APES Unit 2: Ch. 5 & 27

What is ammonification?

Ammonification is when decomposing bacteria break down nitrogen-rich compounds from waste compounds and dead organisms to simple nitrogen containing inorganic molecules such as ammonia and water soluble salts containing ammonia ions.

What is an ore deposit?

An ore deposit is formed when metals are concentrated in anomalously high amounts by geologic processes. It's any concentrated area of mineral that can be commercially mined.

What is assimilation?

Assimilation is where producers use inorganic nitrogen to make organic molecules. First, plants absorbs inorganic ammonia, ammonia ions, and nitrate ions formed from fixation. Then, these ions are used to make organic compounds such as nucleic acids and amino acids. Finally, animals and other consumers get these compounds from eating plants and plant-eating animals.

How does the carbon cycle function? Why is carbon essential for life?

Carbon is essential for life because it's the central atom in all living systems. Organisms are approximately 15% Carbon. The fast carbon cycle is largely the movement of carbon through life forms on Earth, or the biosphere. Through a series of chemical reactions and tectonic activity, carbon takes between 100-200 million years to move between rocks, soil, ocean, and atmosphere in the slow carbon cycle.

The hydrologic cycle refers to the recycling of: A. surface water B. groundwater C. atmospheric water D. all water E. soil water

D. all water

"Black smokers" eject crude oil leaking from shallow reservoirs. A. True B. False

False

Because nitrogen is a relatively unreactive element, the nitrogen cycle is not very important. A. True B. False

False

Evaporites are a marine mineral resource that is not now exploited in large quantities. A. True B. False

False

Human activities are currently responsible for about one-quarter of the fixed nitrogen deposited on land. A. True B. False

False

What are minerals? What is the difference between rocks and minerals? What are minerals used for?

Minerals are naturally occurring, solid chemical elements or inorganic compounds, which rocks are a solid collection of minerals. Some minerals are essential for life, are used in metals, and help promote agricultural growth. Minerals are literally in everything? Food, glass, clay, drinks, fertilizer, metals, electronics.

Draw a budget for the Carbon and Nitrogen cycles. Identify the reservoirs, fluxes, and processes responsible for the fluxes.

Processes in the nitrogen cycle that cause fluxes include nitrogen fixation, nitrification, assimilation, ammonification and denitrification. Processes in the carbon cycle that cause fluxes include volcanic action, decay, diffusion, respiration, combustion of fossil fuels, deforestation, electricity and transportation, and photosynthesis.

The 3 R's of waste management are:

Reduce, reuse, recycle

What can we do to delay a crisis by overuse of mineral resources?

Reuse & Recycle

What types of ores are produced by biological processes?

Some minerals can be formed by biological processes Ex: Phosphates (guano), calcium minerals (shells, bones)→31 total biologically produced minerals have been identified Some minerals have formed under conditions that have been greatly altered by life Ex: iron ore deposits→ several types: (1) Gray beds (unoxidized iron, formed when there was little O2 in atmosphere); (2) Red beds (oxidized iron, formed when there was more O2 in atmosphere), appears that major iron deposits stopped forming when O2 concentration in atmosphere reached its present level

What are the advantages and disadvantages of surface and subsurface mining?

Surface mining is cheaper, but has more direct environmental impacts. Surface mining is also less dangerous for miners. Subsurface mines are much smaller than surface mines, and cause less land disturbance at the surface. Subsurface mines are more dangerous to the miners, but have less environmental impact. Subsurface mining produces less waste rock than surface mining.

What are the 4 major reservoirs through which chemicals cycle?

The atmosphere, hydrosphere (oceans, rivers, lakes, groundwaters, glaciers, etc.), lithosphere (rocks and soils), and biosphere (living things).

How does the availability of minerals relate to the standard of living?

The more minerals that are available, the higher a standard of living can increase. The availability of mineral resources is one measure of the wealth of a society, and those who have been successful in locating and extracting or importing and using minerals have grown and prospered. To maintain US standard of living, we all need about 10 tons of nonfuel minerals per year.

How does the phosphorus cycle function? Why is phosphorus essential for life?

The phosphorus cycle functions slowly, and is necessary for life because it's a component of nucleotides. It's slower and simpler than carbon and nitrogen because its residence time in rocks and sediments in millions of years, and is released very slowly into the soil and water through weathering, leaching, and erosion. It's then taken up quickly by producers, and is often in short supply and is therefore a limiting factor for plant growth. It's returned to soil and water through decay.

What was the General Mining Act of 1872? What are some of the social and political implications of this law?

This Act is US federal law authorizing and governing prospecting and mining for economic materials such as gold, platinum, and silver, on federal public lands. It was passed in order to curve Western prospectors, who would stake claims on public lands without the express consent of the federal government. It promotes development by not requiring royalty payment to the taxpayer like for with coal/oil/natural gas and makes land cheap. It also doesn't contain environmental protection provisions.

An element with a gaseous phase tends to cycle much more rapidly than an element without a gaseous phase. A. True B. False

True

Evaporites form in enclosed or semi-enclosed saline waters by evaporation. A. True B. False

True

Human activities, such as use of fertilizers, draining of wetlands, clearing of land for agriculture and burning of fossil fuels, are causing additional nitrogen to enter the environment. A. True B. False

True

Manganese oxide nodules are a marine mineral resource that is not now exploited in large quantities. A. True B. False

True

Plate boundaries where continental plates separate are called divergent boundaries. A. True B. False

True

Several hundred or more million tons of carbon are burned each year from fossil fuels and end up somewhere unknown to science. A. True B. False

True

The combination of heat, pressure and partial melting mobilizes metals in magmas. A. True B. False

True

The process of releasing fixed nitrogen back to the atmosphere as molecular nitrogen is called denitrification. A. True B. False

True

What results from weathering?

Weathering concentrates some minerals in the soil. When insoluble ore deposits (like gold) are weathered from rocks, they may accumulate in soil→ accumulation occurs most readily when parent rock is relatively soluble (like limestone).

What are our options when the availability of a mineral becomes a limitation?

When a mineral becomes scarce, reclassifying some resources as reserves may be possible, given that their price would go up so previously uneconomic deposits may become profitable. When the cost of mining exceeds the worth of the material, there are 4 possible solutions: Find more sources Recycle and reuse what we've got Reduce consumption Find a substitute

What are some examples of hotspots?

Yellowstone, Iceland, Hawaii

How is residence time calculated?

You calculate residence time by dividing reservoir size at a steady state by rate of outflow.

The area that contributes surface runoff to a particular stream or river is called a:

drainage basin, watershed, or catchment

Calcium, sodium, potassium are examples of common ____________ minerals.

evaporite

Calcium, sodium, potassium are examples of common minerals.

evaporite

The term "black smoker" refers to a suboceanic .

geothermal vent

The tectonic cycle involves the creation and destruction of the solid outer layer of Earth. This outer layer is called the:

lithosphere

The three types of evaporites are

marine (solid), nonmarine (solid), brines

The chemical and mechanical decomposition of rock is called

weathering

Why is the water cycle a particularly important driver of other biogeochemical cycles?

the movement of water is critical for the leaching of nitrogen and phosphate into rivers, lakes, and oceans. The ocean is also a major reservoir for carbon.

What is a biogeochemical cycle?

the pathway of elements through biota, soil, water and atmosphere. These cycles are essential for sustaining life, and they contain the major elements needed by organisms, nutrients.

Atmospheric levels of carbon dioxide and oxygen are affected by the short-term carbon cycle and which long-term cycle?

carbonate-silicate cycle

The term "black smoker" refers to a suboceanic ______________.

geothermal vent

The U.S. imports (few/most) of its strategic minerals.

most

Which of the following statements about resources is false? A. resources are classified as renewable or non-renewable B. they are the portion of a reserve that is presently extracted economically C. it is impossible to support exponential growth on finite resources D. though resources are ultimately finite, exploration annually increases known reserves E. all technology used in resource extraction, either primitive or advanced, causes some environmental change

B. they are the portion of a reserve that is presently extracted economically

Bone Valley in Florida currently provides about how much of the world's phosphorus?

1/3

What are the layers of the Earth?

(1) Inner core = hard, iron & nickel (2) Outer core = liquid, same materials as inner (3) Mantle: upper mantle = (asthenosphere) (4) Lithosphere = crust + uppermost part of mantle (made of material enriched in Fe and Mg), both of these parts are moving, not just the crust - Movement bc of convection currents, convection currents are bc of radioactive decay (provides the heat, which needs to be released) - Asthenosphere and lithosphere both include mantle (litho has top part of solid mantle, atheno has ductile mantle)

Explain the three patterns of resource use

(1) Rapid consumption: this has historically dominated most resource use (2) Conservation: could be improved if developed countries stopped consuming such a disproportionate amount of mineral resources (3) Conservation and recycling: recycling has been well established for materials such as copper, lead, and aluminum, harder with some materials than others (ex: the lead that was put into gasoline historically is now scattered along highways, in bodies of water, etc→ would be very hard to recollect and recycle)

What two interconnected cycles can the carbon cycle be studied as?

(1) The short term (fast) cycling of carbon among living organisms (2) the long term (slow) cycling of carbon through geologic processes

How does the carbon-silicate cycle work?

(1) rainfall scrubs CO2 out of the air, producing carbonic acid (2) this solution reacts on contact with silicate rocks to release calcium and other cations and leave behind carbonate and biocarbonate ions dissolved in the water. (3) this solution is washed into the oceans by rivers, and then calcium carbonate (CaCO3), also known as limestone, is precipitated in sediments. (Today most calcium carbonate precipitation is caused by marine organisms, which use calcium carbonate to make their shells.) (4) Over long time scales, oceanic crust containing limestone sediments is forced downward into Earth's mantle at points where plates collide (subduction) (5) Eventually, the limestone heats up and turns back into CO2, which travels back up to the surface with magma. (6) Volcanic activity then returns CO2 to the atmosphere.

What is a sink, a source, a reservoir, a residence time and a flux?

A reservoir is a pool, or stock of materials. A source emits material, and a sink takes in material. One area can be both a sink and a source! Residence time is the time it takes for a material to cycle through a system. A flux can be negative or positive, but it's an excess of material in either way.

According to your Environmental Science text, which of the following elements is part of an important biogeochemical cycle? A. Phosphorus B. Selenium C. Calcium D. Niobium E. All of these are important

A. Phosphorus

All of the following are generally considered to be renewable resources EXCEPT: A. surface water B. fisheries C. groundwater D. coal E. forests

D. coal

The processes responsible for formation and change of Earth's materials are collectively known as the: A. hydrologic cycle B. geologic cycle C. atmospheric cycle D. mesozoic cycle E. continental cycle

B. Geologic cycle

The world's richest phosphate mine is located near: A. Sao Paulo, Brazil B. Tampa, Florida C. Virginia Beach, Virginia D. Seattle, Washington E. Portland, Maine

B. Tampa, Florida

What factors distinguish "resources" from "reserves"? A. storage capacity and conservation techniques B. accessibility and economics C. quality and availability D. location and quality E. supply and demand

B. accessibility and economics

The two most abundant elements of the Earth's outer crust are silicon and: A. aluminum B. oxygen C. iron D. carbon E. sodium

B. oxygen

The process of nitrogen fixation converts: A. nitrate to molecular nitrogen B. ammonia to molecular nitrogen C. molecular nitrogen to atomic nitrogen D. molecular nitrogen to nitrate and ammonia E. atomic nitrogen to nitrate and ammonia

D. molecular nitrogen to nitrate and ammonia

What does the Surface Mine Reclamation Act of 1977 require?

Before obtaining a coal mining permit, a person must post a reclamation bond to ensure that the regulatory authority will have sufficient funds to reclaim the site if the permittee fails to complete the reclamation.

What are black smokers? What mineral deposits are associated with hydrothermal vents?

Black smokers are geothermal vents on the seabed that eject superheated water containing suspended matter. They are associated with black sulfide minerals, such as hydrogen sulfide.

According to the Environmental Science text, all of the following are members of the "big six" macronutrients, necessary in significant amounts for many or all forms of life, EXCEPT: A. H B. N C. Ca D. P E. O

C. Ca

The geologic cycle consists of four important subcycles, which include all of the following EXCEPT: A. rock cycle B. hydrologic cycle C. volcanic cycle D. tectonic cycle E. biogeochemical cycle

C. Volcanic cycle

With regards to minerals, a(n) _________ is material which can be legally, economically, and technically extracted at the present time; and a(n) ___________ is material than potentially can be extracted in the long-run. A. supply; reserve B. resource; reserve C. reserve; resource D. renewable resource; economic resource E. economic resource; renewable resource

C. reserve; resource

Which of the following is NOT a major way in which ore deposits can form? A. secondary enrichment associated with weathering processes B. chemical precipitation from seawater C. sorting of sediments during transport by glaciers D. sorting of sediments during transport by streams E. concentration by the movement of magma and high-temperature fluids

C. sorting of sediments during transport by glaciers

What are the "big six" macronutrients?

CHNOPS

What are the different forms of carbon involved (gaseous, organic, dissolved, inorganic)?

Carbon can come in gaseous form, as CO2, CO, and CH4. Carbon dissolved in water is formed as HCO3, H2CO3. In sediments and rock it's stored as limestone, fossil fuels and carbonates, as well as graphite and diamonds. It's stored in living tissues as organic molecules like carbohydrates and proteins.

In the context of biochemical cycles, "flux" refers to: A. the loss of water vapor through the pores of plants B. loss of matter or energy from the Earth system C. a state of disturbance from natural conditions D. the transfer of material or energy from one reservoir to another E. the development of a biotic community

D. the transfer of material or energy from one reservoir to another

What is denitrification?

Denitrification is when specialized bacteria, which is mostly anaerobic in swamps, marshes and other wetlands, convert NH3 and NH4+ back to nitrogen gas, N2 and N2O which are released into the atmosphere.

When costs of locating, extracting, processing, and distributing mineral resources exceed the price the market is willing to pay, which of the following results? A. exploration for new reserves B. development of alternatives to the use of that mineral resource C. development of recycling techniques for that mineral resource D. do without that mineral resource E. all of these

E. all of these

Manganese nodules are a difficult mineral resource to exploit because: A. temperatures near "black smokers" degrade conventional mining machinery B. although abundant, they contain only trace amounts of useful metals C. although rich in metals, they are found only deep within the crust D. mining involves sifting through large volumes of ocean-bottom sediments to uncover the nodules E. although found sitting on the ocean floor, the nodules occur in very deep water

E. although found sitting on the ocean floor, the nodules occur in very deep water

Minerals may be concentrated by crystallization within a magma chamber by heat. A. True B. False

False

The type of plate boundaries where continental plates collide are called mid-ocean ridges. A. True B. False

False

Today, most phosphorus fertilizers come from mining phosphate-rich guano. A. True B. False

False

Transpiration is the pathway by which carbon is transferred from living biota to the atmosphere. A. True B. False

False

What are some of the environmental impacts of mineral exploration and use?

Generally exploration has a minimal impact, as long as care is taken in sensitive areas (arid lands, marshes, etc.) Vehicular traffic can disturb lands (esp. arid ones) and cause erosion Aesthetic degradation Dust at mines may affect air resources/human health

How can nutrients be limiting factors?

If there aren't enough macronutrients or micronutrients in a system, they can become limiting factors by slowing or limiting population growth. They are essential to life, and if they are not abundant enough to sustain a population the population can't grow.

Explain how mineral deposits are formed through plate tectonics & plate boundaries

Metal ores are deposited when tectonic plates diverge or converge. At divergent boundaries, cold ocean water contacts hot molten rock→ heated water is lighter and more chemically active→ rises through fractured rocks and leaches metals from them. metals are carried in solution and deposited as metal sulfides when water cools. At convergent boundaries, rocks saturated w/ seawater are pushed together and subjected to intense heat/pressure→ partial melting→mobilizes metals in the magma. Ex: most major Hg deposits are associated w/ volcanic regions near convergent plate boundaries→ mercury is distilled out of the plate as the plate moves upward; as the plate cools, Hg migrates upward and is deposited at shallower, cooler depths

What are mineral resources and mineral reserves? Explain why resources aren't reserves.

Mineral resources: elements, chemical compounds, minerals, or rocks concentrated in a form that can be extracted to obtain a usable commodity Mineral reserve: the portion of a resource that is identified and from which usable materials can be legally and economically extracted at the time of evaluation NOT THE SAME THING! Reserve is what can (economically and legally) actually be used now, resources encompasses all that we'll ever have (analogy: a student's reserves are liquid assets, such as money in the bank, and a student's resources include all of the money that the student can expect to earn during their lifetime→ resources that may become available in the future cannot be used to pay this month's bills)

Are minerals renewable?

Minerals are nonrenewable because they are used and not regenerated (technically is happening, but too slowly to be of use to us). They are however, recyclable!

What is nitrification?

Nitrification is a two-step process where ammonia is converted to nitrate by specialized aerobic bacteria. The ammonia is first converted into nitrite, and then to nitrate, which can be taken up and used by plants.

How does free nitrogen (N2) get converted to a usable form? What is meant by: nitrogen fixation (which organisms can do this?)

Nitrogen fixation is nitrogen being made biologically available, combined with hydrogen to make ammonia. This process is mostly done by microorganisms, Rhizobium (in legumes) or cyanobacteria, or lightning. The Haber process is another method of fixation that is man-made, referred to as industrial fixation.

How does the nitrogen cycle function? Why is nitrogen essential for life?

Nitrogen is often a limiting nutrient in ecosystem because it doesn't come in a form that is usable for humans and has to be converted through other processes. It's essential for life because it's an important part of most cells and processes such as amino acids, proteins and DNA. The cycling process normally takes anywhere from 2-6 weeks.

What are nutrients? What are macronutrients? What are micronutrients? (include examples of each)

Nutrients are elements needed by organisms. Macronutrients are needed by all living things in relatively large amounts. The "big 6" are CHNOPS and are usually structural. Micronutrients are needed in small amounts by all living things or in medium amounts by some living things, for example: B, Zn, Cu.

What is the difference between a convergent ocean-ocean and ocean-continental collision?

Ocean-ocean collision: older (usually denser) goes under the other (along Pacific, forms island arcs) Ocean-continental collision: ocean is denser, goes under continental; low frequency of high magnitude earthquakes (along South America)

Explain how mineral deposits are formed through igneous processes. What types of ores are produced from igneous rocks?

Ore deposits may form when magma cools→ heavier minerals that crystallize early sink towards the bottom, and lighter minerals that crystallize later are left at the top. Deposits of chromite (ore of chromium) are thought to form this way. When magma containing small amts of C is buried and subjected to high pressure during crystallization, diamonds may be produced.

The US consumes a disproportionate share of the world's minerals. What are some of the political implications of our dependence on foreign imports?

Our military industrial complex depends on imported minerals. This means that we risk a political/economic/military instability in the supplying nation interrupted our use of a much needed mineral. This has resulted in political alliances that otherwise would be unlikely. We need minerals from countries even though we may not agree with their policies→ make political concessions on issues such as human rights.

Are there specific ores that are produced by weathering and subsequent precipitation?

Oxides of aluminum and iron may concentrate due to weathering. Aluminum oxide forms an ore of aluminum called bauxite. Nickel and cobalt deposits are also found in soils made from iron and magnesium rich igneous rocks. Sulfide ore is produced by weathering through secondary enrichment processes. Near the surface, primary ore containing minerals (like iron, copper, and silver sulfides) are in contact w/ acidic soil water and O2 rich environment→ as the sulfides are oxidized, they dissolve→ forms sulfuric acid, silver, and copper sulfate rich solutions→ solutions migrate downwards, oxidation continues, and sulfate solutions continue to move downwards→ below the water table, if O2 isn't available, solutions are deposited as sulfides (enrich the metal content of primary ore by as much as 10% → makes primary ore more valuable)

What elements have a gas phase? How does this affect the rate of cycling?

Oxygen, Nitrogen, and Carbon have a gaseous phase, which quickens the rate of cycling.

Why is the phosphorus cycle simpler and slower than the carbon and nitrogen?

Phosphates move quickly through plants and animals; however, the processes that move them through the soil or ocean are very slow, making the phosphorus cycle overall one of the slowest biogeochemical cycles. P has no gas phase!

Explain how mineral deposits are formed through sedimentary processes. What are placer deposites? Evaporates (3 types)?

Placer deposits: Concentrations of a heavy metal (such as gold) in streams draining from a basin, where there is less water turbulence or velocity. They are often found in open crevices/fractures at the bottom of pools. Evaporate: Deposits that originate by evaporation→ dissolved materials precipitate, and form a wide variety of compounds (1) Marine evaporates (solids): K, Na, salts, gypsum, and anhydrite (2) Nonmarine evaporates (solids)- Na, CaCO3, SO42-, borate, NO3-, and limited iodine and strontium compounds (3) Brines (liquids derived from wells, thermal springs, inland salt lakes, and seawater)- Br, I, CaCl2, Mg

What are some of the social impacts of mineral exploitation?

Rapid influx of workers into an area unprepared for growth→ stress is placed on local services (water supplies, sewage systems, schools, housing), stresses nearby wilderness/recreation areas, construction and urbanization reduces water quality, air quality is reduced due to increased vehicle traffic. Once mines are closed, ghost towns can be created.

How are humans altering the nitrogen cycle? What is the environmental effect? What is the Haber process?

The Haber process fixes more nitrogen than naturally occurring processes, this excess of nitrogen disrupts aquatic ecosystems and causes eutrophication. An excess of nitrogen decreases biodiversity in terrestrial ecosystems. The Haber process is an industrial process for producing ammonia from nitrogen and hydrogen, using an iron catalyst at high temperatures and pressures. Anthropogenic sources of nitrogen include fertilizer, livestock operations, and sewage. Oxides of nitrogen are released from fossil fuel combustion and cause acid rain and smog. Groundwater contamination with nitrates, among these effects, is a human health hazard.

What is the Law of the Seabed? What are some of the environmental and political problems associated with mining the seabed?

The Law of the Seabed is actually a collection of international laws concerning ocean mining that prevent wealthy nations from exploiting minerals that are not necessarily theirs. Environmental problems include disrupting and degrading the ocean floor and deep ocean environments, and political include the fact that seabed resources outside of national limits are a common heritage of humankind.

What are tailings?

The materials left over after the process of separating the valuable fraction from the uneconomic fraction of an ore. These can release harmful trace elements into the environment. Mineral deposits can be leached from tailings and can cover rocks in rivers for many miles downstream→ river degradation.

How are these natural processes involved in nutrient cycling? Tectonic cycle, hydrologic cycle, and rock cycle.

The tectonic cycle recycles the earth's crust, the hydrologic cycle the earth's water and the rock cycle. The mantle and crust, as well as the Earth's supply of water and rock, contain nutrients like nitrogen that are reserved and then spit back into the Earth's total reserve of nutrients.

What was the General Mining Act of 1872? What are some of the social and political implications of this law?

This Act is US federal law authorizing and governing prospecting and mining for economic materials such as gold, platinum, and silver, on federal public lands. It was passed in order to curve Western prospectors, who would stake claims on public lands without the express consent of the federal government. It promotes development by not requiring royalty payment to the taxpayer like for with coal/oil/natural gas and makes land cheap. It also doesn't contain environmental protection provisions because it was made back when no one gave a shit.

What is acid mine drainage?

Water with a high concentration of sulfuric acid (H2SO4) that drains from mines (mostly coal, but also metal). If acidic water runs off to a natural stream/pond/lake, significant pollution and ecological damage can occur. Can also seep into and pollute groundwater.

The process of converting inorganic, molecular nitrogen in the atmosphere to ammonia or nitrate is called:

nitrogen fixation

Which has a longer average residence time in the terrestrial environment, carbon or phosphorus?

phosphorus

In the presence of sunlight and chlorophyll, carbon dioxide and water are converted to a simple sugar. This process is known as:

photosynthesis

What processes remove carbon from the atmosphere?

photosynthesis by land plants and marine organisms, and dissolution in the oceans. There is an important distinction between these processes in terms of permanence. CO2 taken up through photosynthesis is converted into organic plant material, whereas CO2 dissolved in the oceans is transferred to a new carbon reservoir but remains in inorganic form.