APES Unit 2

Species Area Relationship

describes the relationship between the area of a habitat, or of part of a habitat, and the number of species found within that area. Larger areas tend to contain larger numbers of species

What is Primary Succession?

happens in a virtually lifeless area (no soil) and takes a long time. Examples are rocks exposed by retreating glacier, freshly cooled lava abandoned highway or a new reservoir. This process often takes a lot longer 1. Early successional plant species (begin process of soil formation, ex: moss, lichen) 2. Mid successional plant species (takes over after soil development, ex: grass, shrubs) 3. Climax community (mostly trees)

What is functional diversity?

made up of all of the different services ecosystems provide, like coral reefs protecting coastlines from erosion

Total Dissolved Solids

measure the dissolved particles in the water (a healthy range is 300ppm)

Dissolved Oxygen

refers to the amount of oxygen gas dissolved in water (a healthy range has values between 7-14ppm)

What is the competitive exclusion principle and how can it result in harm to a species or resource partitioning by several species?

- Animal predators, for example, tend to kill the sick, weak and aged and least fit members of the population because they are the easiest to catch. This leaves behind individuals with better defenses against predation. Such individuals tend to survive longer and leave more offspring with adaptations to avoid predation. Predation increases biodiversity by promoting natural selection. Two species competing for the same resource cannot coexist at constant population values, if other ecological factors remain constant. It may be harmful because it might drive the other species to extinction, thus limiting their contribution to the environment. - Some species evolve to reduce overlap niche through resource partitioning. This occurs when species competing for similar rare resources evolved specialized traits that allow the to us shared resources at different times in different ways (become more specialized) -example: birds called honeycreeper that live in Hawaii. Because of evolution, there are now numerous species and each has a different beak specialized to feed on certain food sources (evolutionary divergence).

What is mutualism?

- an interaction that benefits both species by providing each with food, shelter, or some other resource - example: honeybees, caterpillars and butterflies feed on male flower's nectar, picking up pollen in the process and pollinating the female flowers - combination of nutrition and protection - example: a bird riding on backs of are animals and remove parasites from their backs - each species benefits from unintentionally exploiting the other as a result of traits they obtained through natural selection

What is commensalism?

- an interaction that benefits one species, but has little, if any, effect on the other - these interactions have significant effects on the resource use and population sizes of the species in an ecosystem (interactions serve as agents for natural selection) - example: tropical forests have certain silverfish insects that move along with army ants to share the food obtained by the ants (the army ants receive to harm or benefit)

What is predation?

- occurs when a member of one species (the predator) feeds directly on all or part of another species (the prey) - together, the prey and predator create a predator-prey relationship - herbivores, carnivores and omnivores are predators - example: grizzly bears of Yellowstone eat huge amount of army cutworm moths - example: in giant kelp forests, sea urchins prey on giant kelp - techniques for predation. . . a) camouflage b) pursuit and ambush c) chemical warfare d) warning coloration e) behavioral strategies

What is competition?

- occurs when members of two or more species interact to gain access to the same limited resources such as food, light, or space - the most common interaction between species is competition for limited resources - each species plays a unique role called ecological niches - when two species compete for food, their niches overlap - no two species can occupy the same ecological niches for very long (competitive exclusion principle) - example: humans compete with many other species for space, food and other resources and we take over the habitats of many other species and deprive them of resources they need to survive

What is parasitism?

- occurs when one organism (the parasite) feeds on the body of, or the energy used by, another organism (the host) usually by living on or in the host - example: tapeworms, mosquitoes and sea lampreys - however, some parasites can promote biodiversity by increasing species richness and help keep their hosts' populations in check - this can also lead to a coevolution process (malaria parasite has developed a defense against the attack)

For each latitude (0°, 30°, 60°, 90°) know the following: whether the air is ascending or descending

0: ascending 30: descending 60: ascending 90: descending

For each latitude (0°, 30°, 60°, 90°) know the following: what biomes are located there as a result

0: tropical rainforests 30: deserts 60: forests (coniferous or boreal) 90: polar ice caps (tundra)

For each latitude (0°, 30°, 60°, 90°) know the following: air moisture content (wet or dry)

0: very moist 30: very dry 60: moist (forests) 90: dry

For each latitude (0°, 30°, 60°, 90°) know the following: air temperature (warm or cool)

0: very warm 30: warm, hot 60: moderate 90: cold

What are the four types of biodiversity?

1. Species Diversity 2. Genetic Diversity 3. Ecosystem Diversity 4. Functional Diversity

What is allopatric speciation?

A fancy name for speciation by geographic isolation. In this mode of speciation, something extrinsic to the organisms prevents two or more groups from mating with each other regularly, eventually causing that lineage to speciate.

What is a foundation species?

A type of keystone species. They perform a critical role in their ecosystem by physically changing their habitat. A beaver is an example (builds a dam). (Elephants make more room for grass species as they remove trees).

What is adaptation?

Also known as the adaptive trait, adaptation is any heritable trait that enables an individual organism to survive through natural selection and to reproduce more than other individuals under prevailing environmental conditions. For natural selection to occur, a trait must be heritable, meaning that it can be passed from one generation to another.

Temperate Deciduous Forest

Areas with moderate average temperatures that change with seasons. Long, warm summers, cold but not too severe winter and precipitation is roughly evenly distributed.

Evolutionary Arms Race

As Kolbert says, "Long-term relationships between pathogens and their hosts are often characterized in military terms; the two are locked in an evolutionary arms race," in which, to survive, each must prevent the other from getting too far ahead." As we learned from the Soviet Union and the United States and their arms race, both kept producing in order to win. It is the same with the pathogens and their hosts as each of them keep evolving in order to get rid of each other. An example would be how bats use echolocation to hunt down moths

What is the Ekman Spiral? Ekman Transport?

Because of the Coriolis Effect, when there is a current moving along the west coast of a continent, some of the water is deflected offshore. This offshore transport of water is called the Ekman transport. At the surface, the flow is 45* to the right of the wind in the northern hemisphere, but the net direction of transport is 90* to the right. At the continental boundary, there is no surface water to replace it, therefore deep water moves in.

What is biodiversity?

Biodiversity is a balance between speciation and extinction. Speciation is currently dominating over extinction.

What is a nonnative/invasive species?

Can be introduced deliberately or accidentally. Although some species introductions can be very detrimental to ecosystems, most species introductions are beneficial. An example is corn.

What is a niche?

Describes a species role in an ecosystem. This is the pattern of living and includes its habitat, resources, space, temperature ranges it can tolerate, and other things. The two ways to describe a species' niche: generalist and specialist.

How does evolution lead to high biodiversity?

Earth's life changes over time through changes in the genes of populations. Evolution changes the genetic characteristics of a population from one generation to the next and allows species to adapt to changing environments. A change in the genetic characteristics of a population from one generation to the next is known as evolution. Life has evolved into six major groups (kingdoms). This is an important scientific theory.

How does species richness relate to the productivity and stability of an ecosystem?

Ecosystems with high species richness have a large number of different species, but have a low number of individuals in each species. Some examples are tropical rainforests, coral reefs. They all have a high NPP. They also have higher levels of stability over time due to more complex food webs that give it the ability to withstand environmental stress.

Where does El Nino occur?

El Nino occurs in the Southern Pacific, though it has global effects (wetter winters in California and warmer winters in the midwest U.S).

What is extirpation?

Extirpation is the condition of a species (or other taxon) that ceases to exist in the chosen geographic area of study, though it still exists elsewhere.

What is a generalist species?

Have a broad niche (wide range of tolerable conditions). Examples are raccoons and cockroaches.

What is a specialist species?

Have a narrow niche (very narrow range of conditions it can tolerate). Example is the giant panda.

What is heat capacity? How does a difference in heat capacity create land (off-shore) and sea (on-shore) breezes?

Heat capacity is the ability of a substance to absorb heat without changing. Water has a high heat capacity (the ability to absorb and release heat without great changes in temperature). Land has a low heat capacity (it changes temperature quickly). Sea breezes are caused by a difference in heat capacity, or the ability of a substance to absorb heat with changing temperature. A high heat capacity means things will cool slowly, thus water will avoid heating up and cooling down unlike land. As the land heats up faster during the day, war air begins to rise, creating high pressures above and lower pressures below Cool air moves into these lower pressures on the surface, creating a sea breeze. At night, water retains heat and the flow reverses, creating a land breeze.

Tropical Rainforest

Hot, moist laden air rises and dumps moisture. There are year round uniformly warm temperatures, high humidity, and heavy daily rainfall.

Be able to connect the climate of a biome to adaptations organisms would require to live there

How do organisms adapt to deal with temperature: - Cacti can hold water for a long time - Polar Bears have thick fur

What are inertia and resilience (as applied to ecosystems)?

Inertia and resistance are how ecosystems respond to changing environments. Rainforests have high inertia and high diversity, but low resilience. Chaparrals have lower diversity, lower inertia, but high resilience (grassland burns, adapt to frequent fires=resilience)

What is insolation and how does it relate to temperature?

Insolation is the amount of solar radiation reaching surface at a particular location. Different latitudes on earth received different amounts of insolation because the sun strikes at a lower angle. When like strikes at a lower angle, it is spread over a larger area, thus less concentrated and lower temperatures (North and South poles). When light strikes directly over, it is less spread out, more concentrated, and higher temperatures (equator).

How does species richness vary with habitat size and distance from the mainland?

Larger islands are easier to colonize, which indicates higher immigration rates. Larger islands also have larger niches, which indicates more resources. The closer an island is to a mainland, there are more species and a greater biodiversity. It is easier for colonizing organism to reach island (increasing immigration).

Mass extinctions and how many there have been (be able to give an example)

Mass extinctions are relatively sudden, global decreases in the diversity of life forms. Mass extinctions have occurred periodically throughout the existence of life on Earth. To be a mass extinction, the following must occur: Extinctions occur all over the world and a large number of species go extinct. There have been 5 in total and an example of one was in the late Cretaceous period when a large asteroid six miles wide (containing iridium with the power equaling more than a million of the most powerful H-bombs ever tested) hit earth and wiped out all species bigger than a cat. This is the answer to how dinosaurs became extinct.

How does evolution by natural selection occur?

Natural selection occurs when some individuals have genetically based traits that enhance their ability to survive and produce offspring with the same traits. Populations evolve by becoming genetically different. The first step is genetic variability. This occurs through mutations. Adaptations and genetic resistance are also crucial. Additionally, each trait must be heritable.

What is an endemic species?

Particularly vulnerable to extinction because they're only found in one location on earth. If they die out, they are found nowhere else on earth. (Dodo birds).

What is a keystone species?

Plays a critical role to help maintain balance in the ecosystem. They could be pollinators or top predators that help to regulate the populations of other species. Examples are sea otters (eat sea urchins who feed on kelp, which harms the ocean if there is no kelp). Sharks eat dead fish to recycle nutrients. The alligator helps store water.

What are mutations?

Random changes in the structure or number of DNA molecules in a cell that can be inherited by offspring. Most result from random changes that occur in coded genetic instructions when DNA molecules are copied each time a cell divides. Mutations can result in a new genetic trait that gives an individual a better chance of survival and reproduction.

What is relative humidity and how does it relate to temperature?

Relative humidity is the amount of water vapor in the air relative to the arts capacity to hold it. If it is very humid, it means the air is fully saturated with moisture. This is directed related to temperature. The warmer the air, the higher the capacity for moisture, therefore more water it will evaporate. Cool air has a low capacity for moisture and does not evaporate as much moisture. When a warm parcel of air holds the same amount of moisture as cold parcel, the humidity is lower in the warm parcel, because the capacity is larger. Relative humidity is the ratio of the weight of water vapor.

Savanna

Scattered clumps of trees (Acacia) which are covered in thorns. There are warm temperatures year round and alternating dry and wet seasons.

How do scientists know about past life on earth?

Scientists know about past life through fossils. Fossils provide physical evidence of ancient organs and reveal what their internal structures looked like.

Tundra

South of arctic cap, cold plains, frigid winds, and it is covered in ice and snow. Winters are long and dark with a lot of snow

Cold Deserts

Sparse vegetation as well, animals, cold winters, and warm or hot summers

What is a indicator species?

Species that are particularly sensitive to environmental changes (canary in the coal mine). These species give scientists a way to know something is harming an ecosystem before it begins to show damage. Examples are birds, trouts (absence or presence has something to say about water quality), butterflies and amphibians.

Taiga

Subarctic climate with long winters that are very cold and dry. Summers are short with cool to warm temperatures and sun shines 19 hours a day. Plant diversity is low, for few species can tolerate the inter when the soil freezes. The decomposition rate is slow due to the low temperatures and waxy coating forming on needles and high soil acidity.

What is the general pattern that ocean currents follow (where are they warm and where are they cold)?

Surface currents are created by friction and they circulate based on wind patterns (Coriolis), water temperature (insolation), and the shape of oceans basins. Warm currents move north towards the coast of Japan and influences climate, making them more humid and warmer. As current approaches Alaska, it cools and moves south along the coast of California. As it moves south, the cold air results in cooler, drier climate areas.

What are teleconnections?

Teleconnections are environmental effects that occur a great distance apart. Some examples relating to El Nino are hot and dry winters in Australia, wet and cool winters in the western U.S. coast and Peru, and finally warmer climates on the east U.S. coast.

Why is the fossil record incomplete?

This record is incomplete because some forms of life left no fossils and some have decomposed.

What causes the Coriolis Effect? How does it influence winds and ocean surface currents?

The Coriolis effect influences the movement of air and water on earth. As objects travel across the surface of the earth, they will be deflected by counterclockwise rotation of the earth. As winds are deflected, they will drag oceans with them due to friction between land and water.

What values for Shannon Index and Shannon equitability tell you about an ecosystem?

The Shannon Index ranges from 0-4.6, with higher values indicating higher diversity. EH, Shannon's equitability value, is a measure of the evenness of the community. This is measure from 0 to 1. 1 indicates high evenness whereas 0 indicates that every individual is the same species (low evenness).

What happens in this area when an El Nino event occurs?

The Trade Winds slacken during this time, so they don't blow as strongly and the equatorial current from east to west is not as strong. Less water moves from east to west so warmer water spreads out across the Southern Pacific. This results in decreased upwelling in Peru, and increased rain due to warmer, wetter air. (SST=Sea Surface Temperature). There is an East- West Pattern of circulation at the equator called the Walker circulation. This circulation pattern wraps around the entire globe at the equator causing air to rise and sink and helps to explain why rainforests don't exist everywhere at the equator. As the warm water is pushed across the Pacific, it accumulates near Indonesia/ Australia. This causes the air over Australia to also warm up and then the warm air will rise. The result is more rain over Australia/ Indonesia than over Peru. So the climate of Peru is even cooler and drier than one would expect just based on the cold Peru current or just the Upwelling.

What is genetic resistance?

The ability of one or more organisms to uphold a chemical that aims to kill it (the resistant bacteria duplicates and dominates).

How does the temperature of an ocean current determine the temperature & precipitation of surrounding areas?

The cold currents always move along the west coast and the war currents move along the east coast. The Gulf Stream travels up the east coast and across the North Atlantic keeping the East coast and Europe warmer than they would be otherwise. Currents also influence air temperature of land near them. The cold dry current from Alaska makes weather in SF dry and cool. The warm, moist Gulf Stream of the east coast makes the weather warm and humid in Eastern cities in the summertime.

Latitudinal Diversity Gradient

The increase in species richness or biodiversity that occurs from the poles to the tropics

What is species richness?

The number of species within a community (the most common way to measure species diversity).

What is the rain-shadow effect?

The rain shadow effect is a reduction of rainfall and loss of moisture from the landscape on the side of a mountain facing away from prevailing surface winds. Warm, moist air in onshore winds loses most of its moisture as rain and snow on the windward slopes of a mountain range. This leads to semiarid and arid conditions on the leeward side of the mountain range and the land beyond. The Mohave Desert in the U.S. state of California and Asia's Gobi Desert are both produced by this effect.

Tropical Deserts

There are few plants, hard wind blown surfaces with rocks and sant, and hot and dry temperatures

Chaparral

There are mostly dense growths of low-growing evergreens and small trees. The soil is thin and not fertile. There are slightly longer rainy seasons and fogginess in the spring dues to limited evaporation. In the summer, the vegetation is dry and the grass is flammable

What is thermohaline circulation and why is it important?

Thermohaline currents are density currents where salt is added to the sweater at the poles when sea ice freezes and the cold, salty water, because very dense. Sinking water creates cold currents that move and transfer water globally. Thermohaline is important because it prevents mass freezing and spreads heat out throughout Europe.

What is background extinction and what is the estimated rate at which it happens?

This is the natural rate of extinction (without human interference). It is equal to 1-5 species per million on earth per year.

What is an ecotone?

Transition zones between biome (Chaparral is in between temperate grasslands and deserts.

What is upwelling? What direction does the wind blow relative to the coastline to cause this phenomenon? How does it create high NPP areas? How does this influence climate of surrounding areas?

Upwelling is when wind blows from the poles to the equator. The surface water moves offshore (Ekman Transport) because of the Coriolis Effect.This is a result from cold currents and colder water moves into the surface of the ocean. This water is also saltier and has more nutrients. This impacts climate and higher biodiversity because there is a higher NPP at the surface. The deep water is also more nutrient-rich. The nutrients in these waters come from the decomposition of sinking dead material. In particular, these nutrients are nitrates & phosphates. Once these nutrients reach the surface the result is high NPP- phytoplankton flourish in these areas and support robust food chains

Why does the earth's tilted axis causes us to have seasons and why is distance is not the reason?

Variations in isolation cause us to experience the seasons on Earth's surface. Light hits Earth at higher and lower angles throughout the year because the Earth is tilted on its axis 23.5 degrees. it is always at the same angle, but because it orbits around the sun, the axis points towards the sun in the northern hemisphere in the summer and away in the winter.

What is a trophic cascade?

When a keystone species (top predator) is removed from an ecosystem, a domino effect can occur. This upsets the populations of lower trophic levels and sets the ecosystem out of balance. This ultimately can change the abiotic features of an ecosystem (example is Yellowstone National Park when wolves were reintroduced).

What is coevolution?

When populations of two different species interact in a way where they gain an advantage, changes in the gene pool of one of the species can lead to changes in the gene pool of another. Such changes can help to avoid or reduce competition. An example are bats and moths. Moths capture the returning echoes and create a sonic image of their prey at night. But, certain moths have evolved ears that are sensitive to sound frequencies that bats use. Thus, some bats can counteract this technique by changing their sound frequencies. Coevolution is a way of maintaining long-term sustainability through population control and can promote diversity by increasing species diversity (how animals respond to changes in environment).

Temperate Grassland

Winters are bitterly cold, summers are hot and dry, rainfall is space. Organic matter produces soil that is fertile.

What is ecosystem diversity?

a variety of different ecosystems, or biomes, on earth. These are important to humans since they provide so many different resources for use

Temperate Deserts

temperatures are high in summer, low in winter, and space vegetation (shrubs and cacti).

Turbidity

the amount of "stuff" in a solution, or suspended solids. Another way to think about it is the murkiness or cloudiness of water (a healthy range is 0-10 JTU's)

What is Secondary Succession?

the ecosystem has been disturbed or destroyed or removed. Some soil and bottom sediments remain. Examples are abandoned farmland, burned forest, or flooded land. This process is a lot shorter and is more common

What is species diversity?

the number of different species in a particular ecosystem

What is permafrost?

the underground soil where captures water remains frozen for at least 2 years. It is essential because it prevents melted snow from soaking into the ground (attracts mosquitos).

What is genetic diversity?

the variety of genes that exist within one species both species and genetic diversity helps promote resilience within ecosystems and populations