APES: Air Pollution and Climate Change

Polar vortex

A cyclonic circulation in the troposphere centered in the polar regions. It occurs chiefly in the winter.

Buffer

A chemical that keeps the pH of a solution relatively constant; calcium carbonate, or limestone, is a good example.

Montreal Protocol

1987 international agreement that limited the consumption and manufacture of CFCs, cutting their release into the atmosphere by 35%.

Copenhagen Protocol

1992 international agreement that accelerated the phasing out of ODCs.

Greenhouse effect

A natural environmental process in which molecules called greenhouse gases absorb some of the infrared radiation (heat) radiated by the surface of the earth. This process warms the lower troposphere and the surface of the earth.

Area source

A source of air pollution that does not have a specific origin, such as a forest fire.

Stationary source

A source of pollution, such as a power plant, that cannot move.

Mobile source

A source of pollution, such as a vehicle, locomotive, or airplane, that can be transported between locations.

Point source

A specific source of pollution that can be identified, such as a smokestack.

Dry deposition

Acidic particles of dust or gases.

Wet deposition

Acidic rain/snow/fog/cloud vapor with a pH of less than 5.6.

Sulfur is released from burning oil and coal, then combines with oxygen to form sulfur dioxide then sulfur trioxide. The sulfur trioxide combines with water vapor to form sulfuric acid, which then combines with ammonia to create ammonium sulfate. Meanwhile, carbon is released by burning coal and oil, and forms carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide with oxygen.

Describe the formation of industrial smog.

National Ambient Air Quality Standards—established by the EPA under the Clean Air Act; 6 outdoor criteria pollutants

What are NAAQS?

Primary pollutant

An air pollutant emitted directly from a source.

Secondary pollutant

An air pollutant that is formed by a reaction between primary pollutants in the atmosphere.

Global climate change

Any change, whether for the warmer or cooler or having to do with weather, in the statistical distribution of weather patterns that lasts for an extended period of time.

ALL FACILITATED BY THE SUN! Nitric oxide combines with oxygen in the air to form nitrogen dioxide. The nitrogen dioxide combines with water to form nitric acid and PANs (peroxyacetyl nitrates). Meanwhile, hydrocarbons and carbon dioxide combine to form more HCs, such as formaldehyde and other aldehydes, and oxygen gas forms ozone. Nitric acid, PANs, aldehydes, and ozone make up photochemical smog.

Describe the formation of photochemical smog.

Using emission control devices, conducting biannual exhaust inspections, enforcing stricter emission standards

List three cleanup strategies to reduce emissions from MOBILE sources of air pollution.

Atmosphere warms; high-albedo ice melts and is replaced with low-albedo water/land; earth's surface absorbs more heat; more ice melts

Describe the positive feedback loop in albedo that occurs due to global warming.

The long-term storage of carbon—trees do it naturally as they grow, but carbon can also be stored in soil, at the bottom of the ocean, and deep underground.

Describe carbon sequestration and some methods.

A policy allowed by the Clean Air Act of 1990 to help reduce sulfur dioxide emissions. It enables several of the most polluting power plants in the US to buy and sell SO2 pollution rights (each year, each of the power plants gets a certain amount of "pollution credits," allowing it to emit a certain amount of SO2).

Describe emissions trading policy.

Delegates from 161 nations met in Japan—the resulting treaty would require 38 developed countries to cut GHG emissions by about 5.2%, but would not require GHG limitations on developing countries. It would also allow emissions trading policy among participating countries.

Describe the Kyoto Treaty.

An agreement between 137 nations that provides flexible guidelines, different for each country, for GHG reduction. It focuses on the power of nature and plants to reduce GHGs.

Describe the Paris Agreement.

Another way to say "emissions trading policy"—the most polluting power plants in the US are given pollution credits that limit their emissions; if they come out under their pollution limits, they can sell their credits

Describe the cap and trade system.

Extinction of some plant/animal species; loss of habitats; disruption of aquatic life

Describe the effects of global warming on biodiversity.

Increased human deaths; increased migration; more environmental refugees

Describe the effects of global warming on environmental refugees.

Shifts in food-growing areas; changes in crop yields; increased irrigation demands; increased pests/diseases/weeds in warmer areas

Describe the effects of global warming on food production.

Changes in forest composition/locations; disappearance of forests; increased forest fires; loss of habitats

Describe the effects of global warming on forests.

Increased deaths from heat/diseases; disruption of food/water supplies; spread of tropical diseases; increased respiratory disease; increased water pollution from coastal flooding

Describe the effects of global warming on human health.

Rising sea levels; flooding of low-lying islands/coastal areas/estuaries/wetlands/coral reefs; beach erosion; disruption of coastal fisheries; contamination of aquifers with salt water

Describe the effects of global warming on sea levels.

Increased droughts and flooding, decreased water quality; changes in water supply

Describe the effects of global warming on water supplies.

Prolonged heat waves and droughts; increased flooding; more intense hurricanes/typhoons/tornadoes/storms

Describe the effects of global warming on weather extremes.

Primary pollutants, such nitrogen oxides and sulfur dioxide, are emitted by coal-burning industrial plants. Above the inversion layer, they travel as far as 600 miles, pushed by prevailing winds. On the way, they create secondary pollutants like nitric acid vapor and sulfuric acid. These acidic substances descend to the earth via a mixture of wet and dry deposition termed acid rain.

Describe the formation of acid rain.

Carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, CFCs, hydrochlorofluorocarbons, hydrofluorocarbons, halons, carbon tertachloride

List the manmade greenhouse gases.

The polar vortex forms ice crystals, which accumulate CFCs and other ODCs and catalyze reactions that form Cl2O2. When sunlight returns to the Antarctic in the spring, it breaks up the Cl2O2, releasing large amounts of Cl atoms. The released chlorine pulls apart ozone, releasing O2 and ClO. A free oxygen atom pulls the O from ClO, forming Cl and O2 and allowing the Cl to break up more ozone.

Describe the process of ozone formation.

A situation in which a layer of warm air lies atop a a layer of cooler air close to the ground. Because the cooler air is denser, the pollutants near the ground do not rise and disperse, and instead concentrate in the stagnant air near the ground.

Describe the process of thermal inversion.

The greenhouse effect creates the increased rate of global warming. Molecules of greenhouse gases warm the lower atmosphere by absorbing some of the heat reflected by the earth's surface and sending it back towards the earth. It is accelerated by human activities releasing greater quantities of GHGs.

Describe the process that creates the increased rate of global warming.

Fuel tanks, chemical tanks, and nuclear waste facilities

Describe the typical emission points within/from a storage tank.

Tailpipe, engine produces waste heat and pollutants, tires wear against road

Describe the typical emission points within/from an automobile.

Through exhaust stacks and heat exchangers; pollutants released in building can leak; can be directly released into air from a mining/processing plant

Describe the typical emission points within/from an industrial manufacturing plant.

Combines with oxygen to form sulfur dioxide, that combines with oxygen to form sulfur trioxide, which combines with water vapor to form sulfuric acid, which combines with ammonia to form ammonium sulfate.

Describe what happens to sulfur in the formation of industrial smog.

The Greenland ice sheet is beginning to melt, which is expected to raise sea levels dramatically

Give an example of the evidence in Greenland that indicates a warming of the troposphere.

Surface temperatures near the Arctic circle have risen more than global average; polar ice has been observed to melt, lowering the albedo of the poles; huge pieces of the Antarctic ice shelf have begun to break off and melt

Give examples of the evidence at the poles that indicates a warming of the troposphere.

Very high carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere; 20th century was the hottest in the past 1,000 years; since 1861, global average temperature has risen by .7-1.5 degrees Fahrenheit; melting of ice caps has been observed; average global sea level rise of 10-20 cm over the past 100 years; northward migration of species; earlier springs/later autumns

Give some examples of the evidence for tropospheric warming.

Calcium carbonate (lime) reacts with the acids in acid rain to form the relatively weak acid bicarbonate, which partially neutralizes the acidity.

How does lime work as a buffer?

Decreases atmospheric visibility, directly damages tree leaves and needles, leaches plant nutrients from the soil, weakens plants and makes them more susceptible to disease

Identify at least two threats that acid rain poses to the environment.

Contributes to respiratory diseases, may leach toxic metals like lead and copper from pipes into drinking water

Identify two threats that acid rain poses to human health.

Decrease in phytoplankton levels, disrupted aquatic food chains, cataract formation in animals, increased global climate change due to decrease in phytoplankton

List 3 effects of reduced stratospheric ozone on the environment.

Accelerated development of cataracts, skin cancer, worse sunburns, suppressing of immune system

List at least 3 effects of reduced stratospheric ozone on humans.

Using mass transit, walking/biking instead of driving, restricting driving in polluted areas, improving fuel efficiency

List at least three prevention strategies to reduce emissions from MOBILE sources of air pollution.

Burning low-sulfur coal, removing sulfur from coal, converting coal to a liquid/gaseous fuel, don't use coal at all or use it less

List at least three prevention strategies to reduce emissions from STATIONARY sources of air pollution.

Variations in the sun's energy reaching the earth; variations in the albedo of the earth's surface/atmosphere; greenhouse effect; natural, non-climate effects like volcanic activity

List factors that affect the rate of global warming.

Nitrogen oxides, sulfur oxides, VOCs, particulate matter, carbon monoxide, lead

List the major classes of primary outdoor pollutants.

Dispersing emissions over the thermal inversion layer with tall smokestacks, removing pollutants after combustion, taxing each unit of pollution produced

List three cleanup strategies to reduce emissions from STATIONARY sources of air pollution.

Add lime to water to neutralize acidified lakes, add phosphate fertilizer to water to neutralize acidified lakes

List three strategies to clean up acid rain.

Reduce coal use, increase natural gas use, increase use of renewable resources like wind and sun

List three strategies to prevent acid rain.

Removing CO2 from smokestack/vehicle emissions; sequestering CO2 by planting trees/in deep ocean/underground/by using no-till cultivation; repairing leaky natural gas pipelines; using livestock feed that reduces CH4 emissions by cows

Name a few cleanup strategies for global climate change.

Albedo variations in the earth's surface/atmosphere; changes in solar output; water vapor content of atmosphere/clouds; air pollution

Name a few factors *other than the greenhouse effect* that may have contributed to global climate change.

Cutting fossil fuel use (especially coal); improving energy efficiency; shifting to renewable energy; reducing deforestation; slowing population growth

Name a few prevention strategies for global climate change.

Irritation of eyes, nose, and throat; breathing difficulties (coughing, wheezing); worsening of existing heart/lung issues such as asthma; increased risk of heart attack; cancer

Name some of the ill effects of air pollution on human health.

PANs, aldehydes, nitric acid, ozone

Name the four end components of photochemical smog.

Nitric oxide, carbon dioxide, hydrocarbons

Name the three beginning components of photochemical smog.

Peroxyacyl nitrate(s)

PANs

Criteria pollutant

Pollutants with national standards defining acceptable concentrations in the air (judged to pose a direct threat to human health); can be primary or secondary

Antarctica

The ozone "hole" is over ______________.

Global warming

The theory that increased greenhouse gas inputs into the atmosphere from human activities will create an enhanced greenhouse effect, which will raise the average global temperature of the atmosphere near the earth's surface.

Industrial smog

This is the formation of...

Photochemical smog

This is the formation of...

Burning of fossil fuels, especially coal; deforestation; fossil fuel extraction; agriculture (livestock waste and fertilizers)

What are at least three human activities that contribute greenhouse gases to the atmosphere?

Clean Air Acts of 1970, 1977, 1990

What are the names of the US laws governing air pollution?

Fossil fuel burning, deforestation, plant burning

What are the sources of carbon dioxide?

Air conditioners, refrigerators, plastic foams

What are the sources of hydrochlorofluorocarbons?

Air conditioners, refrigerators, plastic foams

What are the sources of hydrofluorocarbons?

Rice paddies, guts of cattle/termites, landfills, coal production, coal seams, natural gas leaks

What are the sources of methane?

Fossil fuel burning, fertilizers, livestock wastes, nylon production

What are the sources of nitrous oxide?

Carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, ammonium sulfate

What are the three end components of industrial smog?

Sulfur, carbon

What are the two beginning components of industrial smog?

CFCs, halons, methyl bromide, ODCs

What chemicals are responsible for stratospheric ozone depletion?

Establish air pollution regulations enforced in states and major cities

What do the Clean Air Acts do?

A standard set by the Clean Air Act that regulates an outdoor criteria pollutant based on protecting human health.

What is a primary standard?

A standard set by the Clean Air Act that regulates an outdoor criteria pollutant based on the prevention of environmental or property damage.

What is a secondary standard?

Cleaning solvent

What is the source of carbon tetrachloride?

Fire extinguishers

What is the source of halons?

Photochemical smog (nitrogen oxides and VOCs)

What pollutants do mobile sources generally emit?

Sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides, particulate matter

What pollutants do stationary sources generally emit?

Air conditioners/refrigerators as coolants; spray cans as propellants; cleaners for electric parts; fumigants

Where are CFCs found?

In a valley between mountain ranges/in an area between the sea and a mountain range

Where is thermal inversion most likely to occur? (2 places)

As the atmosphere warms, convection moves surplus heat to the poles

Why are the poles known as early indicators of climate warming?