital in the country and helped Korean society in a general advance toward a capitalistic stage of development. 2. As a result of industrialization, the Japanese administration's financial resources have been increased. 3. Korean mineral products are of kinds that are scarce in Japan proper and consequently there is little competition between Korean and Japanese mineral products. Administration by Japan, the inflow of Japanese capital, and the provision of public education have all tended toward a fundamental transformation of native Korean society. The Koreans are being rapidly modernized and even their inherent seclusive nature is undergoing a marked change. Under their former corrupt rulers, the people were reduced to abject poverty and misery and resigned themselves to fatalism, having been robbed of all incentives to earn and save money. Under Japanese government, however, the Korean people have begun to be active and industrious once again." Tadao Yanaihara, Japanese economist, "Problems of Japanese Administration in Korea," article published in a Canadian journal, 1938 Which of the following best explains the long-term historical significance of the views expressed by Yanaihara in the passage? a. They show that some members of the Japanese elite feared Western influence would disrupt Japan's traditional Shinto cultural and political practices. b. They show that some members of the Japanese elite sought to join larger regional trade organizations in order to expand Japan's economy. c. They show that some members of the Japanese elite feared the growth of communist influence in Asia after the Russian Revolution and Chinese Civil War. d. They show that some members of the Japanese elite sought to justify aggressive Japanese colonial efforts in China and the Pacific region.

"Your Highness, dear Major Leutwein! I received your long letter late last night. I take it from this letter that you accuse me of various misdeeds and seem to claim the right to condemn me to death as if I were a common criminal. You seem to try to reason with me by force of guns. You say that I arrogantly claim to be the ruler over certain territories. This is my answer: You white men know very well that this territory of which you speak has been under my rule since the death of my grandfather. The Herero nation attacked my grandfather's Nama nation without any cause, but he fought them back and conquered them. Later these same tribes attacked me as well. I conquered them a second time. So these lands that you seek are mine by double right of conquest. This has been an old rule of war. Obviously you cannot see any other way of getting hold of these lands, so you are attacking me by force. You say that you are sorry that I do not accept German protection and do not pledge my allegiance to the German emperor. Here is my answer: I have never in my life seen the German emperor and I am sure he has never seen me. Therefore, I could not have possibly hurt him. God has made us both rulers in different parts of the world. I don't think that one can call someone guilty if he wants to remain an independent ruler over his land and his people. If you intend now to have me killed because of my love of independence, this is not shame or harm. If I have to die, I shall do so as an honest man defending my property and my rights." Hendrik Witbooi, leader of the Nama people in the German colony of South West Africa, letter to the commanding officer of the German colonial army, 1894 Witbooi's point of view in discussing his right to rule the Nama lands "by double conquest" is historically significant mostly because it illustrates how a. African political leaders learned to use effectively the European diplomatic discourse of sovereignty and state rights to ultimately forestall the advance of imperialism b. some African leaders were able to play one European colonial power against another to ultimately preserve their lands from colonial infringement c. European imperialism fostered among Africans a sense of belonging to new national units and ultimately led to nationalist resistance movements d. interethnic conflicts in Africa led to political fragmentation and ultimately limited Africans' ability to resist imperialism

In the period circa 1750-1900, the historical process of industrialization led directly to all of the following major global transformations EXCEPT a. the transition from human- and animal-powered economies to fossil fuel-powered economies b. the increasing use of electricity in industrial and consumer applications c. a significant increase in transregional trade and migration d. the outbreak of the Atlantic revolutions and the emergence of new states in the Americas

"I, the reverend Buddhist teacher Dharmasekhara, dedicated this statue of the bodhisattva Amoghapasa* on the orders of His Majesty King Adityawarman, for the benefit and salvation and happiness of all creatures. Hail to the King—experienced in the arts of war, well versed in the sciences, he is an ocean of all virtues practiced by the followers of the Buddha! He is free from all physical desire. Hail to the King—he who supports the entire world. He has collected jewels by the millions, taken them from the hands of his enemies among the other rulers of this world. He who is like God among kings, crowned, protected by heavenly beings, King of kings! He orders what should be known to all!" Sanskrit inscription on a statue of a bodhisattva produced in the Malayapura kingdom, Sumatra, Indonesia, circa 1350 c.e. *a major figure worshipped in Mahayana Buddhism Which of the following is an argument in the second paragraph of the inscription regarding King Adityawarman? a. His spiritual attributes and worldly achievements made him a powerful and legitimate ruler. b. His attention to the welfare of all of his subjects made him a caring and legitimate ruler. c. His conquest of all of the surrounding kingdoms in Indonesia made him a legitimate ruler. d. His knowledge of science and ships in an island kingdom made him an effective and legitimate ruler.

"This spring, those Indians who lived in their trading house here fell sick with smallpox, and died most miserably. They fear smallpox more than any other disease because it is very common among them. The condition of this people was so lamentable, and they suffered so greatly from this disease that they were, in the end, not able to help each other, or make a fire, or fetch water to drink. Those of us in the English settlement, seeing their woeful and sad condition, took pity on the Indians and daily fetched them wood and water, and food. Nonetheless, very few of the Indians survived. But by the marvelous goodness of God, not one of the English colonists was stricken or infected by the disease at all, though many performed these favors for the Indians for weeks." William Bradford, English settler in the Plymouth Colony in North America, diary entry for the year 1633 The author uses all of the following as evidence to support his argument about the impact of smallpox on Native American populations EXCEPT a. the English settlers tried to help the Native Americans who were afflicted with smallpox b. the Native Americans feared smallpox more than any other disease c. many Native Americans who contracted smallpox died from it d. smallpox was widespread among Native Americans

An image shows Ottoman officials forcibly enlisting boys from the empire's Christian subjects in the Balkans to train them for service in the Ottoman army and bureaucracy. The Ottoman Empire's recruitment of soldiers and bureaucrats through the system depicted in the image is most similar to which broader method that rulers used to strengthen their empires in the period 1450-1750 ? a. The collection of tribute b. The granting of autonomy to minority groups c. Abolition of feudal privileges d. Establishment of religious uniformity

Image: B-24 LIBERATOR BOMBERS NEARING COMPLETION AT THE CONSOLIDATED AIRCRAFT CORPORATION PLANT, FORT WORTH, TEXAS, 1942 Which of the following best explains how this photograph from the Second World War can be connected to the Cold War that began shortly afterward? a. It illustrates the convergence of Soviet and American military technology as both countries adopted the same methods of fighting. b. It shows the technological advances made by one of the victors of the Second World War that solidified its position as a postwar superpower. c. It demonstrates the numerical and material advantages enjoyed by the Allied powers in their conflict with the Axis powers of Germany, Italy, and Japan. d. It provides evidence of underlying hostility between the Soviet Union and the United States even when they were allied during the Second World War.

Image: B-24 LIBERATOR BOMBERS NEARING COMPLETION AT THE CONSOLIDATED AIRCRAFT CORPORATION PLANT, FORT WORTH, TEXAS, 1942 The image is best understood in which of the following contexts of both the Second World War and the Cold War? a. The continued importance of industry in improving military capacity b. The negative economic effects of excessive military spending c. The greater ability of totalitarian regimes to mobilize their populations for war d. The ideological differences that informed both conflicts

"Just yesterday, you sent me a telegram appealing to my friendship and called upon me to act as an intermediary and help resolve the conflict between you and the Austro-Hungarian government. But I understand that, even as you did that, your troops were being mobilized against Austria-Hungary. This makes my attempts at meditation almost pointless. Nonetheless, I continued in my efforts today. I now receive fresh news of even more serious Russian preparations for war on my Eastern frontier. Responsibility for the safety of my empire forces me to take defensive and preventive measures. In my endeavors to maintain the peace of the world, I have gone to the utmost limit possible. The responsibility for the disaster that is now threatening the civilized world will not be laid at my door. At this moment, you still have the power to avert war. Nobody is threatening the honor or power of Russia, and you can well afford to await the result of my mediation. My friendship for you and your empire, transmitted to me by my grandfather on his deathbed, has always been sacred to me and I have often supported Russia in the past when she was in serious trouble." Wilhelm II, emperor of Germany, telegram to Tsar Nicholas II of Russia, July 31, 1914 The passage can best be used to explain the role of which of the following in bringing about the First World War? a. Global competition for economic resources b. Rival great power alliances c. Competing political and social ideologies d. Imperialist expansion

APPROXIMATE POPULATION OF MALES AGE 12 AND OLDER ON SELECTED MANORS IN ESSEX COUNTY, ENGLAND, CIRCA 1320-1450 Year- 1320 1350 1400 Great Waltham- 260 120 156 Hatfield Broadoak- 500 325 200 High Easter- 260 120 140 Total- 1,020 565 496 The data is based on manorial population surveys ordered by the earls of Essex and on the court records of the earls' manor courts.Source: Data adapted from L. R. Poos, "The Rural Population of Essex in the Later Middle Ages," The Economic History Review 38:4 (1985): 522-3. Based on the information in the table, the Black Death outbreak of the bubonic plague struck Essex County in which of the following periods? a. Between 1350 and 1400 b. Between 1320 and 1350 c. After 1400 d. Before 1320

Which of the following best summarizes the way in which the development of the factory system and the development of new transportation infrastructure such as railways worked together as factors facilitating British industrialization? a. The factory system led to an ever-greater degree of specialization of labor and, by doing so, helped meet the railway industry's need for highly skilled workers. b. The factory system concentrated the working classes in cities, and new transportation infrastructure allowed governments to better monitor and police these workers. c. The factory system concentrated production in relatively few locations, and the new transportation infrastructure allowed more goods and people to reach these locations in less time. d. The factory system produced the surplus labor that led large numbers of British people to emigrate overseas, and the new transportation infrastructure enabled those migrants to make their journeys.

APPROXIMATE POPULATION OF MALES AGE 12 AND OLDER ON SELECTED MANORS IN ESSEX COUNTY, ENGLAND, CIRCA 1320-1450 Year- 1320 1350 1400 Great Waltham- 260 120 156 Hatfield Broadoak- 500 325 200 High Easter- 260 120 140 Total- 1,020 565 496 The data is based on manorial population surveys ordered by the earls of Essex and on the court records of the earls' manor courts.Source: Data adapted from L. R. Poos, "The Rural Population of Essex in the Later Middle Ages," The Economic History Review 38:4 (1985): 522-3. A comparison between the data for the three manors shown in the table best illustrates which of the following about the bubonic plague? a. It was equally devastating across all areas of western Europe. b. It had virtually no effect on the populations of some regions of England. c. In most areas, the population reverted to pre-1320 levels by 1400. d. In some but not all areas, the population was beginning to recover by 1400.

Which of the following developments in the period after 1945 most directly prevented localized conflicts such as the one illustrated in the two photographs from escalating into global wars? a. The effectiveness of the United Nations as a global guarantor of collective security b. Recurring economic downturns, such as the one following the 1973 OPEC oil embargo c. The threat of communist revolutions breaking out in the industrialized countries of the West d. The threat of the use of nuclear weapons

The participation of foreign troops in the Angolan Civil War illustrated in the two photographs can be seen as a specific example of the global rivalries in the period after 1945 that also directly produced which of the following? a. The Hutu-Tutsi ethnic tensions that led to the Rwanda genocide b. The NATO and Warsaw Pact military alliances c. Regional economic cooperation blocs, such as the EEC, ASEAN, and Mercosur d. The Arab-Israeli conflicts

"I admit that the punishments of the slaves on Barbados for all sorts of offenses are indeed very cruel, but one must consider before condemning the [White] inhabitants that they often have no choice but to set moderation aside and use punishment as a way to intimidate their slaves. The Whites need to impress fear and respect upon their slaves in order not to one day find themselves the victims of their fury. Unless the slaves are kept in a constant state of fear of punishment, they would always be ready to revolt, to take over everything, and to commit the most horrible crimes in order to liberate themselves. The plantations on Barbados are smaller than those in the French [Caribbean] islands. This is not surprising because although the island is small, its population is very large, and land is scarce and therefore very valuable. Nonetheless, the plantation owners are very wealthy and the houses on the plantations are even better built than those in the towns. The plantation houses are large in size, have numerous glass windows, and have fine rooms that are conveniently arranged. Nearly all plantation houses have rows of shade trees around them to keep them cool. One observes the wealth and good taste of the inhabitants in their furniture, which is very fine, and their silver, of which they have so large a quantity that if this island were to be sacked the silver utensils from the plantations alone would be worth more than the value of several Spanish galleons." Jean-Baptiste Labat, French clergyman and travel writer,account of his visit to the British Caribbean island of Barbados, 1690s Which of the following is an implicit argument made by the author in the passage? a. The current political and economic makeup of European colonies in the Caribbean is not sustainable over the long term. b. Christianity will provide a solution to the social ills of colonial societies in the Caribbean. c. Coerced labor systems have allowed a minority of the population of Caribbean colonial societies to reap enormous economic benefits. d. It is incumbent upon France to try to wrest control of Barbados from Great Britain.

"Compatriots throughout the country! We have made concessions for peace during our negotiations with the French to end the war.* But the more concessions we made, the more the French colonialists were determined to maintain their control over Vietnam despite their promises. No! We would rather sacrifice everything than lose our country and return to slavery. Compatriots! Rise up! Men and women, old and young, regardless of religion, political parties, or nationalities, all the Vietnamese must stand up to fight the French colonialists to save the Fatherland. Those who have rifles must use their rifles. Those who have swords must use their swords. Those who have no swords must use their spades, hoes, and sticks. Everyone must endeavor to oppose the colonialists and save their country. Soldiers, self-defense guards, militiamen! The hour of national liberation has struck! We must sacrifice to our last drop of blood to save our country. We must be ready to endure any hardship. With the determination to sacrifice, victory will be ours! Long live an independent and unified Vietnam! Long live the victorious resistance!" *In 1945 Ho Chi Minh proclaimed an independent republic of Vietnam and war with France broke out in 1946. Ho Chi Minh, Vietnamese political leader, appeal to the Vietnamese population, 1946 As indicated by the passage, Vietnam's achievement of independence differed in what way from the achievement of independence by many other former colonies? a. Vietnam gained its independence through a violent uprising rather than a negotiated settlement. b. Vietnam's independence movement relied on support from a narrow segment of the population. c. Vietnam was seeking to gain its independence from a non-European country. d. Vietnam achieved its independence in a much shorter time than most other former colonies.

"Japan's colonial policy aims at extending into its colonies the principle of paternalistic protection followed in the home land. The protection of industry and education, which is a characteristic feature of Japanese administration at home, has largely been transplanted to the Korean peninsula. The results that have followed the industrialization of Korea, for both the native population and the Japanese administration, may be summarized as follows: 1. The development of industries has increased capital in the country and helped Korean society in a general advance toward a capitalistic stage of development. 2. As a result of industrialization, the Japanese administration's financial resources have been increased. 3. Korean mineral products are of kinds that are scarce in Japan proper and consequently there is little competition between Korean and Japanese mineral products. Administration by Japan, the inflow of Japanese capital, and the provision of public education have all tended toward a fundamental transformation of native Korean society. The Koreans are being rapidly modernized and even their inherent seclusive nature is undergoing a marked change. Under their former corrupt rulers, the people were reduced to abject poverty and misery and resigned themselves to fatalism, having been robbed of all incentives to earn and save money. Under Japanese government, however, the Korean people have begun to be active and industrious once again." Tadao Yanaihara, Japanese economist, "Problems of Japanese Administration in Korea," article published in a Canadian journal, 1938 All of the following statements about Canada in the early twentieth century are factually accurate. Which would most likely help to explain why Yanaihara thought that his claims regarding Korea might be well received by a Canadian audience? a. Canada's economy grew during most of the early twentieth century under British rule, and Canadian troops willingly helped the British Empire defend its colonial territories in Asia and Africa. b. Canada had various unresolved territorial disputes with the United States regarding vital waterways such as the Saint Lawrence River. c. Unlike Japan, Canada had never sought to acquire overseas colonies. d. Canada had large French and Native American populations that fiercely defended their native cultures.

"Japan's colonial policy aims at extending into its colonies the principle of paternalistic protection followed in the home land. The protection of industry and education, which is a characteristic feature of Japanese administration at home, has largely been transplanted to the Korean peninsula. The results that have followed the industrialization of Korea, for both the native population and the Japanese administration, may be summarized as follows: 1. The development of industries has increased capital in the country and helped Korean society in a general advance toward a capitalistic stage of development. 2. As a result of industrialization, the Japanese administration's financial resources have been increased. 3. Korean mineral products are of kinds that are scarce in Japan proper and consequently there is little competition between Korean and Japanese mineral products. Administration by Japan, the inflow of Japanese capital, and the provision of public education have all tended toward a fundamental transformation of native Korean society. The Koreans are being rapidly modernized and even their inherent seclusive nature is undergoing a marked change. Under their former corrupt rulers, the people were reduced to abject poverty and misery and resigned themselves to fatalism, having been robbed of all incentives to earn and save money. Under Japanese government, however, the Korean people have begun to be active and industrious once again." Tadao Yanaihara, Japanese economist, "Problems of Japanese Administration in Korea," article published in a Canadian journal, 1938 Which of the following best explains a likely significant purpose behind Yanaihara publishing his article in a Canadian journal? a. Yanaihara wished to justify continued Japanese colonial rule of Korea to potentially hostile Western states. b. Yanaihara sought to pass on Japanese industrial expertise to underdeveloped countries. c. Yanaihara sought to open free trade with Canada in order to alleviate the effects of the Great Depression. d. Yanaihara wished to intimidate potential Western rivals by describing Japan's industrial power.

"Many of my fellow students here have personal collections of stereo recordings of the best rock bands. I know you are a fan of the Beatles, but I must say that they are not among the most popular because they are considered out of date. It is more common here to listen to Deep Purple, Led Zeppelin, Pink Floyd, Yes, Queen, Wings, King Crimson, Alice Cooper, Uriah Heep, etc. I underlined those that I like the most. The records with rock music that one can find on the black market here are quite expensive. For example, Uriah Heep's album Salisbury costs 70 rubles, and Paul McCartney's album Ram costs 50 rubles if they are new and still sealed in their original cellophane wrap. But if they have been opened they cost about half that. What are the prices like in Leningrad? We also have a quite well developed system of exchanging and sharing rock records here. Do you have one too? Now, about the blue jeans that I had asked you to get for me: if you manage to obtain them, how much would they cost? If the price is reasonable, I will send you a money order. OK? I gave you my sizes in the past, but in case you lost them—length is 5 or 6; waist 46 or 48." Alexandr A. university student in Novosibirsk, the Soviet Union, letter to his friend Nikolai P., student in Leningrad (now St. Petersburg), 1977 The letter above could best be used to illustrate which of the following aspects of the historical context of the late twentieth century? a. The globalization of consumer culture despite the rivalries of the Cold War b. The role of communist ideology in the development of anti-consumerist youth movements c. The declining quality of Soviet higher education and Soviet universities d. The repressive nature of the Soviet communist regime

"The Russian strategy can be seen at work on many fronts. In Austria the Russians claim 50% of all Austrian industry. In Paris they fight for an arrangement that will allow Yugoslavia to dominate Trieste. In Berlin they carry on a continued press campaign against the Western world but ban our newspapers from the sector if they contain the slightest criticism of Soviet policy. They control the University of Berlin because it is in their sector and impose rigid political tests upon the student body, but they also control the schools of all sectors through the domination of the Berlin Magistrate, established before our entrance. Thus far, it has been impossible to eliminate their Communist textbooks from the western sectors. They always appeal to the Potsdam accord* when it serves their ends and violate it when it suits their purposes. Their officers travel in our zone, marking factory equipment for dismantlement and shipment to Russia. But what they do in their zone is shrouded in mystery and there is some evidence that they are setting this equipment up, not in Russia but in Russian Germany. With millions of troops spread through the whole of Eastern Europe, they are now engaged in a press campaign against Western armies of occupation." *an agreement reached between the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Soviet Union regarding the administration and occupation of Germany following the Second World War Reinhold Niebuhr, United States theologian and political commentator, "The Fight for Germany," article published in Life magazine, 1946 Which of the following best explains Niebuhr's likely purpose in recounting Soviet actions in postwar Europe? a. By pointing out the hypocrisy of Soviet policies, he hoped to encourage a more confrontational stance on the part of the United States government. b. By recounting Soviet appropriation of German industrial equipment, he wished to demonstrate the backwardness of Soviet economic development. c. By describing the effectiveness of Soviet information and press policies, he hoped to encourage the United States government to imitate them. d. By emphasizing the geographic extent of Soviet occupation, he wished to show that Soviet troops were dangerously overextended.

Which of the following developments or processes in the late twentieth century best explains the participation of foreign troops in the Angolan Civil War, as shown in the two photographs? a. The proliferation of Cold War proxy conflicts b. The global campaign against apartheid in South Africa c. The emergence of ideologically driven movements advocating violence against civilians d. The creation of the Non-Aligned Movement

"China's achievements in health care across the twentieth century are remarkable. With an estimated average life expectancy of only thirty years in 1900, it is no wonder that China was denigrated as the 'sick man of Asia.' By the end of the century in 2000, however, China's life expectancy had more than doubled, to an estimated seventy-one years. A comparison with the United States highlights the nature of China's achievements. China was seventeen years behind America's life expectancy in 1900 (30 versus 47) and that gap actually widened to twenty-five years (44 versus 69) by mid-century. Yet by 2000, the gap had narrowed to only six years, with China's average life expectancy at 71 and the United States' life expectancy at 77. The weak progress in China in the first half of the century, 1900-1950, was undoubtedly related to the political chaos, foreign invasion, and civil war that characterized China's history in that period. On the other hand, the marked acceleration in health care improvements in the second half of the century, 1950-2000, was achieved due to political stability and strong government commitment to equitable health policies. While not dismissing the usefulness of traditional Chinese medicine, there is strong evidence that the application of modern medical science through hospitals and field-based health-systems operated by well-trained health professionals has a major impact on health outcomes. Social factors are also at work, perhaps the most important of these being the development of universal literacy and the increase in gender equality." Lincoln Chen and Ling Chen, historians, "China's Exceptional Health Transitions," scholarly article, 2014 The authors' discussion in the third paragraph of "the marked acceleration in health care improvements" in China after 1950 refers most directly to which of the following historical developments? a. The collapse of the Chinese Qing dynasty b. The communist victory in China's civil war c. The Japanese invasion of Chinese Manchuria d. The market reforms in China after Mao Zedong's death

"I argue that the current state of affairs is unsound and unsustainable. Financial markets are inherently unstable and there are social needs that cannot be met by giving market forces free rein. Unfortunately, these defects are not recognized. Instead, there is a widespread belief that markets are self-correcting. . . . It is claimed that the common interest is best served by allowing everyone to look out for his or her own interests and that attempts to protect the common interest by collective decision making distort the market mechanism. This idea was called laissez-faire in the nineteenth century. . . . I have found a better name for it: market fundamentalism. . . . To put the matter simply, market forces, if they are given complete authority even in the purely economic and financial arenas, produce chaos and could ultimately lead to the downfall of the global financial system. . . . Capitalism needs a counterweight because the capitalist system by itself shows no tendency toward equilibrium. The owners of capital seek to maximize their profits. Left to their own devices, they would continue to accumulate capital until the situation became unbalanced." George Soros, United States financial investment mogul and philanthropist, The Crisis of Global Capitalism, 1998 Which of the following would most likely be cited to explain a weakness in Soros' arguments in the passage about the power granted to free-market forces in the global economy? a. The reduction of trade barriers has steadily reduced the ability of many smaller firms to compete in the global economy. b. Market forces are constrained to a large extent by regulations imposed by governments, international economic institutions, and regional trade agreements. c. Unions have declined in influence in part because of opposition from those who claim that unions undermine business activity. d. Multinational corporations have often been successful in using their financial power to undermine government attempts to regulate their activity.

"I argue that the current state of affairs is unsound and unsustainable. Financial markets are inherently unstable and there are social needs that cannot be met by giving market forces free rein. Unfortunately, these defects are not recognized. Instead, there is a widespread belief that markets are self-correcting. . . . It is claimed that the common interest is best served by allowing everyone to look out for his or her own interests and that attempts to protect the common interest by collective decision making distort the market mechanism. This idea was called laissez-faire in the nineteenth century. . . . I have found a better name for it: market fundamentalism. . . . To put the matter simply, market forces, if they are given complete authority even in the purely economic and financial arenas, produce chaos and could ultimately lead to the downfall of the global financial system. . . . Capitalism needs a counterweight because the capitalist system by itself shows no tendency toward equilibrium. The owners of capital seek to maximize their profits. Left to their own devices, they would continue to accumulate capital until the situation became unbalanced." George Soros, United States financial investment mogul and philanthropist, The Crisis of Global Capitalism, 1998 Which of the following best explains how a supporter of free trade and market deregulation would counter Soros' critiques of free markets in the passage? a. Soros fails to acknowledge the fact that capitalist states continue to promote economic inequality between corporations and workers despite the adoption of social safety nets. b. Soros ignores the fact that the adoption of free-market policies by states around the world in the late twentieth century increased standards of living for many people. c. Soros ignores the fact that government deregulation of financial systems has led to the most serious economic crises in the twentieth century. d. Soros fails to recognize that governments across the world have been reluctant to reduce subsidies for many local industries.

PETITION "To the Honorable Members of the Government of the Province of Manitoba (Canada), and the Honorable Members of the Legislative Assembly of the said Province. WHEREAS the following resolution forms part of the platform of the Liberal Party: 'The Liberal Party believing that there are no just grounds for denying women the right to vote, will enact a measure providing for equal suffrage upon it being established by petition that it is desired by women numbering 15% of the votes cast in the Province in the preceding general election.' AND WHEREAS the Liberal Party is now the party in office in the said Province. NOW THEREFORE the petition of the undersigned humbly shows that: - We, the Petitioners, are women over the age of twenty-one years old and are resident in the Province of Manitoba. - We, the Petitioners, are desirous that a measure be enacted forthwith extending the franchise to women on equal terms with men, in accordance with the ideas of equality. - We, the Petitioners, number 39,584 women, which is in excess of the required number of 17,000 [to meet the 15% requirement in the Liberal Party's program]. THEREFORE, We, the Petitioners, pray that there shall be enacted by the Legislative Assembly during this Session a measure extending the franchise to women on equal terms with men." [39,584 signatures follow] Petition presented by the Political Equality League, a women's rights organization, to the Legislative Assembly of the Province of Manitoba, Canada, 23 December, 1915 The political activism embodied in the petition is best seen in the context of which of the following broader twentieth-century developments? a. Groups and individuals using radical ideologies to call for resource redistribution b. Groups and individuals using universal principles to challenge established social norms c. Groups and individuals leveraging their technical knowledge to secure political and legal rights d. Groups and individuals resisting the political violence of the period by adopting the principles of nonviolence

"China's achievements in health care across the twentieth century are remarkable. With an estimated average life expectancy of only thirty years in 1900, it is no wonder that China was denigrated as the 'sick man of Asia.' By the end of the century in 2000, however, China's life expectancy had more than doubled, to an estimated seventy-one years. A comparison with the United States highlights the nature of China's achievements. China was seventeen years behind America's life expectancy in 1900 (30 versus 47) and that gap actually widened to twenty-five years (44 versus 69) by mid-century. Yet by 2000, the gap had narrowed to only six years, with China's average life expectancy at 71 and the United States' life expectancy at 77. The weak progress in China in the first half of the century, 1900-1950, was undoubtedly related to the political chaos, foreign invasion, and civil war that characterized China's history in that period. On the other hand, the marked acceleration in health care improvements in the second half of the century, 1950-2000, was achieved due to political stability and strong government commitment to equitable health policies. While not dismissing the usefulness of traditional Chinese medicine, there is strong evidence that the application of modern medical science through hospitals and field-based health-systems operated by well-trained health professionals has a major impact on health outcomes. Social factors are also at work, perhaps the most important of these being the development of universal literacy and the increase in gender equality." Lincoln Chen and Ling Chen, historians, "China's Exceptional Health Transitions," scholarly article, 2014 The changes in life expectancy in China described in the second paragraph are most likely attributable to which of the following? a. By the mid-twentieth century China had not yet been affected by lifestyle diseases associated with modernity, while by the end of the twentieth century it was suffering from high rates of those diseases. b. By the mid-twentieth century China had become an industrialized economy, while by the end of the twentieth century it had become a postindustrial, services-dominated economy. c. By the mid-twentieth century China was still plagued by infectious diseases associated with poverty, while by the end of the twentieth century it had overcome those diseases. d. By the mid-twentieth century China had become a communist country, while by the end of the twentieth century it had become a capitalist country.

PETITION "To the Honorable Members of the Government of the Province of Manitoba (Canada), and the Honorable Members of the Legislative Assembly of the said Province. WHEREAS the following resolution forms part of the platform of the Liberal Party: 'The Liberal Party believing that there are no just grounds for denying women the right to vote, will enact a measure providing for equal suffrage upon it being established by petition that it is desired by women numbering 15% of the votes cast in the Province in the preceding general election.' AND WHEREAS the Liberal Party is now the party in office in the said Province. NOW THEREFORE the petition of the undersigned humbly shows that: - We, the Petitioners, are women over the age of twenty-one years old and are resident in the Province of Manitoba. - We, the Petitioners, are desirous that a measure be enacted forthwith extending the franchise to women on equal terms with men, in accordance with the ideas of equality. - We, the Petitioners, number 39,584 women, which is in excess of the required number of 17,000 [to meet the 15% requirement in the Liberal Party's program]. THEREFORE, We, the Petitioners, pray that there shall be enacted by the Legislative Assembly during this Session a measure extending the franchise to women on equal terms with men." [39,584 signatures follow] Petition presented by the Political Equality League, a women's rights organization, to the Legislative Assembly of the Province of Manitoba, Canada, 23 December, 1915 Which of the following aspects of the international context in which the petition was produced most likely strengthened the petitioners' demands? a. The adoption of woman suffrage by most industrialized Western countries in the decades preceding 1915 b. The growing share of women in positions of economic and political leadership as a result of the spread of universal compulsory education c. Women's critical contributions to the home front effort during The First World War d. The greater role women had over their reproductive rights, as a result of the spread of more effective forms of birth control

"China's achievements in health care across the twentieth century are remarkable. With an estimated average life expectancy of only thirty years in 1900, it is no wonder that China was denigrated as the 'sick man of Asia.' By the end of the century in 2000, however, China's life expectancy had more than doubled, to an estimated seventy-one years. A comparison with the United States highlights the nature of China's achievements. China was seventeen years behind America's life expectancy in 1900 (30 versus 47) and that gap actually widened to twenty-five years (44 versus 69) by mid-century. Yet by 2000, the gap had narrowed to only six years, with China's average life expectancy at 71 and the United States' life expectancy at 77. The weak progress in China in the first half of the century, 1900-1950, was undoubtedly related to the political chaos, foreign invasion, and civil war that characterized China's history in that period. On the other hand, the marked acceleration in health care improvements in the second half of the century, 1950-2000, was achieved due to political stability and strong government commitment to equitable health policies. While not dismissing the usefulness of traditional Chinese medicine, there is strong evidence that the application of modern medical science through hospitals and field-based health-systems operated by well-trained health professionals has a major impact on health outcomes. Social factors are also at work, perhaps the most important of these being the development of universal literacy and the increase in gender equality." Lincoln Chen and Ling Chen, historians, "China's Exceptional Health Transitions," scholarly article, 2014 The authors' argument in the third paragraph concerning the effect of "social factors" on the effectiveness of a country's healthcare system likely refers to all of the following general trends in the twentieth century EXCEPT a. the high likelihood that rising educational levels would lead to the adoption of healthier lifestyles b. the high likelihood that a literate population would follow medical advice regarding vaccinations and child healthcare c. the high likelihood that improvements in gender equality would lead to adoption of modern family-planning techniques d. the high likelihood that increasing longevity would lead to an increase in overall healthcare costs

"Compatriots throughout the country! We have made concessions for peace during our negotiations with the French to end the war.* But the more concessions we made, the more the French colonialists were determined to maintain their control over Vietnam despite their promises. No! We would rather sacrifice everything than lose our country and return to slavery. Compatriots! Rise up! Men and women, old and young, regardless of religion, political parties, or nationalities, all the Vietnamese must stand up to fight the French colonialists to save the Fatherland. Those who have rifles must use their rifles. Those who have swords must use their swords. Those who have no swords must use their spades, hoes, and sticks. Everyone must endeavor to oppose the colonialists and save their country. Soldiers, self-defense guards, militiamen! The hour of national liberation has struck! We must sacrifice to our last drop of blood to save our country. We must be ready to endure any hardship. With the determination to sacrifice, victory will be ours! Long live an independent and unified Vietnam! Long live the victorious resistance!" *In 1945 Ho Chi Minh proclaimed an independent republic of Vietnam and war with France broke out in 1946. Ho Chi Minh, Vietnamese political leader, appeal to the Vietnamese population, 1946 As portrayed by Ho Chi Minh in the passage, the Vietnamese independence movement appears most similar to which of the following types of nineteenth-century and early-twentieth-century movements? a. Suffrage movements b. Revolutionary socialist movements c. Anarchist movements d. Nationalist movements

"Compatriots throughout the country! We have made concessions for peace during our negotiations with the French to end the war.* But the more concessions we made, the more the French colonialists were determined to maintain their control over Vietnam despite their promises. No! We would rather sacrifice everything than lose our country and return to slavery. Compatriots! Rise up! Men and women, old and young, regardless of religion, political parties, or nationalities, all the Vietnamese must stand up to fight the French colonialists to save the Fatherland. Those who have rifles must use their rifles. Those who have swords must use their swords. Those who have no swords must use their spades, hoes, and sticks. Everyone must endeavor to oppose the colonialists and save their country. Soldiers, self-defense guards, militiamen! The hour of national liberation has struck! We must sacrifice to our last drop of blood to save our country. We must be ready to endure any hardship. With the determination to sacrifice, victory will be ours! Long live an independent and unified Vietnam! Long live the victorious resistance!" *In 1945 Ho Chi Minh proclaimed an independent republic of Vietnam and war with France broke out in 1946. Ho Chi Minh, Vietnamese political leader, appeal to the Vietnamese population, 1946 Compared to the position of anticolonial movements earlier in the twentieth century, the prospects for movements such as Ho Chi Minh's in the mid-twentieth century could most accurately be described as a. weaker because of improvements in military technology achieved by imperial powers b. weaker because of the growth of Cold War tensions between communist and noncommunist countries c. stronger because of the shift of industry to overseas colonial territories d. stronger because the Second World War weakened imperialist powers

"The German people once built up a colonial empire without robbing anyone and without violating any treaty. That colonial empire was taken away from us unreasonably. First, it was said that the natives in those colonies did not want to belong to Germany. But, who asked them if they wished to belong to some other power and when were these natives ever asked if they had been content with the power that formerly ruled them? Second, it is stated that the colonies were not administered properly by the Germans, but Germany had these colonies only for a few decades and they were in a process of development. Third, it is said that the colonies are of no real value. But, if that is the case, then they can be of no value to any other state. Moreover, Germany has never demanded colonies for military purposes, but exclusively for economic purposes. It is obvious that in times of general prosperity the value of certain territories may decrease, but it is just as evident that in times of distress such value increases. Today, Germany lives in a time of difficult struggle for foodstuffs and raw materials. Sufficient imports are conceivable only if there is a continued and lasting increase in our exports. Therefore, as a matter of course, our demand for colonies for our densely populated country will be put forward again and again." Adolf Hitler, German chancellor, speech delivered in the German parliament, 1937 Based on the historical situation in which the speech was given, Hitler's most significant motivation for giving the speech was likely to continue to a. eliminate potential opposition to Nazi rule by labeling political opponents as traitors to the German nation b. make his case to the German people that Jews and other minority populations were a threat to Germany c. overstate the extent to which Nazi economic policies had helped Germany overcome the unjust actions of its Western European rivals and prosper again d. reinforce the idea to the German people that past injustices required Germany to continue its military buildup and engage in future territorial expansion

"The German people once built up a colonial empire without robbing anyone and without violating any treaty. That colonial empire was taken away from us unreasonably. First, it was said that the natives in those colonies did not want to belong to Germany. But, who asked them if they wished to belong to some other power and when were these natives ever asked if they had been content with the power that formerly ruled them? Second, it is stated that the colonies were not administered properly by the Germans, but Germany had these colonies only for a few decades and they were in a process of development. Third, it is said that the colonies are of no real value. But, if that is the case, then they can be of no value to any other state. Moreover, Germany has never demanded colonies for military purposes, but exclusively for economic purposes. It is obvious that in times of general prosperity the value of certain territories may decrease, but it is just as evident that in times of distress such value increases. Today, Germany lives in a time of difficult struggle for foodstuffs and raw materials. Sufficient imports are conceivable only if there is a continued and lasting increase in our exports. Therefore, as a matter of course, our demand for colonies for our densely populated country will be put forward again and again." Adolf Hitler, German chancellor, speech delivered in the German parliament, 1937 In the context of the late 1930s, the arguments that Hitler makes in the last paragraph are most significant in explaining how a. the protectionist policies of Western European states contributed to economic collapse in fascist states b. the Great Depression gave fascist states an excuse to take over all aspects of economic production c. fascist regimes in Europe used settler colonies to provide soldiers for their armies d. imperialist aspirations contributed to motivating the policies of fascist states

"The German people once built up a colonial empire without robbing anyone and without violating any treaty. That colonial empire was taken away from us unreasonably. First, it was said that the natives in those colonies did not want to belong to Germany. But, who asked them if they wished to belong to some other power and when were these natives ever asked if they had been content with the power that formerly ruled them? Second, it is stated that the colonies were not administered properly by the Germans, but Germany had these colonies only for a few decades and they were in a process of development. Third, it is said that the colonies are of no real value. But, if that is the case, then they can be of no value to any other state. Moreover, Germany has never demanded colonies for military purposes, but exclusively for economic purposes. It is obvious that in times of general prosperity the value of certain territories may decrease, but it is just as evident that in times of distress such value increases. Today, Germany lives in a time of difficult struggle for foodstuffs and raw materials. Sufficient imports are conceivable only if there is a continued and lasting increase in our exports. Therefore, as a matter of course, our demand for colonies for our densely populated country will be put forward again and again." Adolf Hitler, German chancellor, speech delivered in the German parliament, 1937 The point of view that Hitler expresses in the first three paragraphs is most directly significant in helping to explain how which of the following contributed to starting the Second World War? a. Ideological rivalry between fascist and communist states b. Nationalist movements in European colonies opposing imperialism c. The use of mass media such as radio to spread propaganda d. The provisions of the Treaty of Versailles that ended the First World War

"The Russian strategy can be seen at work on many fronts. In Austria the Russians claim 50% of all Austrian industry. In Paris they fight for an arrangement that will allow Yugoslavia to dominate Trieste. In Berlin they carry on a continued press campaign against the Western world but ban our newspapers from the sector if they contain the slightest criticism of Soviet policy. They control the University of Berlin because it is in their sector and impose rigid political tests upon the student body, but they also control the schools of all sectors through the domination of the Berlin Magistrate, established before our entrance. Thus far, it has been impossible to eliminate their Communist textbooks from the western sectors. They always appeal to the Potsdam accord* when it serves their ends and violate it when it suits their purposes. Their officers travel in our zone, marking factory equipment for dismantlement and shipment to Russia. But what they do in their zone is shrouded in mystery and there is some evidence that they are setting this equipment up, not in Russia but in Russian Germany. With millions of troops spread through the whole of Eastern Europe, they are now engaged in a press campaign against Western armies of occupation." *an agreement reached between the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Soviet Union regarding the administration and occupation of Germany following the Second World War Reinhold Niebuhr, United States theologian and political commentator, "The Fight for Germany," article published in Life magazine, 1946 Which of the following most likely explains why Niebuhr chose to publish his article in a popular publication like Life magazine? a. Magazines with opinions that were hostile to the Soviet Union could be more easily smuggled into Eastern Europe than books. b. The fact that the magazine was not controlled by the United States government would help convince people in Eastern Europe that the opinions expressed were sincere. c. While the political elite of the United States was already in agreement with Niebuhr's position, the general public was generally opposed to it. d. To change government policies in a democratic country like the United States, it was first necessary to change public opinion.

"Throughout the period of Nigeria's short and precarious existence as a single political entity, we Eastern Nigerians have always believed in fundamental human rights as they are accepted and enjoyed in civilized countries. Impelled by our belief in these rights and our sense of common citizenship with other Nigerians, we contributed our ideas and skills, our resourcefulness and dynamism, in the development of areas of Nigeria outside the East. We set up businesses and industries throughout the country, overlooked the neglect of our homeland in the division of national institutions, development projects, and financial resources, made our region's abundant natural resources available to the rest of the country, and confidently invested in the general economic and social development of Nigeria. . . . We used to oppose those who told us that what our former colonial masters made into 'Nigeria' was merely an agglomeration of different peoples, distinct in every way except in the color of their skin, and organized in as a unit solely for the commercial interests and administrative convenience of the colonists. . . . But we have come to realize that national unity is no longer possible. The Nigerian constitution that was adopted after independence in 1960 installed the North in perpetual dominance over Nigeria. Thus were sown, by design or by default, the seeds of factionalism and hate, of struggle for power, and the worst type of political deception. National independence was followed by successive crises, each leading to the near disintegration of the country. Last year alone, tens of thousands of Eastern and Southern Nigerians were killed in pogroms by Northerners in all parts of the country, including the capital, Lagos. We are now facing a situation in which there are only two possible outcomes: either perpetual domination of the rest of the country by the North, not by consent but by force and fraud, or a dissolution of the [Nigerian] federation bond." Lieutenant Colonel C. Odumegwu Ojukwu, Nigerian army officer, proclamation of the breakaway Republic of Biafra [Eastern Nigeria], 19 Which of the following best explains Lt. Colonel Ojukwu's purpose in including the information in the first paragraph in his independence proclamation? a. He wanted to emphasize the continued economic exploitation of Nigeria by Western global capitalism. b. He wanted to convince Nigeria's elected government to compensate Eastern Nigerians for the economic sacrifices they had made in building the country. c. He wanted to advocate for a pan-African solution to the continent's pressing economic and social problems. d. He wanted to outline a list of East Nigerian grievances in order to justify the political action he was about to take.

Which of the following describes a major cause of the expansion of the Ottoman Empire in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries? a. The decentralized federalism of the Ottoman Empire encouraged competition and technological innovation. b. Exploitation of artillery and small arms gave the Ottomans advantages over many of their political rivals. c. Ottoman citizens unified by their recent conversion to Islam were strongly motivated to conquer. d. The Ottoman Empire successfully pursued mercantilist economic policies.

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