AP World Test 1
Absolutism/Absolute Monarchy:
Absolutism, or absolute monarchy, is a form of government in which a single ruler, typically a king or queen, wields unchecked and centralized authority. This means that the monarch's decisions are not limited by a constitution, laws, or any representative bodies like a parliament. Absolutist rulers often claimed divine right to justify their authority and held significant power over their subjects.
Margaret Cavendish:
An English natural philosopher and one of the first women to publish extensively on scientific topics in the 17th century. Wrote early science fiction novels. Educated scientist and astronomer; excluded from English Royal Society, regardless of her many accomplishments; wrote several books contrasting her knowledge with the knowledge of other scientists
Anton Van Leeuwenhoek:
Antonie van Leeuwenhoek was a Dutch scientist known for his pioneering work in microscopy. He was the first to observe and describe microorganisms, including bacteria and protozoa.
Baron de Montesquieu:
Baron de Montesquieu, a French philosopher, is renowned for his work "The Spirit of the Laws" (1748). He proposed the separation of powers in government, advocating for a system where legislative, executive, and judicial branches have distinct roles to prevent tyranny.
Cardinal Richelieu:
Cardinal Richelieu, Armand Jean du Plessis, served as chief minister to King Louis XIII of France from 1624 until his death in 1642. He is credited with strengthening the authority of the French monarchy by diminishing the power of the nobility (nobles and the Huguenots), centralizing government administration, and laying the groundwork for the absolutist state that Louis XIV would later develop.
Catherine the Great:
Catherine the Great, Catherine II, was the Empress of Russia from 1762 to 1796. She is known for her efforts to modernize Russia, expand its territory, and promote culture and the arts.
Charles I:
Charles I of England, Scotland, and Ireland ruled from 1625 to 1649. His reign was marked by conflicts with Parliament, leading to the English Civil War (1642-1651) and his eventual execution.
Elizabeth I:
Elizabeth I, Queen of England (reigned 1558-1603), presided over a period known as the Elizabethan Era. Her reign was marked by political stability, exploration (such as the voyages of Sir Walter Raleigh), and a flourishing of literature and the arts.
Enlightened Despots:
Enlightened despots were absolute monarchs in the 18th century who embraced Enlightenment ideas and implemented reforms. They sought to strengthen their rule and improve the lives of their subjects by promoting education, religious tolerance, and legal reforms.
Francis Bacon:
Francis Bacon was an English philosopher and statesman who advocated for the scientific method. He believed that scientific knowledge should be acquired through empirical observation and experimentation.
Frederick the Great:
Frederick II, or Frederick the Great, was the King of Prussia from 1740 to 1786. He is considered one of the Enlightenment's "enlightened despots" for his support of religious tolerance, legal reforms, and the promotion of the arts and sciences.
Gabriel Fahrenheit:
Gabriel Fahrenheit, a Polish-German physicist, is best known for inventing the mercury-in-glass thermometer and introducing the Fahrenheit temperature scale.
Galileo Galilei:
Galileo Galilei was an Italian scientist known for his astronomical observations using telescopes. He confirmed the heliocentric model, studied the moons of Jupiter, and conducted experiments on motion and gravity.
James I:
James I of England (1603-1625) and James VI of Scotland (1567-1625) was the first monarch to rule both England and Scotland after the union of the crowns. His reign was marked by religious tensions and the publication of the King James Version of the Bible.
James II:
James II of England and Ireland (1685-1688) and James VII of Scotland (1685-1688) was the last Roman Catholic monarch to rule England, Scotland, and Ireland. His attempts to promote Catholicism and his disregard for Parliament led to the Glorious Revolution.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau:
Jean-Jacques Rousseau, a French philosopher, is famous for his works "The Social Contract" (1762) and "Emile" (1762). He proposed the concept of the general will, the idea that political decisions should reflect the collective will of the people.
Johannes Kepler:
Johannes Kepler was a German mathematician and astronomer. He formulated Kepler's laws of planetary motion, which described the elliptical orbits of planets and laid the foundation for modern astronomy.
John Locke:
John Locke, an English philosopher, is known for his work "Two Treatises of Government" (1690). He argued that individuals have natural rights and that governments exist to protect these rights. He also promoted the idea that people have the right to revolt against tyrannical governments.
Kangxi:
Kangxi, the fourth Emperor of the Qing Dynasty in China (reigned 1661-1722), presided over a period of stability and expansion. He was known for his patronage of Confucianism, his suppression of the Revolt of the Three Feudatories, and his efforts to unify and strengthen China.
Henry VIII:
King Henry VIII of England (reigned 1509-1547) is known for his role in the English Reformation. He separated the Church of England from the Roman Catholic Church, primarily to annul his marriage to Catherine of Aragon.
Louis XIV:
Louis XIV, also known as the Sun King, reigned as the King of France from 1643 to 1715. His reign is a quintessential example of absolutism. He centralized power, expanded the bureaucracy, and built the Palace of Versailles as a symbol of his authority. Louis XIV famously declared, "L'État, c'est moi" (I am the state), exemplifying the idea of absolute monarchy.
Madame Marie-Therese Rodet Geoffrin:
Madame Geoffrin was a prominent French salonnière in the 18th century. Her Paris salon was a gathering place for Enlightenment thinkers, including philosophers, scientists, and writers.
Maria Sibylla Merian:
Maria Sibylla Merian was a German naturalist and scientific illustrator. She is noted for her meticulous illustrations of insects and her pioneering studies of metamorphosis.
Maria Winkelmann:
Maria Winkelmann was a German astronomer and one of the first women to discover a comet. She made significant contributions to astronomy and was a trailblazer for women in science.
Mary Wollstonecraft:
Mary Wollstonecraft was an English writer and advocate for women's rights. Her work "A Vindication of the Rights of Woman" (1792) argued for women's education and equal rights.
Natural rights:
Natural rights are fundamental rights that individuals possess by virtue of being human. They include the right to life, liberty, property, and the pursuit of happiness, and they are often cited in discussions of political and moral philosophy. Originated from Enlightenment.
Nicolas Copernicus:
Nicolaus Copernicus was a Renaissance mathematician and astronomer. He proposed the heliocentric theory, arguing that the Earth and other planets orbit the sun, challenging the geocentric model.
Oliver Cromwell:
Oliver Cromwell was a military and political leader during the English Civil War. He later became Lord Protector of the Commonwealth of England, Scotland, and Ireland. Cromwell's rule was characterized by strict Puritanism and authoritarian governance.
Olympe de Gouges:
Olympe de Gouges was a French playwright and political activist best known for her "Declaration of the Rights of Woman and of the Female Citizen" (1791). She advocated for women's rights and gender equality.
Parliament:
Parliament is the legislative body in the United Kingdom, consisting of the House of Commons and the House of Lords. It is responsible for making and passing laws, scrutinizing the government, and representing the interests of the public.
Peter the Great:
Peter the Great (ruled 1682-1725) was a Russian tsar known for his ambitious efforts to modernize and westernize Russia. He implemented reforms in areas such as the military, government, and culture. He also expanded Russian territories, including gaining a presence on the Baltic Sea.
Phillip II:
Phillip II of Spain (reigned 1556-1598) was a fervent Catholic monarch who sought to expand Catholicism in Europe. He was involved in numerous conflicts, including the Spanish Armada's failed invasion of England in 1588. His reign also coincided with Spain's Golden Age of art and literature.
Protestantism:
Protestantism is a branch of Christianity that emerged during the Reformation in the 16th century. It encompasses various Christian denominations and groups that rejected the authority of the Roman Catholic Church and emphasized individual interpretation of the Bible.
Rene Descartes:
René Descartes was a French philosopher, mathematician, and scientist. He is known for his Cartesian dualism, the separation of mind and body, and his influential works on geometry and philosophy.
Serfdom:
Serfdom was a system of forced labor in which serfs, or peasants, were legally bound to the land and subject to the authority of landowners, typically nobles. Serfs had limited rights and could not freely move or change their social status.
Isaac Newton:
Sir Isaac Newton, an English physicist and mathematician, is famous for his laws of motion and the law of universal gravitation. He also developed calculus and made groundbreaking contributions to optics.
English Bill of Rights:
The English Bill of Rights, enacted in 1689, laid down the principles of constitutional monarchy. It limited the power of the monarchy and asserted the rights and liberties of English subjects.
Enlightenment:
The Enlightenment was an intellectual and philosophical movement of the 18th century that emphasized reason, individualism, and the rights of individuals. It challenged traditional authority and promoted ideas related to science, government, and human rights.
Glorious Revolution:
The Glorious Revolution, in 1688, was the peaceful overthrow of James II and the accession of William and Mary to the English throne. It established constitutional monarchy and parliamentary supremacy in England.
Peace of Westphalia:
The Peace of Westphalia, comprising two treaties (in Münster and Osnabrück), concluded the Thirty Years' War in 1648. It is a pivotal event in European history, as it marked the shift from religious conflicts to the recognition of state sovereignty. The treaties also formalized the principle of the modern nation-state system.
Petition of Right:
The Petition of Right, passed in 1628, was an important constitutional document in England. It limited the king's power by asserting that the monarch could not levy taxes without Parliament's consent, imprison people without due process, or quarter troops in private homes.
Qing Dynasty:
The Qing Dynasty (1644-1912) was the last imperial dynasty of China. It was established by the Manchu people and marked a period of significant Chinese territorial expansion and cultural flourishing.
Romanov dynasty:
The Romanovs were a Russian royal dynasty that ruled from 1613 to 1917. The family produced some of Russia's most notable rulers, including Peter the Great and Catherine the Great. The dynasty ended with the Russian Revolution of 1917.
Scientific Revolution:
The Scientific Revolution was a period of profound scientific and intellectual transformation that occurred in the 16th and 17th centuries. It introduced new methods of inquiry and led to groundbreaking discoveries in fields such as astronomy, physics, and biology.
Thirty Years' War:
The Thirty Years' War (1618-1648) was one of the most destructive and prolonged conflicts in European history. It began as a religious war between Catholic and Protestant states within the Holy Roman Empire but escalated into a broader war involving many European powers. The Peace of Westphalia, which ended the war, redefined European politics and recognized the independence of various states.
Tudor Monarchy:
The Tudor dynasty, which ruled England from 1485 to 1603, included monarchs such as Henry VIII and Elizabeth I. The period was marked by significant political and religious changes, including the English Reformation and the establishment of the Church of England.
Boyars:
The boyars were the highest-ranking nobility in Russia during the tsarist period. They held significant power and were members of the council that advised the tsar. The boyars often influenced political decisions.
Divine right of Kings:
The divine right of kings is a political and religious doctrine that claimed monarchs derived their authority to rule directly from God. This belief justified absolute monarchy and argued against challenges to the monarch's authority.
Geocentric theory:
The geocentric theory was the ancient belief that the Earth was the center of the universe, with celestial objects, including the sun, planets, and stars, revolving around it. This theory was challenged during the Scientific Revolution.
Heliocentric theory:
The heliocentric theory, proposed by Copernicus and later confirmed by Galileo and Kepler, asserts that the sun is at the center of the solar system, with planets, including Earth, orbiting around it.
Scientific Method:
The scientific method is a systematic approach to scientific inquiry. It involves making observations, forming hypotheses, conducting experiments, and analyzing data to reach conclusions and develop scientific knowledge.
Social contract:
The social contract is a political theory concept, often associated with Rousseau, which posits that individuals in society agree to abide by certain rules and norms in exchange for protection and the benefits of communal living. It is a foundational concept in political philosophy.
Thomas Hobbes:
Thomas Hobbes was an English philosopher who authored "Leviathan" (1651). He argued for the social contract and believed that people entered into political societies to escape the "state of nature," which he saw as chaotic and dangerous. He advocated for strong, centralized government to maintain order.
Tycho Brahe:
Tycho Brahe, a Danish astronomer, made precise observations of celestial bodies without the aid of telescopes. His data contributed to the understanding of planetary motion, and his observations were later used by Johannes Kepler.
Voltaire:
Voltaire, the pen name of François-Marie Arouet, was a French Enlightenment writer and philosopher. He championed freedom of speech, religious tolerance, and critiqued oppressive governments. He is known for his wit and satirical works.
William and Mary:
William III and Mary II were the co-monarchs who came to the English throne following the Glorious Revolution. They accepted the English Bill of Rights and ushered in a constitutional monarchy.
Yemelian Pugachev:
Yemelian Pugachev was a Cossack leader who led a significant peasant rebellion in Russia known as Pugachev's Rebellion (1773-1775). The rebellion was a response to social and economic grievances and sought to challenge the authority of Catherine the Great.
