APES Unit 5: Soil and Agriculture; Minerals and Mining

pesticide treadmill

- chemical pesticides tend to become less effective in time as pests evolve resistance to them -pests occur in large numbers, so it is likely that a few of them have genes that detoxify or metabolize a given pesticide -individuals with the gene will survive and reproduce at greater rates, creating a new generation with a much higher rate of carrying the gene -eventually the pesticide becomes ineffective and must be replaced with a new one

parent material

- composition of parent material influences soil formation -base geological material in a particular location this may include: -hardened lava or volcanic ash -sediment deposited by glaciers or flowing water -wind-blown dunes (sand) -bedrock

clay soils

- have few pore spaces and are sticky (packed together), making it difficult for air and water to pass through -smallest size less than 0.002 m

neonicotinoids

- new class of insecticides that make the plant toxic to insects that feed on them but also harm bees and predator insects that feed on the pests -enter the soil and water supply, killing other organisms that pose no threat to crops

feedlots

-AKA factory-farms or confined animal feeding operations -huge pens designed to provide high energy feed to animals living in high densities -animals are feed high calorie grain and given antibiotics and vaccines to get them fat and keep them from getting sick in the unsanitary environment -more economically efficient and reduces grazing impacts of animals -produce more intensive pollution due to the release of highly concentrated waste

malnutrition

-a shortage of specific nutrients, such as lipids, proteins, vitamins, or minerals -people with protein-deficient diets can develop kwashiorkor, which causes bloating of the abdomen, deterioration of hair, mental disability, and other issues -protein deficiency and a loss of calories can lead to marasmus (sever undernourishment in children and infants) - anemia is iron deficiency

Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt)

-a soil bacterium that produces a protein that kills many caterpillars, and some fly and beetle larvae -modern example of a biological control

soil

-a system consisting of disintegrated rock, organic matter, water, gases, nutrients, and microorganisms -derived from rock, but shaped by microorganisms -50% mineral matter, 5% organic matter, 45% pore space -provides plants with nutrients for growth, structure for rooting, and a medium to hold water and nutrients for absorption through the roots

desertification

-a type of land degradation where more than 10% of productivity is lost -drylands are prone to it -wind and water erosion are the biggest causes

reclamation

-aim is to restore the site to a condition similar to its condition before mining involves removing buildings and other mining structures, replacing overburden (land/soil displaced), filling in mine shafts, and replanting vegetation

sandy soils

-allow water to pass through too quickly, requiring frequent irrigation -have a gritty feel -largest particle 0.005 -2 m

Soil Profile

-an entire cross section of soil -generally, the degree of weathering and concentration of organic matter decrease as one moves downward

genetically modified foods

-are those derived from genetically modified organisms (GMOs). -70% of processed foods contain at least one ingredient from a GMO (most likely corn or soy)

irrigation

-artificial provision of water beyond what is received by precipitation -necessary with water-intensive crops (like rice) and in areas with dry climates -largest use of water, making up 70% of all freshwater withdrawn -bad to grow water thirsty crops in and region because it uses massive amounts of water and messes with water availability

Green Revolution

-beginning in 1950s, introduced new technology, crop varieties, and farming processes to the developing world -developing countries imported the use of synthetic fertilizers, pesticides, intensive irrigation, and fossil fuel powered machinery -helped increase food production by 48% while only increasing land use by 11%, helping to preserve biodiversity -helped to increase yields, reduce starvation, but has also degraded soil, water supplies, and pollinators

mountain top removal

-blasts off several hundred vertical feet of a mountain to access and underground seam of a mineral -the mountain's forests must first be clear cut and the top soil removed -the overburden has much more volume than the original rock, so when it is placed back on the mountain, some is dumped into adjacent valleys -this clogs streams and rivers and pollutes waterways with acid mine run off -drastically intensifies erosion increasing the frequency of mudslides and flashflooding

both inorganic and organic fertilizer

-boosts crop production but can be over applied (especially inorganic)

what can preserve pollinators

-buffers strips of wildflowers surrounding farms and along highways

farmers' markets

-consumers buy meats and produce from local producers

terracing

-creation of level platform on very steep terrain to slow water erosion -similar to contour plowing but on steep slopes

aquaculture

-cultivation of aquatic organisms in controlled environments -may be the answer to increasing demand of seafood in light of plummeting wild fish populations -increases food supply and protein sources, which increases overall food security -helps to reduce overfishing of wild fish and the unintended catch of other organisms -at a large scale, may necessitate antibiotic overuse, destroy coastal ecosystems, and spread disease or invasive species if the farmed organisms escape into the surrounding ecosystems

community-supported agriculture (CSA)

-customers pay farmers in advance for a share, then receive weekly deliveries of produce

soil degradation

-deterioration in quality and productivity of soil -caused by forest removal, cropland agriculture, and overgrazing of livestock

land degradation

-deterioration of land that diminishes its productivity and biodiversity and impairs the functioning of its ecosystems -increased soil erosion, nutrient depletion, water scarcity, and pollution are all outcomes

soil texture

-determined by the size of its particles (sand, clay, silt)

sources of honeybee decline

-direct mortality from insecticide application -introduction of parasites and pathogens from human travel and trade -habitat and flower loss due to application of herbicides on farms and lawns - a mysterious disease called colony collapse disorder (combination of all factors) has destroyed up to 1/3 of honeybees each year

no-till farming

-eliminates tilling altogether -farmers leave crop residues behind, keeping the soil covered with plant material all year round -temporary cover crops can be planted during times when the main crop is not growing

benefits of GM crops

-enhance food security and reduce poverty -alleviate pressure to clear forests and grasslands -conserve water by reducing the need for irrigation -improve nutrition with crops that contain key nutrients (such as golden rice and vitamin A) -reduction in pesticide application

silt

-fall between sand and clay particle size -have a smooth feel -0.002-0.005 m

crop rotation

-farmers alternate the type of crop grown from one season to the next -legume (soybeans) boost soil nitrogen -breaks pest and disease cycles

harmful aspects to inorganic fertilizer

-farmers are reliant on them since Green Revolution -these nutrients are more quickly leached, causing environmental problems -nitrogen and phosphorous have caused phytoplankton blooms in coastal regions (eutrophication) -creates oxygen depleted dead zones in these waters -nitrogen fertilizers can volatize into the air contributing to photochemical smog and acid rain -contributed to human health risks, including cancer

consequences of food choices due to 10% rule

-feeding grain to a cow and eating beef from the cow loses most of the grain's energy to the cow's metabolism

conservation reserve program

-first established in 1985 Farm Bill -pays farmers to convert damaged cropland to conservation reserves -uses an environmental benefits index to select farmers to be awarded by program -considers benefits to wildlife, improvement in water and air quality -potential reduction to erosion

organic agriculture

-food growing practices that do not include synthetic pesticides, fertilizers, hormones, or antibiotics -biggest obstacle for consumers is organic food prices (which tend to be 10-30 % more expensive) -some countries offer financial incentives to switch to organic agriculture -it yields roughly 80% as conventional agriculture

public debate over GM foods

-genetic modification of rice, corn, soy, and wheat essentially forces people to consume biotech products -a few large companies (monopolies) control GM technology -biotech companies patent their seeds -more than 60 nations require GM food labels, but the US does not -Congress passed Monsanto Protection Act which stripped courts of ability to revoke USDA approval of any GM crop found to be unsafe, but it expired in 6 months

industrialization of agriculture

-has boosted worldwide production of food and fiber immensely, but has also brought increased pollution and resource depletion

subsidies

-help to stabilize and secure the income of farmers, but they also lead to land being cultivated that otherwise would not be -artificially increases food production, lowering prices for other farmers -many nations spend billions to promote unsustainable agriculture practices, such as growing water-thirsty crops in desert regions -in US, 1/5 of farmer's income comes from government funds

placer mining

-if minerals and gems accumulate in riverbed deposits, placer mining can be used to separate light and heavy materials through the use of running water aka panning

the dust bowl

-in late 19th and early 20th centuries, farmers moving to the Western Plains of the US began plowing up native grassland plants in favor of wheat -sever drought in the 1930s worsened the impacts, causing the region's strong winds to erode millions of tons of topsoil -some areas in the most affected regions lost 4 inches of topsoil -thousands of farmers were forced to leave land -in response, US gov passed the Soil Conservation Act of 1935

pesticides

-include synthetic chemicals that kill insects (insecticides), plants (herbicides), and fungi (fungicides) -exposure may have health consequences for people -farm workers are exposed most -consumers ingest residues when non-organic produce is eaten -kill non-target organisms, including predators and parasites of pests and pollinators

possible solutions to reduce fossil fuel use and pollution

-increase in organic farming -improved technologies -greater use of genetically modified crops

GM crop meta-analysis

-increased yields by 22% -boosted farmers' profits by 68% -reduced chemical pesticide use by 37%

soil color

-indicated fertility -black or dark brown soils are rich in organic matter -pale or red color indicates low organic matter

soil pH value

-intermediate pH values are best for plants -soil that is too acidic or alkaline may inhibit the absorption of nutrients, leading to plant death -some plants, like hydrangeas, like acidic soil

industrial agriculture

-introduced large-scale mechanization and fossil fuel consumption into agriculture -higher rates of irrigation, synthetic fertilizers, and chemicals pesticides reduced crop pests and weed competition, further increasing yields -plants monocultures

open pit mining

-involves digging a gigantic hole and removing the desired ore, along with waste rock that surrounds the ore -used when the mineral is spread evenly throughout a rock formation -terraced so workers and machinery can move about and continue to be expanded as long as the mine is profitable -massive because of the amount of waste rock that must be removed to extracts small amounts of ore -abandoned mines can fill up with water, which becomes toxic due to the formation of sulfuric acid and the leaching of metals

sustainable fertilizer use

-involves targeting and monitoring nutrients -farmers using drip irrigation can add fertilizer directly to their water releasing it only above the plant roots (conserves both water and fertilizer) -can also embrace organic fertilizer use which can provide water-retaining benefits

why is modern industrial monoculture risky?

-lack of variation is bad---> means a single catastrophe could wipe out your entire crop -also it limits the ability of natural enemies to control pest populations, causing farmers to turn to chemical suppression

surface impoundments

-large reservoirs where tailings are stored -if the wall of one is compromised, a large-scale spill can occur, destroying aquatic ecosystems and contaminating local drinking water supplies -small-scale leaching is also common from these impoundments, as it is difficult to properly line and maintain them

organic fertilizers

-made of the remains or wastes from organisms, including manure, crop residue, charcoal, fresh vegetation, and compost

sustainable agriculture

-maintains healthy soil, clean water, pollinators, genetic diversity, and other vital resources -reduces environmental impacts -mimics the way natural ecosystem functions (polycultures, livestock fertilization, stirring up soil, leaving fields empty) -requires an understanding of the soil, water, nutrients, and pollinators that underpin agriculture

sustainable irrigation

-maximizes efficiency--->> drip irrigation -one effective way to reduce water is to grow plants where they are meant to go (suit their water needs)

recycling electronic waste

-may be the best way to start conserving rare, valuable minerals, preventing many of the issues that come with mining minerals -will reduce impacts of mining and processing and will drastically reduce energy consumption

soil structure

-measures the "clumpiness" of soil -soil that is heavily clumped is considered compact and cannot absorb water as well

inorganic fertilizers

-mined or synthetically manufactured -includes ammonium nitrate and phosphorous based fertilizer

ore

-mineral or grouping of minerals from which we extract metals -must be pulverized and washed before the desired minerals can be physically or chemically extracted

solution mining

-minerals in deep deposits can be extracted by dissolving them in a liquid through solution mining -a narrow borehole is drilled into the Earth and water, acid, or another liquid is injected to leach out the mineral -examples) salt, lithium, potash, and uranium

mining method impacts

-mining disturbs large areas of land and exerts severe impacts on the surrounding environment -multiple methods may be used to extract the resource, depending on the nature of the deposit

polyculture

-mixed crops in the same field -way better than monocultures because it mimics nature and benefits everything growing together -good for soil (nutrients) and good for livestock (mixture of different grasses) -regenerative agriculture builds top soil quickly

cons of GM crops

-mostly benefits large-scale industrial farmers (insect resistance and herbicide tolerance), not poor rural ones -use of herbicides increase dramatically in areas where Roundup-Ready corn was planted because they can spray it without precision) -herbicide use is growing because many weeds are developing resistance, causing farmers to use even more (treadmill) -no known hazards of ingesting GM foods, but it is hazardous to ingest all of the herbicides and pesticides that are heavily sprayed on them (glyphophate from Round-up residue) -scientists are worried that GMOS will interbreed with their wild relatives , transferring new genes into the wild population (decreases biodiversity) - if Roundup-Ready genes enter the wild population, it could produce herbicide resistant "superweeds"

biological control of pests

-natural predators or parasites are introduced to eliminate the pest ex) cactus moths were introduced in 1920s to australia to control the prickly pear cactus -when a pest is a non-native species, scientists may consider introducing a non-native species to combat it -this is risky because the full effects of introducing a new species can't be predicted---> cactus moth spread to US and is now eating native cacti (harmful and invasive)

reasons why estimates of mineral availability

-new resources are discovered -rising prices of some minerals may favor the development of enhanced mining technologies -new technologies can increase the demand for certain minerals -economic booms and recessions alter rates of consumption -recycling rates may increase, especially as price increases

overgrazing

-occurs when there is not adequate regeneration of plant biomass on rangelands (cattle populations exceed carry capacity) -exposes soil and makes it vulnerable to erosion -in a positive feedback loop, soil erosion makes it more difficult for native plants to grow, perpetuating the problem

humus

-partially decomposed organic matter that is deposited in the form of decomposed organisms or waste -very productive for plant life

traditional agriculture

-performed by humans and animal muscle power -only produces enough for their own substinence

intercropping

-planting bands of different crops -cover crops reduce wind erosion and legumes restore nitrogen

contour planting

-plowing sideways across a hill -each furrow serves as a dam to help stop water because water is most erosive when moving downhill

tailings

-portion of ore left over after metals have been extracted that can pollute soil and water -often stored in large reservoirs called surface impoundments

agriculture

-practice of raising crops and livestock for human use and consumption -led to modern societies -agricultural revolution occurred about 10,000 years ago

pollination

-process by which male plant sex cells (pollen) fertilize female plant sex cells (ova, or egg cells) to form a seed

environmental impacts of metal processing

-processing methods are often very water-intensive and energy-intensive -chemical reactions and heating processes emit air polluition -soil and water may be polluted from tailings

overnutrition

-receiving too many calories each day -has grown in developing countries due to the abundance of cheap junk food and sedentary lifestyles -excess weight leads to heart disease, diabetes, stroke, some forms of cancer, and other health issues

mining

-refers to the systematic removal of rock, soil, or other material for the purpose of extracting minerals of economic interest -most of what is mined is used for fossil fuels and construction material

strip mining

-removes layer of surface soil in large areas to expose the resource -used when a resource occurs in shallow, horizontal deposits near the surface -afterwards, it is refilled with the overburden, and the miners move to the next strip -exposes sulfide minerals which reach with oxygen and water to produce sulfuric acid -this enters waterways, creating acid mine drainage -the sulfuric acid also leaches metals such as iron from the rocks, creating an orange color

feedlot waste

-rich in nitrogen and phosphorous, so it contributes to eutrophication -contains bacterial and viral pathogens -hormones, antibiotics, and other drugs administered to animals may be excreted in waste as well

shelterbelts

-rows of trees or shrubs that serve as windbreaks -also provide habitats and fruits

ocean mining

-seawater contains some minerals, such as magnesium -vacuum-cleaner like hydraulic dredges can be used to extract other minerals from the ocean floor -too logistically difficult and expensive to be practical

subsurface mining

-shafts are excavated deep into the ground, and networks of tunnels are dug or blasted out to follow deposits of the mineral -workers are at risk from dynamite blasts, natural gas explosions, collapsing mine shafts, and inhalation of coal dusts and toxic fumes -after operations cease, runoff through abandoned mins can generate acid mine drainage -old mines can also collapse, creating sinkholes at the surface

challenges to achieving sustainability

-soil degradation -overconsumption of water -loss of crop diversity, pollinators, and natural habitats -reliance on fossil fuels -greenhouse gas emissions

loam

-soil with an even mixture of each particle -these soils with medium-sized pores are considered the best for agriculture

salinization

-the buildup of salts in surface soil layers -in dry areas, the evaporation of water from the A horizon may pull up mineral-rich (salty) water from lower horizons -only solution is to flush the land with less-saline water (which also flushes nutrients from top soil) , or plant salt-tolerant plants like barley

food security

-the guarantee of an adequate, safe, nutritious, and reliable food supply -the number of people suffering from food insecurity has decreased since the 1960s

sand and gravel

-the most commonly mined mineral resources -nonmetallic, but useful for making products such as concrete

smelting

-the process of heating and ore beyond its melting point and combining it with other chemicals to extract a metal -may involve a metal with another metal, or non metal substance, forming an alloy

erosion

-the removal of material from one place and it transport to another by wind and water -occurs naturally but is occurring at a accelerated rates due to agriculture which removes topsoil at faster rates, quickly depleting soil of nutrients and organic matter (making it less productive) -areas that are windy, sloped, have intense precipitation, or sparse vegetation are at highest risk

swidden agriculture

-tropical farmers often cultivate a plot for a few years and then move on -if enough time is allowed, the soil and forest can recover from all of the leached nutrients and minerals the heavy rainfall caused

metal

-type of chemical element, or mass of such an element, that typically is lustrous, opaque, malleable, and can conduct heat and electricity -most metals are not found in a pure state in nature, rather in ore

people make land more vulnerable to erosion by:

1) overcultivating fields through poor planning or excessive tilling 2) grazing rangeland with more livestock than it can support 3) clearing forests on steep slopes

90% of food consumed now comes from

15 crop species and 8 livestock species

US croplands lose about _________ of topsoil every 15-30 years

2.5 cm (1 inch)

alloy

A mixture of two or more metals

5 countries that account for 90% of the production of GM crops

US, Brazil, Argentina, India, and Canada

compost

a mixture produced when decomposers break down organic matter in a controlled environment

mineral

a naturally occurring solid chemical element or inorganic compound with a crystal structure, a specific chemical composition, and distinct physical properties

some minerals are _________________ while others have ___________________

abundant, limited reserves

rangeland

aka pasture land used for grazing livestock

pollinators

animals that are attracted to plants with bright flowers and transfer pollen as they move from flower to flower

pest

any organism that damages crop or livestock

weed

any plant that competes with crops

R Horizon (Rock Parent Material)

bedrock, lava, etc.

soil formation

begins during primary successions, as water, air, and living organisms break down parent material in the lithosphere

artificial selection

breeding plants and other organisms for desired traits

drip irrigation

can reduce water use by delivering water straight to plant roots which prevents lots of evaporation

time

can take decades, centuries, or millenia

weathering and accumulation of organic matter are influenced by ...

climate, organisms, topography, parent material, and time

integrated pest management (IPM)

combines biocontrol, chemical pesticides, habitat alteration, crop rotation, transgenic crops, alternative tillage methods, and mechanical pest removal

B Horizon (Subsoil)

contains minerals leached from above

dry lands, arid, and semi-arid environments

cover 40% of Earth's land surface

soil horizons

distinct layers caused by the movement and sorting of soil particles

vegetarian diet

eating lower on the food chain is more energy-efficient and can reduce our ecological footprint -however, smarter meat choices could do so as well because some animals convert grain feed into milk, meat, or eggs, more efficiently than others

Soil Conservation Act of 1935

established an agency (Natural Resources Conservation Service) that worked with farmers to combat erosion

Organic Food Production Act of 1990

established national standards by which organic food can be labeled as organic

Farm Bill

every 5-6 years, Congress passes legislation that guides agricultural policy

nonmetallic minerals

ex) gemstones, limestone, salt, and potash

life-cycle analysis

examines all inputs and outputs across all stages of an item's productions, sale, and use to determine fossil fuel consumption

monocultures

farmers grow vast areas with single crops orderly rows

examples of GM crops

golden rice, round-up ready sugar beet, Bt cotton, biotech potato, virus-resistant papaya, round-up ready alfalfa, biotech soybean, GM salmon, Bt corn, sunflowers and superweeds

topography

hills and valleys affect exposure to sun, wind, water, and influence soil movement

increased crop yield led to ................

increased population

most dwindling reserve

indium

gradual and catastrophic geological processes

influence the distribution of rocks and minerals in the lithosphere and their availability to us

C Horizon (Weathered parent material)

initial step in soil formation

most fruit, vegetable, and nut crops depend on __________ for pollination

insects 73% bees, 19% flies, and the rest by beetles, wasps, butterflies, and moths

seedbanks

institutions that preserve seed types to preserve genetic diversity

biological weathering

involves living things such as lichens producing acid or tree roots rubbing against rock

The first genetically modified animal for human consumption

is a salmon that can grow faster and reach larger sizes than wild individuals

cropland

land that humans use to raise plants for food and fiber

plants also depend on __________________ in the soil

living organisms

landraces

locally adapted varieties of crops that provide genetic diversity and if preserved, could someday be introduced into commercial crops to confer resistance to disease or pests

bedrock

massive solid rock that makes up most of the earth's crust

E Horizon (Leaching Layer)

minerals (iron, aluminum, silicate clay) are leached out (organic matter too)

A Horizon (Top Soil)

mixture of inorganic mineral components with humus; most nutritive for plants and vital for agriculture

more precipitation

more leaching of nutrients out of the top soil and E horizon (reason why amazon rainforest is less agriculturally productive than Iowa or Kansas)

mycorrhizae

mutualistic relationship between fungi and the roots of a plant

minerals are ___________-

nonrenewable (can't be replaced in human time frame)

chemical weathering

occurs as water or gases chemically alter rock

waterlogging

occurs when irrigation oversaturates the soil to the point where water drowns plant roots, depriving them of gases and suffocating them

Soil Horizons Acronym

only apes eat banana chips regularly

O Horizon (Organic layer/leaf litter)

organic matter deposited by organisms

pollinating insects are dwindling in number due to ______________________________

pesticide use and habitat loss

organisms

plants and decomposers add organic material

slash-and-burn agriculture

plots are often burned first -this is unsustainable and has degraded soils of tropical areas

leaching

process where minerals dissolved or suspended in water can be transported downward

undernutrition

receiving fewer calories than the minimum dietary requirements -most people who are undernourished live in developing countries (800 million people)

conservation tillage

reduces the amount of plowing since it leaves soil surfaces bare and exposed to wind

key to sustainable use of minerals

reducing waste, and recovering and recycling used mineral resources

genetic engineering

refers to any process where scientists directly manipulate an organisms genetic material (DNA) -uses recombinant DNA, meaning it has been produced from multiple organisms -idea is similar to artificial selection but the technique is different (breeding uses the same species, while genetic engineering cross different species usually from a bacterium that is resistant) -creates combinations of genes in a more direct way (speeds up selection process)

soil is __________________, but at a very ________ rate

renewable, slow

physical weathering

results from wind, rain, freezing, or thawing

European honeybee

so essential that many farmers will hire beekeepers to bring hives of them during pollination season

As global wealth and commerce have increased...

so has the production and consumption of meat, milk, eggs, and other animal products

growing crops and raising animals requires inputs of resources SUCH AS:

soil, sunlight, water, nutrients, and pollinators

rock

solid aggregation of minerals

conventional irrigation

sprays everywhere, uses too much, subject to evaporation

fertilizers

substances that contain essential nutrients and are used to enhance soils

government subsidies

support growing water intensive crops in arid regions which wastes water and has made water artificially inexpensive

weathering

the break down of parent material into smaller particles

in some cases, rock is the resource and in others...

the minerals embedded within the rocks are

resource conservation and regeneraation

the only sustainable solution to our agriculture needs

precision agriculture

the practice of monitoring soil nutrient levels and only applying fertilizer when it's needed

ecosystems

use cycles and negative feedback loops, providing a good model for agriculture

climate

warm, moist climates accelerate most weathering processes

what are the challenges with key resources needed for agriculture?

we cannot degrade these resources and move to new areas because that can promoted grassland desertification, deforestation, loss of biodiversity, invasive species, pollution, and soil erosion

deposition

when eroded material is left at a new location

grasses, conifers, and grain crops are pollinated by ______

wind