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The Joint Chiefs of Staff

Organized by the Department of Defense following the 1947 passing of the National Security Act, the Joint Chiefs of Staff was a group of the heads of each branch of the military.

The National Labor Union (1866-1867)

Organized in 1866, the National Labor Union lasted 6 years and attracted 600,00 members. The purpose of the National Labor Union was to organize workers across different trades and challenge companies for better working conditions. Meanwhile, black workers formed their own Colored National Labor Union. The National Labor Union died out in 1877, and an organization known was the Knights of Labor took over.

President Nixon's 90-day Wage Freeze

Out of fear for inflation, President Nixon imposed a 90-day wage freeze and then took the nation off of the gold standard (devaluing the dollar.)

Senator Charles Sumner: Post 1856 oratory consequences

Outraged by Senator Charles Sumner's insult against Senator Andrew Butler, Butler's nephew beat Sumner to unconsciousness with a cane.

Nicholas Biddle

Nicholas Biddle was the President of the Bank of the United States under Jackson's term. It's argued that Biddle held an immense and potentially unconstitutional influence over America's financial affairs.

Panamanian Revolt

Panamanians revolted because they feared that the U.S. would choose the Nicaraguan route for the canal, thus missing out on the prosperity created by the canal's construction. The revolt was led by Bunau-Varilla, and thus led to the signing of the Hay-Bunau Treaty of Varilla once h became Minister post-revolution. The treaty gave the U.S> control of a 10 mile zone around the proposed Panama Canal.

"Smoking Gun" Tape

Nixon released 3 of the most damaging tapes in August of 1974, one of which was called the "smoking gun" tape and verified Nixon's role in the Watergate Scandal as attempting to cover it up.

Richard Nixon: Platform towards Soviet Union

Nixon's platform towards the Soviet Union for the Election of 1960 was simply that the Soviet Union wasn't gaining on America, neither prestige wise nor power wise.

President Lyndon B. Johnson: Civil Rights Activist

No President since Lincoln had done more for civil rights since Abraham Lincoln.

"Ain't I a Woman"

"Ain't I a Woman", a speech written by Sojourner Truth, questioned the idea that women were inferior to men. Sojourner Truth brings up Eve, noting how Eve was "strong enough to turn the world upside down all alone."

"America Fever"

"America Fever" is the phenomenon that occurred in Europe, under which the U.S. was seen as a "land of opportunity."

Big Stick Diplomacy

"Big Stick Diplomacy" was the ideology held by Theodore Roosevelt - the "big stick" symbolizes Roosevelt's readiness to use military force. This type of diplomacy was a method of intimidating nations without actually doing anything to them.

"Black Ivory"

"Black Ivory" was a nickname for slaves. Due to the high prices of "black ivory", slaves were being smuggled in even after legal importation of African slaves ended in 1808 (after the Act Prohibiting Importation of slaves.) Landowners considered slaves to be an investment.

"Ironclad Oaths," or "Yellow-Dog Contracts"

"Ironclad Oaths" and "Yellow Dog Contracts" were contracts that some corporations forced onto all prospective employees. "Ironclad Oaths" and "Yellow Dog Contracts" forced the contract-signer to promise that they wouldn't join a labor union, since the corporations were fearful that the workers would join a labor union and then go on strike.

"New Dealers": Critics of the Electrical Industry

"New Dealers" accused the electric-power industry of charging the public too much money for electricity.

The Gilded Age: "Normal Schools"

"Normal Schools" were schools that were upheld by the flooding belief in public education and the idea of tax-supported elementary and high schools. "Normal Schools" were also called "Teacher-training" schools, and they experienced great expansion after the Civil War.

The Gilded Age: "Sooners"

"Sooners" were individuals that illegally entered the Indian Lands in the district of Oklahoma in order to lay claim to that land prior to the designated entry time. Thousands came in 1889, when the district was officially opened.

Thomas Johnson "Stonewall" Jackson: Bull Run

"Stonewall" Jackson's part in the 1861 Confederate defense of Bull Run was pivotal. He held the Confederate line against the Union soldiers until Confederate reinforcements arrived-- allowing for a Confederate victory.

"The Feminine Mystique" by Betty Friedan (1963)

"The Feminine Mystique", written by Betty Friedan and published in 1963, was a social, sexual, and political awakening for women in America. In "The Feminine Mystique", Friedan describes the the depression felt among women familially, where their life was only to support the male figures in their lives.

The Immortal Trio

"The Immortal Trio" was an alias for Henry Clay, John Calhoun, and Daniel Webster.

William Lloyd Garrison's "The Liberator" (1831-1865)

"The Liberator", written by William Lloyd Garrison starting in 1831 and ending in 1865, was a newspaper that was militantly anti-slavery.

"Vietnamization"

"Vietnamization" was a policy created by President Nixon meant to withdraw 540,000 U.S. troops from South Vietnam, making up for it with American money, weapons, training and advice. This way, the South Vietnamese would gradually take over the war. Nixon didn't want to end the war, but he didn't want to lose American troops either.

American Progress by John Gast: Positive from white P.O.V

-Whites routing the "evil" Natives more West -White side is "light", native side is dark -Angel seems to represent American civilization, "enlightening" the natives -People carrying pickaxes at the bottom, indicative of the Gold Rush

American Progress by John Gast: Negative from nonwhite P.O.V

-Wrecking natural land with industrial tools like trains -Antagonizing the Native peoples even though they rightfully "belong" on that land

1980s: Worries of AIDS and other STDs

1980s worries of AIDS and other STDs slowed the sexual revolution.

August 8, 1974

3 Days after releasing the 3 most damaging tapes (including the "Smoking Gun" tape), Nixon resigns from the Presidency due to party pressure.

Actions Taken to stop Germans from taking Paris and France

30,000 American soldiers were sent to the French front lines to stop the Germans, the first significant engagement of American troops in a European war.

Tenement

A "tenement" is the term for an overcrowded housing for the workers and the poor, often referred to "slum dwellings."

Four-Power Treaty (1921)

A Four-Power treaty between Britain, Japan, France, and the U.S. replaced the 20 year old Anglo-Japanese Treaty, and preserved the status quo in the Pacific.

Edmond Genet

A French man that landed in Charleston, South Carolina was swayed by Jeffersonians to believe that the Proclamation mirrored the values of the people. Foolishly, Genet took up the task of attempting to recruit armies against Spanish Florida and Louisiana, as well as British Canada. After threatening to appeal over Washington's head straight to sovereign citizens, the President demanded his departure from the US, and he was replaced with a less impulsive emissary.

Joint Stock Company ("Corporate Colony")

A Joint Stock Company was where stockholders would invest in a company and share in the potential profits or losses from the colony.

Juan de Sepulveda

A Spaniard, Juan de Sepulveda wrote "Just Causes for War Against the Indians". His book "Just Causes for War Against the Indians" justified Spanish colonization of the Americas.

Oliver O. Howard

A Union General, Oliver O. Howard led the Freedmen's Bureau, which helped freed slaves integrate into society.

Woman's Rights Convention at Seneca Falls (1848)

A Woman's Rights Convention held in 1848 at Seneca Falls, New York was where Feminists met in order to rewrite the Declaration of Independence in a manner that would include women. It launched the modern women's rights movement. Over time, however, the women's rights movement was overshadowed by the abolitionist movement.

Boston Tea Party (1773)

A band of Bostonians, dressed as Indians, boarded a ship and smoked 342 barrels of Tea.

The Missouri Compromise

A compromise issued by Congress, it forbade slavery in the remaining territories in the Louisiana territory north of the line 36° 30', except for Missouri.

Downturn in Global Economy circa 1930s

A downturn in the global economy disrupted the flow of money, and because of this, the U.S. never fully received its war repayments from Europe.

President Carter's Fire of Cabinet Secretaries

A few days after his malaise speech in 1979, Carter fired four cabinet secretaries.

James Madison

A fierce federalist and contributor to the Constitution, Madison was weary of the unraveling of the Federalist victory once the Convention to write a Bill of Rights was held. As such, he was determined to draft the amendments to the Constitution himself. By preserving a strong central government while specifying protections for minority and individual liberties, Madison's amendments partially swung the federalist pendulum back in an anti federalist direction. Under Jefferson's second term of Democratic-Republican reign in the 1800s, he transitioned into a Democratic-Republican and became Vice President. In 1809, after Jefferson's second term, he became president, where he issued Macon's Bill No.2.

Deflation

A general, sustained downwards movement of prices and services in an economy

Inflation

A general, sustained upwards movement of prices for goods and services in an economy.

The purposeful weakness of executive and judicial powers in the American Bill of Rights

A generation of quarreling with Britain's monarch and his officials left a sense of distrust for arbitrators and judges, so Americans purposefully weakened the powers of the executive and judicial branches.

Salutary Neglect

A government's stoppage of their enforcement of policies over colonists in order to maintain the loyalty of the settlers

Powhatan Tribe and Virginian Colonists: Background Information

A hostile relationship developed between Virginian colonists and the chief of a local tribe known as Powhata.

Market Economy

A market economy is an economy in which decisions regarding production, investment, and distribution are determined by supply and demand. The cotton gin and steamboat played a role in the development of an early American market economy.

Aaron Burr

A matter of 250 votes in New York would have lost Jefferson the presidential race of the 1800s. Burr, a master wire-puller, fought for each vote, and likely won Jefferson the race. As a result, he became Jefferson's first term vice president. After being dropped from the cabinet, he joined a group of radical Federalists that plotted the secession of New England and New York. Hamilton, discovering the plot, was challenged to a duel by Burr. Hamilton refused to shoot, and was shot and killed by Burr.

The Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom

A measure enacted by Jefferson and his peers, the Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom prohibited state support for religious institutions and recognized the freedom of worship. It served as a model for the religious clause of the first amendment to the Constitution.

Stamp Act Congress (1765)

A meeting of delegates from many of the colonies, it was formed to protest the Stamp Act. It sent letters to the King and Parliament, which was the first sign of colonial unity. (1765)

Britain's defiance of America during the Franco-Anglo battles in the 1790s: Jeffersonian analysis

A mighty outcry came from patriotic Americans, namely Jeffersonians, that America should fight England in defense of its liberties. From their point of view, the minimum to be done was a trade embargo with Britain. Federalists stoutly disagreed with all demand for drastic action, and Hamilton, whose hopes for economic development lied with Britain, also disagreed.

The Articles of Confederation

A new Constitution that was created by an appointed committee shortly before America declared independence. It was translated into French soon after the Battle of Saratoga, in order to prove to the French that America had a genuine government.

Demon Rum

A nickname for alcohol

"the American System"

A plan created by Henry Clay in order to develop a profitable U.S. economy, it had 3 main parts. The first was a strong banking system that would provide easy and abundant credit. The second was a protective tariff that would allow eastern American manufacturing to flourish. The third was a network of roads and canals that would transport raw materials across the country.

Pell-mell

A policy applied by Jefferson at dinners, which meant that seating had to follow no social, economic, or political rankings.

Democrats

A political party that was established in 1828.

Crispus Attucks

A powerfully built runaway slave that lead a group of townspeople against a squad of redcoats on March 5th, 1770, where he died.

"The Great Compromise"

A result of the debate between Virginia's "Large-State Plan" and New Jersey's "Small-State Plan", it decreed that larger states would hold a larger makeup in the House of Representatives, while smaller states held equality in the Senate. In order to appease the larger states from the Senate's inequality, it was agreed that every tax bill or revenue measure must originate from the House of Representatives.

The Colored National Labor Union

A spinoff of the earlier National Labor Union which challenged companies for better working conditions, the Colored National Labor Union was unable to work with the National Labor Union since the National Labor Union was supported by racist white unionists and the Republican Party

Fiat Money

A substance or device used as money, having no intrinsic value (no value of its own) or representational value (doesn't represent anything of value, such as gold.)

The Treaty of Tordesillas

A treaty enacted by Spain and Portugal as a result of early colonization, the Treaty of Tordesillas was where Spain and Portugal agreed to divide up the Western Hemisphere for colonization.

Kansas Civil War (1856-1861)

A year after the 1855 legislature elections, a civil war started in Kansas when a group of pro-slavery riders burned down a portion of an abolitionist town called Lawrence. The civil war continued until it merged with the nation's civil war.

Abraham Lincoln: Writ of Habeas Corpus

Abraham Lincoln suspended the Writ of Habeas Corpus (order which would require police to bring prisoner to court and explain why the prisoner is in prison) in order to allow Maryland police to arrest a large amount of rioters without having to acknowledge every single individual.

Abraham Lincoln: Election

Abraham Lincoln was the Republican electoral candidate of 1860, winning against Breckinridge (Southern Democrat), Douglas (Democrat), and Bell (Consitutional Union).

Marshall Plan (1947): Access to Middle Eastern Oil

Access to Middle Eastern Oil was crucial to the European recovery program as well as the health of the U.S. economy. Despite threats from the Arab nations to cut off the supply of oil, President Truman officially recognized the state of Israel in 1947.

The Election of 1824: "Corruption" In the Eyes of the People

According to the Constitution, the House of Representatives was now to "choose the winner" out of the top 3 candidates. Clay, being the 4th, was eliminated. Clay, however, being the Speaker of the House, still had a large say in who became President. He managed to convince the House to elect John Quincy Adams as president, under the agreement that Clay would become Secretary of State when Adams was President. Once the deal succeeded, the public felt betrayed, as Andrew Jackson had received the popular vote. This compounded public desire for a Jacksonian Presidency.

Spanish-American War (April 1898 - Auguest 1898): American Losses

Actually, many more Americans had been killed by the likes of Malaria, Typhoid, and Yellow Fever than by actual war.

Adna Ferrin Webber

Adna Ferrin Webber wrote "The Growth of Cities in Nineteenth Century America" in 1899 under which she underlined the positives of city life over urban life: cities offer more and better education, there are more options for recreation (i.e. the opera), there's a higher standard of living, and Adna Ferrin Webber argues that villages turn people into dull individuals.

Adolf Hitler

Adolf Hitler took control of Germany in 1933, and he was the most dangerous of all the dictators (Stalin, Mussolini) because he had tremendous power and he was also impulsive.

President Nasser: Desire for Western and Soviet Funds - American Withdrawal

After Americans found out that Egyptian President Nasser was also seeking money from the Soviets, they pulled out their monetary offer.

Unexpected German Response following Dewey's Attack

After Commodore George Dewey's destruction of the 10 Spanish ships at Manila, German ships threatened to attack Dewey's ships in the Manila harbor. The German ships claimed that they wanted to protect German nations. In the end, the potential for conflict with Germany blew over.

Cuba: Reconstruction Camps

After Cuban "insurrectos" burned many sugar cane fields, the Spanish government put Cubans in reconstruction camps, so that they couldn't support the "insurrectos."

Election of 1948: Democratic Nominee

After Dwight D. Eisenhower chose not to run for he presidency, the Democrats chose Truman - a nomination that split the Democratic Party.

Post-Emancipation: Black life

After Emancipation, the Church became a cornerstone of black culture. Blacks formed their own churches with their own ministers. Additionally, blacks now had the ability to become educated.

America Post-France Surrender

After France surrendered, Americans realized that the only thing preventing Germany from total European takeover was England. As such, FDR and Congress quickly set out to build large air fleets and a two-ocean navy.

Post World War 2: Division of Korea

After Japan collpased in 1945, Korea was divided up into two sections, with the Soviets controlling the north above the 38th parallel and the United States controlling the South of that line. Each country set up their own opposing government in Korea.

Battle of Antietam: McClellan's Replacement

After McClellan halted Lee's advance at Antietam, President Abraham Lincoln replaced McClellan as commander of the Army of the Potomac with General A.E. Burnside at his side.

The state of democracy after French defeat

After Napoleons defeat, the Europeans wanted to completely eliminate democracy from the political sphere. European powers smothered democratic embers everywhere other than America.

Gerald Ford: Post-Nixon's Resignation

After Nixon resigned, Ford became the first unelected President. He lost supporters when he fully pardoned Nixon in what many believe was a "buddy deal."

Theodore Roosevelt: Presidential Beliefs

After Roosevelt became President, he showed his beliefs: Roosevelt believed that a President should lead, boldly, and that he didn't believe in the checks-and-balances system of the government. Furthermore, Roosevelt believed that he should take any action that's in the interest of the general public.

America: Global Creditor

After WW1, America became a global creditor, loaning money to various countries around the world.

U.S. Demand for Repayment of WW1 Debt

After WW1, the U.S. demanded to be repaid for the $10 billion that it had loaned to the Allies. The Allies protested, stating that they had lost many troops and that America should just consider the money a loss of war. America's post-war tariffs also made it difficult for the European Allies to make money and pay off their debts in the first place.

The political gap after the end of Washington's 1st political half

After Washington's first political term ended in 1793, it left America to two principle parties: Jeffersonian Democratic-Republicans and Hamiltonian Federalists. As Washington's second term began, foreign-policy issues brought the differences between them to a fever pitch.

Sam Erving

After Watergate, a Senate committee was dedicated to investigating even further into the acts committed by Nixon's administration, headed by Sam Erving.

Post World War 2: Latin America's Dissent Towards America - Economic

After World War 2, Latin Americans began to show dissent towards America as they felt like America put aside Latin America's economic necessities in favor of European economic necessities.

Post World War 2: Latin America's Dissent Towards America - Military

After World War 2, Latin Americans despised constant American military intervention, like in 1954when the CIA led a coup that overthrew a leftist government in Guatemala.

Post World War 2: Black Authors

After World War 2, books by black authors made best-seller lists.

Post World War 2: Consturction Industry

After World War 2, due to population mobilization and increased movement towards suburbs, the construction industry expanded in the 1950s and 1960s.

Post World War 2: Poetry & Playwrights

After World War 2, poetry and playwrights flourished.

Repealing the Neutrality Act of 1939

After a series of American ships being sunk by German U-Boats, Congress repealed the Neutrality Act of 1939, which enabled American ships to trade munitions with Britain.

Election of 1860: Founding of the Confederacy

After all 11 states seceded from the Union, they formed an 11-state Confederacy with a population of 9 million, which included roughly 4 million of slaves.

General George B. McClellan: Seven Days' Battles (June 26 to July 2, 1862)

After attacking Confederate General "Stonewall Jackson", Confederate General Robert E. Lee launched a counterattack against Union General George B. McClellan. Beginning on June 26th of 1862 and ending on July 2nd of 1862, the Seven Days' Battles repelled McClellan's campaign back into the sea.

The Creation of the Freedmen's Bureau (1865): Johnson's veto

After becoming President in 1865, Johnson vetoed the 1866 recharter for the continuation of the Freedmen's Bureau. Johnson believed that the Bureau encroached on state's rights and stopped blacks from becoming independent by offering too much government support. Thus, the Bureau expired in 1872.

President Johnson's Reconstruction Plan: Background Info

After becoming VP in 1865, he issued his own Reconstruction Plan later that year. Johnson's reconstruction plan called for special state conventions under which decrees of secession would be repealed, Confederate debts would be repudiated (meaning that the states would no longer be liable for any debt the Confederacy accrued), and the ratification of the slave-freeing 13th amendment. States that followed this Plan would be readmitted into the Union.

James Buchanan: National Division

After becoming president post-election of 1856, James Buchanan divided the nation by virtue of his support for the Lecompton Constitution because it enraged Northern Democrats. The Democratic Party, being the only contemporary party that acted in unison and undivided, was now separated, and therefore so was the Union.

John Brown: Conviction

After being caught by the early Colonel Robert E. Lee, John Brown was convicted of treason against the Commonwealth of Virginia. He was later executed.

General Robert E. Lee: Battle of Antietam

After defeating Pope at the Second Battle of Bull Run, he met McClellan once again at Antietam in Maryland. Unfortunately for Lee, McClellan was able to halt Lee's advance at the Battle of Antietam, since McClellan's forces gained access to Lee's battle plans. Although not a straight Union victory, the Union successfully halted Lee's advance.

General Robert E. Lee: The Second Battle of Bull Run (1862)

After defeating Union General George B. McClellan's "Peninsula Campaign" forces at Richmond, General Lee moved North, towards bull run. During the Second Battle of Bull Run, Lee defeated Union General Pope's forces.

Court-Packing Plan

After his re-election, FDR thought that meant that Americans wanted the New Deal programs, and that SCOTUS should fall in line. In 1937, Roosevelt proposed legislation that would allow him to add Liberal justices to the court - a new justice for every old one over 70 that wouldn't retire. The plan received much negative feedback, and became known as the Court-Packing Plan.

President Nixon: Visit to Moscow (1972)

After his visit to China, President Nixon visited Moscow and negotiated detente, aka relaxed tensions between the Soviet Union and China.

Sharecropping: "Jumping"

After realizing that they would never be able to repay their debts, blacks began to "jump" their contracts.

Susan B. Anthony (1820-1906)

After teaching for 15 years, Susan B. Anthony became active in temperance. However, since she was a woman, she couldn't speak out at rallies, and her relationship with Elizabeth Cady Stanton led her to join the women's rights movement in 1852. Soon, she dedicated her life to woman suffrage, and spent her days travelling and canvassing America in order to gain supporters for her cause. In 1900, Susan B. Anthony persuaded the University of Rochester to accept women. Additionally, she attacked prostitution and spouse abuse.

"Bonus Expeditionary force": Refusal to Leave the Capitol

After the "Bonus Expeditionary Force" refused to leave the Captiol, President Hoover sent in the army to evacuate the group. The ensuing riots and incidents brought additional public disdain for Hoover.

American Victory in Manila: Effect on Hawaii

After the American Success in the Philippines, it was thought that Hawaii was needed to serve as a supply base for Dewey and his fleet. Therefore, Congress passed a joint resolution of Congress to annex Hawaii on July 7th, 1898.

Battle of Dien Bien Phu ( 1954): Division of Vietnam

After the Battle of Bien Dien Phu in 1954, Vietnam was divided at the 17th parallel Ho Chi Minh was given the territory north of the line, and a pro-Western Government led by Ngo Dinh Diem was given the territory to the south.

Southern Education

After the Civil War, the South lagged far behind other regions in public education, with African-Americans suffering the most. The leading champion of black education was former slave Booker T. Washington.

Election of 1936: Outcome

After the Election of 1936, FDR was reelected as President in a lopsided victory. FDR won primarily because he had appealed to the "forgotten man", AKA the Southerners, blacks, urbanites, the poor, etc.

Election of 1948: Outcome

After the Election of 1948, Democratic nominee Truman was promoted to President. Many of his votes came from the votes of farmers, workers, and blacks.

Election of 1952: Outcome

After the Election of 1952, Eisenhower won by a large majority.

Election of 1956: Outcome

After the Election of 1956, Eisenhower decidedly beat his Democratic opponent.

Election of 1960: Outcome

After the Election of 1960, Kennedy won, because he gained support from workers, Catholics, and African Americans.

Election of 1968: Outcome

After the Election of 1968, Republican Richard Nixon won.

Election of 1976: Outcome

After the Election of 1976, Democrat Jimmy Carter beat Republican Gerald Ford to win the presidency.

Post Korean War: Eisenhower's Influence

After the Korean War, Eisenhower's leadership style of sincerity, fairness, and optimism helped to comfort the nation after the war.

Post-Reconstruction Democratic "Redeemers"

After the Reconstruction, Democratic "Redeemers" resumed political power in the South and began to enact laws that discriminated against blacks.

Six Day War (1967): Israeli Territorial Gains

After the Six Day War, Israel gained the territories of the Golan Heights, the Gaza Strip, and the West Bank

Cotton Gin invented in 1794

After the cotton gin was invented, slave labor wasn't as necessary. Prior to the cotton gin, slaves had to painstakingly remove seeds from lint by hand. With the cotton gin, however, the process could be automated. The cotton gin supported the development of a market economy.

Public Health

After the end of the Civil War, the quality of public health rose with the increase of scientific advancements.

Election of 1860: Long-term consequences of the election of Republican Abraham Lincoln

After the immediate secessions of several states, Virginia, Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina also follow and secede.

The Union & Confederate Armies: Union Black Enlistment

After the issuance of the Emancipation Proclamation and as manpower ran low, blacks were allowed to enlist in the Union Army.

Texan Independence: Mexican Defeat

After the loss at the Battle of the Alamo that greatly roused Texan nationalism, Sam Houston's (Texan Commander-in-Chief) army retreated to San Jacinto. On the way, despite being outnumbered by 400 men, Houston turned back and took advantage of the time at which the Mexican army would take a break. There, the Texans wiped out the pursuing force and captured Santa Anna.

Post-Civil War Southern Ideology

After the war (and their defeat), Southerners continued to believe that their view on secession was correct.

Post World War 2: State of European Nations & America

After the war, many European countries were virtually destroyed. Meanwhile, American infrastructure remained completely capable.

Alan Watson

Alan Watson was an alumni of the University of North Carolina. Watson believed that the American revolution wasn't radical nor liberal, because American's simply wanted their rights back.

Alexander Graham Bell

Alexander Graham Bell was the person that invented the telephone in 1876.

Alexander Hamilton

Alexander Hamilton was a stout Federalist, therefore he supported the ratification of a new Constitution and a strong central government. Hamilton served as Washington's Secretary of the Treasury, where he spearheaded things such as taxes, the Convention of 1787, as well as the idea that Congress should assume state debt. Hamilton would later lead the Federalist party in the early 1800s.

Election of 1928: Alfred E. Smith's inability to win.

Alfred E. Smith was unable to win the South over mostly due to a combination of his Catholicism, opposition to prohibition, and liberal ideals.

Alfred M. Landon

Alfred M. Landon was the Republican nominee to run against President Roosevelt in the Election of 1936.

Alfred Thayer Mahan

Alfred Thayer Mahan was an American US Navy Officer that placed great importance on sea power and influenced military ideologies worldwide. The lead vessel of a class of destroyers, as well as many other ships, were coined the USS Mahan. Mahan's research into naval history led to the publishing of his book, The Influence of Seapower Upon History, in 1890.

Alger Hiss

Alger Hiss was a former state department official that was accused of being a Soviet Spy. He was prosecuted by Richard Nixon.

Alice Paul

Alice Paul was the leader of the National Woman's Party, which protested World War 2.

The Middle Colonies: Population Demographics

All of the Middle Colonies are demographically, religiously, and ethnically diverse, such as the Dutch, the Quakers, Protestants, Puritans, etc.

Allan Bakke

Allan Bakke was a medical student that was rejected twice from the University of California while minority individuals with far worse grades were accepted.

Universal Male Suffrage

Allowed all free white males to vote and maintain office regardless of property ownership or religious upbringings.

Daniel Webster

Also known as the "expounding (systematically in details) father", he served in both the House of Representatives and the Senate.

Boxer Rebellion

Also known as the Boxer Uprising, the Boxer Rebellion was a Chinese-nationally supported peasant uprising that blamed foreign peoples and institutions for the loss of the traditional Chinese way of life. "Boxers" were typically skilled fighters that attacked Westerners, beginning with Christian missionaries.

Treaty of Portsmouth (1905)

Also known as the Portsmouth Treaty, the Treaty of Portsmouth (1905) ended the Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905) after it was brokered by Theodore Roosevelt. Japan dominated the war and received an indemnity, Manchurian Liaodong Peninsula, and half of Sakhalin Island. However, many Japanese condemned the Treaty, because they expected more territory.

The Purchase of Alaska: American Willingness

Although Americans were focused on Reconstruction and anti-expansion, many Americans supported the purchase of Alaska because they didn't want to offend the Russians, who had supported them during the Civil War. However, not all Americans liked the purchase, and those individuals dubbed the purchase "Seward's Folly."

American Perspective on Nazis

Although Americans were heavily Anti-Nazi, they wanted to stay out of the war.

Role of Cambodia in Vietnamese War

Although Cambodia was officially neutral in the Vietnamese war, the North Vietnamese had been using Cambodia as a springboard for troops, weapons, and supplies.

Finland: Soviet Union's Takeover

Although Congress had loaned $30 Billion to Finland "non militarily" in order to fend off the Soviets, the Soviets speedily took Finland.

President Eisenhower: Perspective on New Deal Programs

Although Eisenhower wanted to cancel the New Deal programs, he lacked the public support to do so.

President Eisenhower's Flexibility with Democratic Ideals

Although Eisenhower was a Republican President, he helped integrate the reforms of the Democratic New Deal and Fair Deal programs into American life.

President Eisenhower: Political Perspective on the Economy and the Government

Although President Eisenhower was liberal with people, he was conservative when it came to economy and government. Eisenhower strove to balance the federal budget as well as to guard America from socialism.

President McKinley: Lack of Desire for War with the Spaniards

Although President McKinley didn't want a war with Spain following the 1896 Congressional Recognition of Cuba, the American people did. In the end, he conceded to the American people, and he sent his war message to Congress on April 11, 1898, adopting the Teller Amendment.

President Wilson's POV on the Draft

Although President Wilson was initially opposed to a draft, Wilson eventually realized that a draft was necessary to raise the large army that was to be sent to France. Thus, Congress passed the 1917 Draft Act

The Four Constitutional Holdouts: North Carolina and Rhode Island

Although meetings were held, the heated discussion led to adjourned votes for several months. They were to change their course, albeit unwillingly, only after the new government had been in operation for several months.

The Gadsden Purchase of 1853

Although most attempts at expansion under Franklin Pierce's presidency failed, the Gadsden Purchase succeeded in purchasing a strip of land for $10 million from Mexico. This land was purchased in order to allow for the building of a future transcontinental railroad route.

The long-term effects of Jefferson's and Madison's disagreement with Hamiltonian policy

Although nobody foresaw the creation of permanent political parties, Jefferson and Madison were harshly critical of Hamiltonian policy. Their political words spread through newspapers, which resulted in disagreements in logic among common citizens. The semblances of permanent political parties were baring their feet.

White populous makeup of the South

Although non-slave owning whites were 3/4th of the population with wealthy slave owners and less wealthy slave owners making up the other 1/4th, they supported slavery because they wanted to follow through with the "American Dream" via the usage of slaves.

Indian Tribes' Allegiance

Although the Americans had some Native allies, British by far had the majority of them. The Natives allied with the British because they believed it would stop Americans from continuing to settle into their land.

Battle of Antietam: Effect on Lincoln

Although the Battle of Antietam wasn't a complete Union victory, it stopped Confederate advancement. The Battle of Antietam gave Lincoln the military backing to issue the emancipation proclamation later in 1862, issuing a final proclamation on January 1st, 1863.

the "3rd race"

Although the North wasn't decidedly excluding blacks, it was similar to the South in that it didn't particularly care for them. In the South, freed blacks were forbidden from having certain jobs and testifying against whites in court. These blacks became known as the "3rd race".

Long Term Result of the Spanish-American War

Although the Spanish-American war lasted only 113 days, it increased American worldwide prestige. One of the greatest results of the war was the bonding between Northern America and South America.

North Korean Invasion of South Korea (1950): American Troops in Battle

Although the U.N. was responsible for sending troops to fight the North Koreans, the fight was led by General MacArthur and most of the troops were American.

Yalta Conference: Purpose

Although the purpose of the Yalta Conference was to reach a mutual conclusion, none of the agreements were actually binding. The Conference was essentially just a way for the Big Three to discuss general post-war plans.

Hungarian Uprising (1956): Reason for American Denial of Aid

America denied Hungary's request for aid because America thought that its nuclear arsenal was too large to use on a somewhat small crisis.

World War 1: America Joins In

America joins World War 1 in 1917, seeking to establish the neutrality of the seas from German U-Boats, especially after the sinking of British Ocean Liner Lusitania, to ascertain that Britain would pay off their $11 Billion debt to America, and to stop the goals of the Zimmerman Telegram, which was to get Mexico to fight America under the promise of being returned the lost land from the Mexican-American war.

Post World War 2: American Preparation for War in Comparison with Other Countries

America prepared for the war for about a year and a half, much more than any other nation, so it was left in an excellent state after World War 2.

Chinese History in America: Those who Migrated

America was known as a bachelor society; many migrators were unskilled and poor.

US and Asia General Overview: Open Door Policy

America's desire for the "Open Door Policy" meant that China had to open markets to Americans and Europeans. To "get in", America sent marines to put down the Nationalist Boxer Rebellion.

Post World War 2: Casualties

American Forces suffered 1 million casualties in World War 2, while the Soviet Union suffered nearly 25 million casualties.

General Benedict Arnold

American morale was staggered when Arnold turned traitor in 1780. He was trying to sell the key stronghold of West Point to the british for money, which was found out in the nick of time, and caused Arnold to flee to the British.

New Commercial Outlets Post-Revolution

Americans could now trade freely with foreign countries, rather than being trade-locked to Britain. In 1784, the Empress of China (boat) carried a valuable weed (ginseng) that was prized by Chinese herb doctors as a cure for impotence, and it led the way into the East Asian market.

American Isolationist Attitude Amongst Dictators (1930s, Mussolini, Hitler, Stalin)

Americans maintained an isolationist attitude among the dictators because they thought that the oceans surrounding America would protect them.

Post World War 2: American Point of View on Germany vs Russian Point of View on Germany

Americans realized that a flourishing German economy was necessary for the recovery of Europe, while Soviets refused to support the development of Germany out of fear of another German-initiated war.

The Impact of the French Revolution on the US: Background Information

Americans saw parallels in the French Revolution with their own revolution: the French imposed a constitution on a monarch which they disagreed with. Americans were flattered to believe that the French Revolution was something like a "second chapter" to the American Revolution, and to some extent, it was. Jeffersonians were overjoyed to see the "mobocracy" (the will of the individual) at play, and only ultraconservatives spoke out against the aforementioned "mobocracy."

Seward's Folly

Americans that disliked the purchase of Alaska dubbed it "Seward's Folly," as the individual that made the decision was contemporary Secretary of State William Seward.

The era of Andrew Jackson (1820-1840) [political]

Americans virtually invented mass democracy, creating huge political parties and enormously expanding political participation by enfranchising nearly all adult white males. A national literature blossomed. Crusades were launched for temperance, prison reform, women's rights, and the abolition of slavery.

Factors affecting Reform in this era: Expansion

Americans were attempting (and successfully doing) to move West in order to gain more territory.

Resource shortages for the Americans

Americans were ill-armed, that's why they needed France's aid - to acquire weapons. Furthermore, they lacked food and supplements to nourish their soldiers.

American Worry over German Populace

Americans were worried over the 8 million German-Americans living in America, and some began to worry about spying and sabotage, causing a hysterical hatred and fear of Germans nationwide.

Slave Ship Amistad

Amistad, a slave ship, was taken over when enslaved Africans rebelled and took the ship over in 1839. The ship initially landed in Long Island, but the Africans were later returned to Sierra Leone.

The impact of the Leopard incident

Among the Embargo Act of 1807, "war hawks" popped up in Congress. They demanded reparations from Britain and a stronger military. Some "war hawks" were Henry Clay (KY) and John Calhoun (SC).

First Wave Tenement Reform (1867)

An 1867 tenement law required one toilet per 20 people that was, when available, connected to sewers. In addition, transoms (windows above doors) were required to be installed into all interior bedrooms.

Second Wave Tenement Reform (1879)

An 1879 tenement law required all rooms to be equipped with ventilation (which resulted in "dumbbell" shaped buildings) and also required crude toilets to be replaced with "school sinks."

The War of 1812: Declaration and the British Reaction

An American attack on British Canada resulted in the burning of Ottawa and its capital building. In a reactionary move, Britain attacked Baltimore and pushed through to DC, where the U.S. Capitol and the Executive Mansion (not yet called the White House) were burned down.

Patrick Henry

An American colonist that urged the Americans to take up arms against the British.

The Rush-Bagot Agreement

An agreement handled in 1817 between the US and Great Britain, it limited naval armament on the Great Lakes.

"The Sword of the Revolution"

An alias for George Washington.

"Articles of Confusion"

An alternative name for the Articles of Confederation, some argued that it merely loosely joined thirteen independent states for joint action in common issues.

Scott Hammond

An alumni of James Madison university and a present day politician, Hammond believed that the American revolution was a "radical" or liberal change. He argued for Natural Rights, ie. rights as an Englishman, weren't as important as the government.

George Rogers Clark

An audacious American frontiersman, George Clarks' tactic of taking fortresses by surprise resulted in many small American victories over the British.

Panama Revolution

An example of Roosevelt's "Big Stick Diplomacy" The Panamanian Revolution began when the US tried to convince Colombia to build the Panama Canal. When Colombia declined, they "encouraged" Panama to revolt - and they did, and thus, the Panama Canal was built.

The idea of "loose construction" pertaining to the Constitution

An ideal championed by Hamilton in response to Jefferson, it ordained that the Constitution should be followed, as it says, loosely.

The idea of "strict construction" pertaining to the Constitution

An ideal championed by Jefferson and his disciples, it ordained that the Constitution should be followed "literally."

Open Door Policy

An ideology of John Hay's, it was meant to attempt to preserve Chinese territorial integrity while simultaneously protecting American interests in China.

"The Architect's Dream"

An oil painting made by Thomas Cole in 1840, "The Architect's Dream". It portrayed a pyramid in the background, suggesting Egypt, a cathedral suggesting Europe, domes suggesting Rome, and columns suggesting Greece. He seemed to be saying that America held the characteristics of all cultures.

Oligarchy

An oligarchy is a type of government in which a small group of people rule the country, group, or institution.

Andrew Carnegie

Andrew Carnegie was actually not a monopolist and in general, Carnegie disliked monopolistic trusts. By 1900, Carnegie was producing 1/4th of the nation's Bessemer steel. After a $400 million buyout from J.P. Morgan to get out of the steel industry, Carnegie spent the rest of his life donating money to charities.

Andrew Carnegie: Gospel of Wealth

Andrew Carnegie's Social Darwinist "Gospel of Wealth" ideology was that the wealthy are typically especially skilled, intelligent, and prepared with the tools to responsibly and efficiently distribute money. As such, it's possible to infer that not being wealthy is a result of character flaws.

The Origin of Support for each Candidate in the Electoral Race of 1828

Andrew Jackson's support stemmed mostly from the agrarian South and West, while John Quincy Adams' support stemmed mostly from the commercial North, around the New England colonies.

The Election of 1828

Andrew Jackson, a member of the Democratic-Republican party ("Democrat"), beat John Quincy Adams, a National Republican ("Republican"), for the role of President of the United States in the electoral race of 1828.

Andrew Jackson

Andrew Jackson, the 7th President of the United States and a Democratic-Republican, was the first President of Western/Southern origin and was the second President to not have a College education. Jackson uses the power of the veto far more than any of his predecessors, because he vetoed any bills he thought would go against public ideal and opinion. Although he initially believed in a weak federal government, he later built the federal government into a stronger entity than it ever was. His first Vice President was John C. Calhoun, who resigned as VP, and his second Vice President was Van buren.

Monopolistic tendencies of the Bank of the United States

Andrew Jackson, the 7th President of the United States, despised the Bank of the United States because he believed that it was monopolistic. Although the Bank minted gold and silver coins, it was not accountable to the people; as a private institution, it was only accountable to its investors. Regardless, the Bank of the United States held 33% of ALL U.S deposits, made 20% of the nation's loans, and kept most U.S. Treasury funds.

Andrew Johnson: Political Beliefs

Andrew Johnson was a Democrat; a strong supporter of states rights and the Constitution-- he was a Southerner that didn't understand the North and a Democrat who had not been accepted by the Republicans.

Anne Hutchinson

Anne Hutchinson challenged the accepted role of women within the Puritan church by openly speaking out against church leaders. Just like Rogers, Hutchinson is also booted out of the Massachusetts Bay Colony.

Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI, Star Wars, 1983)

Announce by President Reagan in 1983, the missile-defense system called Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) called for orbiting battle satellites in space that could fire laser beams to shoot down intercontinental missiles.

Anthony Comstock

Anthony Comstock was a postal inspector and politician dedicated to following Victorian morals. He played a role in passing the Comstock Law, which censored "immoral" material from the public.

The Four Constitutional Holdouts: New York

Anti federalist New York was the second state to cede to the Constitution after being turned inside out by the likes of Federalists James Madison, Alexander Hamilton, and John Jay. Together, they penned newspapers that persuaded New York citizens in favor of the Constitution. However, the deciding factor was the final agreement of New York politicians over the fact that that New York wouldn't be able to succeed without Union support.

The Four Constitutional Holdouts: Virginia

Anti federalist Virginia was the first state to cede to the Constitution. After the cries of outspoken Federalist Patrick Henry, they agreed that the Constitution would be ratified with or without Virginian approval. Upon agreement that Virginia couldn't succeed as an independent state, ratification of the Constitution carried.

Antifederalist opposition to the ratification of the Constitution

Anti federalists charged that the sovereignty of states was being submerged and that individual freedoms were jeopardized by the lack of a bill of rights. They decried the dropping of annual elections for congressional representatives, the erecting of a federal stronghold ten miles square (the District of Columbia), the creation of a standing army, the omission of any reference to god, and the questionable procedure of ratifying a Constitution with the good faith of only two-thirds of the states.

Anti federalists

Anti federalists opposed a strong central government: they were fearful of the corruption of man once power is obtained. To the anti federalists, small governments susceptible to local (citizen) control were the only safeguards against tyranny.

The Great Debate in the States between federalists and anti federalists over the Constitution nearing ratification

Anti federalists were highly alarmed by the absence of a bill of rights, but their concerns were soothed by federalists that claimed that a bill of rights would be established upon the convene of the first Congress. Eventually, in 1788, 9 states approved the Constitution, the only 4 disagreeing being Virginia, New York, North Carolina, and Rhode Island.

Antiforeignism (Nativism, 1880s)

Antiforeignism arose around the 1880s. Antiforeignists (aka nativists) worried that the original Anglo-Saxon population would soon be outnumbered and outvoted - in additional, antiforeignists blamed immigrants for societal issues.

Medium of Exchange

Anything that is generally accepted in return for goods and/or services.

Equal Rights Amendment (ERA)

Approved by Congress but never ratified by the states, the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) would have prohibited laws that discriminated based on sex. The Equal Rights Amendment was seen by manyfeminists as the only way to eliminate legal gender-based discrimination.

Archibald Cox

Archibald Cox was the prosecutor of the Watergate Scandal, fired by Nixon in what was known as the "Saturday Night Massacre" after issuing a subpoena for tapes from the Watergate Hotel.

Drago Doctrine

Argentine jurist, Luis Drago, proposed that European countries could not use force to collect debts owed by countries in the Americas. They could not blockade South American ports. Adopted as part of the Hague Convention in 1907.

Thomas Paine (1737-1809)

Argued for the superiority of a republic (where power flows from the people) over a monarchy (where power flows from a central, powerful figure).

Women during WW2

Around 216,000 women were enlisted in WW2. Most well known were the WAACs (army), WAVES (navy), and SPARs (coast guard). Some women now took industrial jobs, but many stayed with their traditional household lifestyle.

The Second Era of Good Feelings

Around the Election of 1848, the 2nd Era of Good Feelings came about. During the era, Northerners and Southerners alike believed that the Compromises would curb any thoughts of secession.

Arthur Zimmerman

Arthur Zimmerman was a German foreign secretary that had secretly proposed a Mexican-German alliance against the U.S.

The Battle of Gettysburg (1863)

As Lee moved his Confederate army north towards Pennsylvania, he met Union General Meade's army at Gettysburg in 1863. After Confederate General George Pickett's charge massively failed, the Union won the battle. There were around 50,000 casualties in total.

Gerald Ford: Helsinki Accords

As President, Ford signed the Helsinki Accords in July of 1975, which recognized Soviet boundaries and eased US-Soviet tension.

Charles Evans Hughes as Harding's Secretary of State - Oil

As Secretary of State, Charles Evans Hughes secured the rights for American oil companies to share oil lands in the Middle East with Britain.

Panama and Cuba: Good Neighbor Policy

As a result of FDR's Good Neighbor Policy, America released some control over Cuba and Panama.

Haiti: Complete Marine Withdrawal (1934)

As a result of FDR's Good Neighbor Policy, all marines left Haiti in 1934.

"Bonus Expeditionary Force": Actions (1932)

As a result of WW1 Veterans being hit hard by the Great Depression, the "Bonus Expeditionary Force" converged on the Capitol in the summer of 1932. They demanded that Congress fully pay the deferred bonus that Congress passed in 1924, even though the payment was set to be paid in 1945.

Tet Offensive (1968): President Johnson's Doubts

As a result of his increasing disdain from the American public, he began to doubt the wisdom of continuing to send troops to Vietnam.

Economic Benefits of the American Revolution

As a result of the American Revolution, states seized control of former Crown territories, and confiscated land and possessions from British Loyalists. Roger Morris, a British Loyalist in New York, had his land cut up into 250 parcels of land in the form of farms, thus accelerating the spread of economic democracy.

Emergence of racially mixed populations of Europeans/Natives/Africans

As a result of the Encomienda system and the increased interracial mingling due to colonization, there was an emergence of racially mixed populations, such as the Mestizo and Mulatto.

The Financial Panic of 1837: Effects

As a result of the Financial Panic of 1837, the price of grain was so high that 3 weeks before Van Buren came into office, New York citizens broke into warehouses and opened flour barrels. Hundreds of American banks collapsed, including Pet Banks, some of which contained millions of dollars of federal funds. The price of goods dropped, public lands stopped being sold, and money from tariffs dried up. The Panic may have hit its peak in Van Buren's reign, but it really started in Jackson's reign.

Stock Market Crash (1929): Results

As a result of the crash, millions had lost their jobs and thousands of banks closed. The US was the hardest industrialized nation to be hit - leading to the Great Depression.

Wildcat Currency

As a result of the death of the Bank of the United States in 1836, some smaller banks decided to issue their own currency. However, this "wildcat" currency was extremely unreliable, as its value depended on the success of the bank that it was issued from. Later in 1836, "wildcat" currency became so unreliable that Jackson told the National Treasury to issue a Specie Circular, a decree that would require the purchase of all territories to be done in metallic currency. This step, meant to be a safeguard, greatly contributed to the Financial Panic of 1837.

Powhatan Tribe and Virginian Colonists: Results

As a result of the hostile relationship between Virginian colonists and the Powhatan tribe, tensions with Natives increased as settlers moved West. This tension resulted in the Anglo-Powhatan Wars between 1610 and 1646.

The Massacre of 1622: Results

As a result of the massacre of 1622, about 1/3rd of the Virginian colonists are killed, numbering around 300.

The Compact Theory

As applied to America by the Jeffersonians, this concept meant that the thirteen sovereign states in creating the federal government, had entered into a "compact,'' or contract, regarding its jurisdiction. The national government was consequently the agent or creation of the states. As a result, it claimed that the states were the final judges of whether or not the government overstepped the original power it was given. Invoking this logic, Jefferson's Kentucky resolutions concluded that the federal regime had exceeded its Constitutional powers, and therefore were allowed to nullify, or ignore, them.

The Union League: Background Information

As blacks were granted the right to vote via the 15th amendment, they began organizing themselves politically. Blacks were strong participators in the Union League, originally a pro-Union organization.

The South in the Face of the Early Industrial Era

As late as 1900, the South still produced fewer goods than it had before the Civil War. Southern agriculture received a boost in the 1880s when machine-made cigarettes replaced hand-made cigarettes, which increased tobacco consumption.

Fidel Castro: Politics as Leader of Cuba (1959)

As leader of Cuba in 1959 , Castro became militarily and economically allied with the Soviet Union - becoming a military satellite for them.

Dime Novels

As literacy increased, book-reading also increased. With this fact, Dime Novels were written, which were short books about the wilds of the West.

Barry Goldwater: Political Platform

As part of his campaign in the Election of 1964, Barry Goldwater attacked the Federal income tax, the Social Security System, the Tennessee Valley Authority, Civil Rights legislation, the nuclear test-ban treaty, and the Great Society.

Great Society Plan: New Departments

As part of the Great Society Plan, two new departments were created: the Department of Transportation (DOT), and the Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD)

Post World War 2: Division of Germany

As the USSR spread Communism to its Eastern zone in Germany and the Western Allies promoted the idea of a reunited Germany, Germany was divided into 2 zones: Western Germany, an independent country, and East Germany, a Soviet Union "satellite" state - shut off from the rest of the world by the Soviet Union's "iron curtain."

Grover Cleveland: Role on Federal Office Makeup

As the first Democratic President in 28 years, Grover Cleveland replaced thousands of Republican federal offices with Democratic employees.

Federalists vs Democratic Republicans: Federalists

As the presidential contest of 1800 approached, the differences between Federalists and democratic republicans were emphasized. The Federalists, welded into a cohesive party by Hamilton, argued for American rule by the "best people", that is, those who own the country, ie. by property, enterprise, and wealth. Of course, Federalists also pushed for the usual ideals, a strong central government, and government SUPPORT, not INTERFERENCE, of private enterprise.

California: Gold Rush

As with anything that boosted the economy, sectional tension followed. The North and the South gained increasing friction. This balance further stretched once California wrote a Constitution and asked to be added to the Union as a free state with the outlaw of slavery.

Abraham Lincoln: Death

Assassinated in 1865 by John Wilkes Booth, the presidency was given to then-Vice President Andrew Johnson

Camp David: Signing of Peace Accords (1978)

At Camp David in 1978, Egyptian President Anwar Sadat and Israeli Prime Minister Menachem Begin signed Peace Accords.

Sand Creek, Colorado (1864)

At Sand Creek, Colorado, in 1864, Colonel J. M. Chivington's militia ended up killing 400 innocent Indians.

Fredericksburg, Virginia

At a battle in Fredericksburg, Virginia, General A.E. Burnside suffered a massive defeat. This defeat served as a trigger for his replacement from his role as Lincoln's wing-man post-Antietam.

The Gettysburg Address

At a cemetery dedication in Gettysburg after the battle, Lincoln framed the Civil War as a means to uphold the framework of liberty.

The Lexington Massacre of 1775

At the Lexington Massacre of 1775, a British Commander sent out a detachment of troops to Lexington and Concord to retrieve gunpowder. Minutemen who didn't disperse in time were caught in the middle and killed. It was a call to arms for the Revolutionaries.

Vietnamese Civil War (1950s): Beginning

At the beginning of the Vietnamese Civil War in the 1950s, Nationalist movements tried to throw the French out of Vietnam.

Post World War 2: Division of Austria and Germany

At the end of World War 2, Austria and Germany were divided into 4 military occupation zones, all of which were assigned to one of the Big Four powers, aka France, Britain, American, and the USSR.

The Ending of the Gilded Age: Taxpayers

At the end of the Gilded Age in 1913, only the richest 1% of Americans paid tax - those earning above $3000.

President Hoover: Beginning of the Great Depression

At the start of the Great Depression, Hoover believed that industry and self-reliance had made America great, and that the government shouldn't play a role in the welfare of the people. Soon, however, he realized that the welfare of the people in a nationwide catastrophe was a direct concern of the government.

Native Resistance towards new Religion

Attempts to change Native American beliefs led to Native resistance and conflict. One direct consequence was the Pueblo Revolt.

Attorney General Daugherty

Attorney General Daugherty was accused of illegally selling pardons and liquor permits.

Non-Transcendentalists during the Transcendentalist Movement

Not all poets and writers during the Transcendentalist movement were Transcendentalists. Some examples would be Edgar Allen Poe, Herman Melville (writer of "Moby Dick"), and Henry Wadsworth Longfellow.

Francis Scott Key

Author of "The Star Spangled Banner", he was an American prisoner aboard a British ship that watched the British fleet bombard Fort McHenry.

The "National Road" or the "Cumberland Road"

Authorized by Jefferson in 1802, it connected Cumberland, Maryland with Wheeling, Virginia by 1812.

Naturalism in the late 1800s

Authors in the late 1800s applied detached scientific objectivity to the study of human beings.

Realism in the late 1800s

Authors in the late 1800s wrote about coarse human comedy as well as the drama of the world.

Regionalism in the late 1800s

Authors in the late 1800s wrote about local ways of life before industrialization

Bacon's Rebellion (1676): Rebellion

Bacon's Rebellion finally erupted in 1676 when Nathaniel Bacon leads a rebellion against Indians on the frontier and razed Jamestown to the ground.

The 2nd Great Awakening: The Midwest and South: Baptists

Baptists were especially popular in the deep south and often led Southerners to offer faith to their slave populations afterward.

Bartolome de las Cases

Bartolome de las Casas, another Spaniard, wrote "A Short Account of the Destruction of the Indies", which criticized the Spanish treatment of the Natives. This book contradicted Sepulveda's book.

Alexander Hamilton and his role as Secretary of the Treasury: Customs and Taxes

Now assuming the debt of the states, the national debt was $71.5 million. Hamilton saw past the large number, and saw it as a "binding agent" for the states of the Union. If more people relied on the government for their debts to paid off, they have a reason to see America succeed.

Beard's "An Economic Interpretation of the Constitution of the United States" (1913)

Beard's book argued that the Articles of Confederation had protected debtors and small property owners and displeased wealthy elites heavily invested in trade, the public debt, and the promotion of manufacturing. Only a more centralized government could serve to protect the extensive property interests of the elite. Beard's analysis concluded that many of the delegates that fostered the Constitution held investments that would greatly benefit as a result-- suggesting that the decision of the removal of the Articles of Confederation may have been influenced by personal affairs.

Congress' 1921 Joint Resolution

Because the Treaty of Versailles was rejected by the US, it had technically been at war with Germany, Austria, and Hungary for 3 years afterwards. Congress finally passed a joint resolution in July, 1921 that officially declared the war over.

President Ulysses S. Grant

Becoming President as a Republican after the Election of 1868, President Grant pardoned all Confederate leaders.

The era of good feelings

Beginning in 1816, it was the last time a Federalist president was voted into office in James Monroe. It was known as the "era of good feelings" because the two political parties were, for once, getting along.

The Black Hawk War

Beginning in 1830, the Black Hawk War was a war between Illinois Indian tribes, led by Black Hawk, and America, which was trying to impose the Indian Removal Act of 1830 over the Indians. The resistance was eventually crushed in 1832 as Black Hawk's power proved to not be enough to fend off the land-hungry Americans.

Operation Torch

Beginning in 1942, Operation Torch was the allied push into Africa, starting with Morocco and Algeria. U.S. and British forces trapped German and Italian troops, forcing them to surrender.

Hawaii: The Role of the State Department

Beginning in the 1840s, the US State Department warned other countries to stay out of Hawaii. In 1887, a treaty with the native government guaranteed naval-base rights at Pearl Harbor.

Ben Wade

Ben Wade was the presidential replacement of Andrew Johnson, and his economic policies may have been the reason why Johnson wasn't impeached-- some Senators may have voted Andrew Johnson "not guilty" out of simple dislike for Wade's economic policy.

Benito Mussolini

Benito Mussolini took control of Italy in 1922.

Post World War 2: Berlin

Berlin, still occupied by the Four Big Powers (France, US, Britain, USSR,) was completely surrounded by the Soviet Occupation Zone.

Betty Friedan

Betty Friedan was the author of "The Feminine Mystique". Betty Friedan encouraged women to seek new opportunities for themselves.

Virginian and Massachusset Monopoly over the Presidency

Between 1789 (the First President, George Washington) and 1820, all of the presidents were from either Virginia or Massachusetts. John Adams, the only Massachusettsian, was President from 1796-1800.

The Land Act of 1820

Between 1791 and 1819, 9 states joined the Union. People moved west because of the construction of highways, the lack of natives, and cheap land. The Land Act of 1820 allowed a buyer to purchase 80 virgin acres at a minimum price of $1.25 per acre. Furthermore, the West demanded cheap transportation.

Art Essence of America between 1820-1850

Between 1820 and 1850, a Greek revival in architecture came to America. Most of the ideas of art and painting were taken from Europe.

Increase in Women Workers

Between 1900 and 1998, the amount of women workers in a given job increased exponentially (as they strayed from the traditional household lifestyle).

GDP Increase and Unemployment during 1921-1929

Between 1921-1929, real GDP grows 4.7% per year, and the unemployment rate is a mere 4%.

Berlin Blockade (1948-1949)

Between 1948 and 1949, the Berlin Blockade was an attempt by the Soviet Union to starve out the Allies in Berlin in order to gain supremacy. The blockade was a high point in the cold war, and it led to the Berlin Airlift.

1950-1970: Education and Religious Relationship

Between 1950 and 1970, educated people became increasingly secular while uneducated people became increasingly religious.

The Gilded Age: Population Growth

Between the 1870s and the 1890s, the West experienced tremendous population growth.

American Economy: 1950s-1970s

Between the 1950s and 1970s, the American economy grew rapidly. Incomes rose, the middle class expanded, and Americans accounted for 40% of the planet's wealth.

"March of the Flag" by Albert Beveridge

Beveridge's speech, "March of the Flag", represented the new ideology of Manifest Destiny, which focused more on the creation and development of an empire rather than purely territorial desires.

Black Hawk

Black Hawk was the chieftain of Illinois tribes of Indians. When the Indians were uprooted in the Indian Removal Act of 1830, Black Hawk organized resistance against the enforcing authorities. His effort led into what became known as the Black Hawk War

Paul Laurence Dunbar

Black Regionalist author Paul Laurence Dunbar embraced the use of black dialect and folklore to discuss Southern black culture.

Dr. W.E.B. Du Bois

Black leaders including Dr. W.E.B. Du Bois attacked Booker T. Washington because Booker T. Washington condemned the black race to manual labor and perpetual inferiority.

Booker T. Washington

Booker T. Washington was one of the most intelligent African Americans, teaching at a school in Tuskegee, Alabama in 1881. Booker T. Washington held a "self-help" approach to solving the nation's racial problem, a concept that was labelled "accommodationist" because it didn't directly challenge white supremacy. Booker T. Washington avoided the issue of social equality, and focused more on economic equality.

Texan Independence: Santa Anna's Response to Defeat

Now shackled as a prisoner and being held captive, Santa Anna was very cooperative. He agreed to Texan terms that agreed that Mexican troops would retreat to Rio Grande, the new extreme South-Western border of Texas. Upon release, he claimed the agreement unconstitutional, because he was under duress when he agreed.

The 2nd Great Awakening: The Midwest and South: Background information

Both Baptists as well as Methodists were less political in origin and were focused primarily on the social aspects of life. They emphasized thrift, good works, discipline, and piety.

Lucretia Mott and Elizabeth Cady Stanton

Both Lucretia Mott and Elizabeth Cady Stanton (author of "The Woman's Bible") advocated for women's suffrage.

William R. Hearst and Joseph Pulitzer

Both William R. Hearst and Joseph Pulitzer used "yellow journalism" to inflate the anger of the American people over the crisis in Cuba. That is - telling half truths to elicit a response.

Suspension of Nuclear Tests (1958): Reasoning

Both the Soviet Union and the United States suspended nuclear tests in March and October of 1958 respectively.

Difficulty in establish a government in post-Revolutionary America

Now that the common foe, the British, were gone, people were back to bumping heads with each other. Furthermore, with the conservative British Tories gone, America was more prone to experimentation.

Brigham Young

Brigham Young was Joseph Smith's replacement after Smith's death by mob. Young leads the Mormon followers to Utah in 1846-1847. There, the Mormons develop a separate community known as "New Zion." Utah was not officially known as a state until 1896 because of the issue of polygamy.

British General Howe

British General Howe overtook Philadelphia, and left Burgoyne to take upper New York.

King William's War (1689-1697) and Queen Anne's War (1702-1713)

British colonists vs French coureurs de bois (woodsmen) with each side recruiting as many natives as possible. Britain won after the peace terms were signed at Utrecht in 1713 and was rewarded with French cities.

Cut-Rate Goods in America from British Manufacturer

British manufacturers, with dammed up surpluses, started flooding the American market with cut-rate goods. War-baby American industries, in particular, suffered industrial colic from such ruthless competition.

Utopian Ideals: Brook Farm

Brook Farm was a communal Transcendentalist experiment in Massachusetts, it was secular, nonreligious, and humanistic.

Federal Farm Board

Brought about by the 1929 Agricultural Marketing Act, the Federal Farm Board purchased agricultural surpluses in an attempt to stabilize agriculture prices. The board created the Grain Stabilization Corporation and the Cotton Stabilization Corporation, which also purchased surpluses. The corporations failed after farmers produced too much surplus, exceeding the budget of the board.

The Grain Stabilization Corporation and the Cotton Stabilization Corporation

Brought about by the Federal Farm Board from the Agricultural Marketing At of 1929, the goal of these companies was to stabilize agricultural prices by purchasing crop surpluses. The corporations failed after farmers produced too much surplus, exceeding the budget of the Board.

Election of 1860

By 1860, the nation was widely divided. Northerners and westerners voted for the Republican Abraham Lincoln. Southerners voted for the Democratic Breckinridge. Central-easterners voted for Bell, the presidential elect of the Constitutional Union Party. Meanwhile, one central-western state voted in favor of Stephen Douglas.

Industrial Population Boom

By 1890, New York, Chicago, and Philadelphia all had populations exceeding 1 million.

The Gilded Age: The State of the American Frontier

By 1890, an American frontier line was no longer evident - all the unsettled areas were now broken up by isolated bodies of settlement. It's theorized that western migration may have caused urban employers to keep their wages high, so that their workers don't move West to farm.

The Gilded Age: Diversity of Religion

By 1890, there were over 150 religious denominations in the United States.

Post World War 2: Rate of Inflation

By 1979, the rate of inflation was at 13%, and Americans were learning that they were no longer economically isolated from the world.

The Franco-Alliance of 1778: Background Information

By its own terms it was to last "forever.'' It bound the United States to help the French defend their West Indies against future foes, and the booming British fleets were certain to attack these strategic islands.

SCOTUS: Nixon-Appointed Members

By the end of 1971, SCOTUS had four new Nixon-appojnted members.

End of 1983: Cold War

By the end of 1983, all arms-control negotiations were broken, and the Cold War was intensified.

Students for a Democratic Society (1960s)

By the end of the 1960s, students for a Democratic Society (SDS) had created an underground terrorist group called the Weathermen.

Late 1960s Black Voter Registration

By the late 1960s, black voter registration increased, and several hundred blacks held elected positions in the South.

Population Growth as Western Expansion increased

By the mid 1800s, America's population was doubling every 25 years. By 1860, there were 33 acknowledged states, and the US was the 4th most populated country in the Western world.

Recession of 1981-1982: Recovery

By the mid 1980s, the economy had recovered, with economists speculating that the economy had recovered due to Reagan's massive military expenditures ($2 trillion to the Pentagon in the 1980s.)

John C. Calhoun and his book "South Carolina Expeditions"

Calhoun was Anti-Tariff, Pro-Strong States, and Anti-Union. "South Carolina Expeditions", a book published by Calhoun in 1828, denounced the tariff of 1828 as being both unjust as well as unconstitutional. His belief in state-rights power had him believing that each state had a right to place its sovereignty over the despotism of the Federal Government. He was the Vice-President to Jackson, and he was one of the first VPs to resign.

The treaty of Ghent

Called by the Tsar of Russia in 1814 over fears that Napoleon would conquer Europe while England was busy with the Americans, the Treaty of Ghent (1814) was an armistice between America and Britain that decreed peace and that both sides were sorry for the initial events of the War.

The 2nd Great Awakening: Camp Meetings

Camp Meetings ("tent meetings") take the focus away from the architecture of the buildings and therefore makes people more "focused" on Jesus

Carpetbaggers

Carpetbaggers were northerners that moved to the South, often with their belongings in "carpet bags", seeking to gain wealth during the time of the Southern reconstruction.

Carrie Chapman Catt

Carrie Chapman Catt was the political leader of a new wave of suffragettes in the 1900s. Catt connected the right to vote to the female role in society, causing suffragettes to pick up and ask for the right to vote.

American Politics: 1950s-1970s

Charged by the economic expansion during the period, political movements such as the civil rights movement as well as welfare programs were enacted. New welfare programs were funded, and Americans had the confidence to exercise international leadership in the Cold War Era.

Charles J. Guiteau

Charles J. Guiteau was the assassinator of Republican President James A. Garfield at a Washington Railroad Station

Charlotte Perkins Gilman

Charlotte Perkins Gilman was a Feminist that called upon women to abandon their dependent status (as housewives) and contribute to the larger life of the community through productive involvement (jobs) in the economy.

Charlotte Perkins Gilmen

Charlotte Perkins Gilmen published the book "Women and Economics," which supported female independence. In 1898, Gilmen called for women to shed their dependent ties.

Chester A. Arthur

Chester A. Arthur was the Republican Presidential Candidate's Vice-President, and he was a member of the "Stalwart" faction of the Republican Party.

Chief Justice Earl Warren

Chief Justice Earl Warren, former governor of California, stunned everyone in his ability to provoke action about topics that were considered "social taboo." This ideology led to civil movements in favor of African Americans, claiming that Congress had given up their right to legislate African Americans by virtue of ignoring the issue.

The Concept of an "extensive republic"

Chiefly pioneered by James Madison but held by all federalists, it was a republic that would achieve stability by virtue of its great size and diversity. This concept challenged the ideal that a republic could survive only if it governed a small, homogeneous population that could (mostly) agree with eachother.

1883 Civil Rights Cases

Circa 1883 over a multitude of civil rights case, SCOTUS decided that individuals' policies and actions were precisely not unconstitutional, since they are "private" actions that only affect the local individual. So, states couldn't violate civil rights, but individuals could.

"Domino Theory"

Coined by Dwight Eisenhower, the "Domino Theory" was the theory that once one country fell under Communist control, weaker nearby countries would also fall under Communist control - thus the "Domino Theory"

The Techniques of Worker Unions: Collective Bargaining

Collective Bargaining was practiced by the Knights of Labor, and it was a practice under which all workers employed by an individual employer would be employed through the same contract.

Colonel Leonard Wood

Colonel Leonard Wood was the commander of a regiment of America naval volunteers called the "Rough Riders."

The Gilded Age: Colorado's Admission

Colorado was admitted as a state in 1876 after the Pike's Peak Gold Rush.

The Transcendentalist Movement: Background Knowledge

Coming about in the 1830s, transcendentalists believed that knowledge transcends the senses and can't be found by virtue of observation; knowledge comes from within the person. Additionally, Transcendentalists believed that there was only good in the world.

Confederate President Jefferson Davis: Plan of Action after Gettysburg

Confederate President Jefferson Davis was planning to deliver negotiators to Washington D.C. after the Confederates won Gettysburg. Since the Union successfully held Gettysburg, Lincoln didn't negotiate.

Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC)

Congress created the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC) with the Glass-Steagall Banking Reform Act. The FDIC insured individual bank deposits of up to $5,000, which ended the National epidemic of bank failures.

The Creation of Labor Day (1894)

Congress created what is now known as "Labor Day" in 1894.

Missouri: Slave state or Free state?

Congress finally decided to admit Missouri as a slave state in 1820, however it required Maryland to be admitted as a separate, free state. Congress did this to balance out the equation: that would make 12 slave states and 12 free states.

"Blank Check Powers"

Congress gave President Roosevelt extraordinary "blank-check" powers, passing some laws that gave legislative authority to the President.

"Fair Deal" Program (1949): Congress' Modifications

Congress only passed a few parts of the "Fair Deal" program, such as the raise to minimum wages, creation of public housing (Housing Act of 1949), and the extension of old-age insurance to many more beneficiaries (Social Security Act of 1950)

Congress' Passing of Some of President FDR's New Deal Programs

Congress passed some of President FDR's New Deal programs, which focused on relief, recovery, and reform. Short range goals of the programs were relief and immediate recovery, while long range goals were permanent recovery and reform.

21st Amendment (1933)

Congress passed the 21st amendment in late 1933 which repealed prohibition in order to raise federal revenue and provide employment.

Federal Securities Act

Congress passed the Federal Securities Act, also called the "Truth in Securities Act" , in order to protect the public from investment fraud. The Federal Securities Act required people selling investments to inform their investors of the risk of the investor.

Congress' Role in Saving Food for the War

Congress restricted the use of foodstuffs for manufacturing alcoholic beverages. This legislation restricted the use of foodstuffs for manufacturing alcoholic beverages, accelerating the move to Prohibition and the 1919 18th Amendment.

Compromise of 1877

Congress' Reconstruction Act didn't end in 1877 because it was planned to end in 1877 - in the Compromise of 1877, Republicans offered to remove all federal troops from the South in exchange for the victory of electoral candidate Rutherford Hayes, the Republican candidate.

Congress' Reconstruction Act: Expiry (1877)

Congress' Reconstruction Act was seen as expired when the last federal general and soldier left the South, thus theoretically returning Democracy to the South.

Conservative View on the Great Society Programs

Conservatives believed that poetry couldn't be fixed by the Great Society programs. However, the poverty rate did decline in the following decade.

Conservative View on the New Deal Programs

Conservatives saw the New Deal programs as "Socialistic", and conservatives also ultimately helped limit the TVA-Style of management to the Tennessee Valley.

"The Association"

Conspired during the First Continental Congress (1774) of the colonies, it called for a complete boycott of British goods : nonimportation, nonexportation, and nonconsumption.

Kellogg-Briand Pact (1928)

Constructed by contemporary Secretary of State Frank B. Kellogg, also known as the Pact of Paris and was ratified by 62 nations, the Kellogg-Briand Pact of 1928 tried to outlaw war with one big exception: defensive wars were permitted.

Five-Power Naval Treaty of 1922

Constructed by the Washington "Disarmament" Conference in 1922, the Five-Power Naval Treaty limited the construction of certain types of large naval ships and applied ratio limits to the number of ships a country could build. However, submarines and destroyers were not restricted. Furthermore, the British and Americans were to refrain from fortifying their Far Eastern possessions, including the Philippines - restrictions that, for example, the Japanese, didn't have to abide by. The Treaty gained its name because it was signed by the U.S, Japan, China, Great Britain, and France.

Secretary of State Henry L. Stimson: Countermeasures Against the Japanese-Manchurian Attack

Contemporary Secretary of State Henry L. Stimson decided to only diplomatically attack the Japanese in 1932. Stimson issued the Stimson Doctrine, which declared that the U.S. would not recognize any territory acquired by force. The Japanese ignored the doctrine and moved onto Shanghai in 1932. The violence continued without the League of Nation's intervention.

Supreme Court John Marshall's view on Indian rights

Contrary to Jackson, Marshall's view on Indian rights was that American States had no right to govern the natives. Marshall spoke out, noting that the Natives have been an independent political community ever since the second a European stepped into the New World. Marshall argues that because Natives are arguably considered a "weak nation", American states aren't allowed to govern them. As such, Marshall argued that only the Federal Government was allowed to create legislation that pertained to other states. Regardless of how much Georgia wanted the Native territories, Marshall argued, any legislation passed by Georgia would have to have the seal of the Federal Government before it moved forward.

President Calvin Coolidge: Background Info on Presidency

Coolidge first became President after Harding's death and then later during his second term.

President Calvin Coolidge: Quotes

Coolidge was a supporter of big business, and trickle-down economics, once stating that "what's good for General Motors is good for the nation."

Copperheads

Copperheads were northerners that had southern tendencies. They lived in the southern areas of northern states, and sympathized with Southern ideology. Copperheads were the group that caused the most issues for Abraham Lincoln's election in 1860.

Cotton Textiles

Cotton Textiles were the type of product that the South excelled in manufacturing. Cotton mills were eventually created in the South, but they offered extremely low wages to workers.

Eight Point Atlantic Charter

Created at the Atlantic Conference by President FDR and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill, the Eight Point Atlantic Charter promised that there would be no territorial changes contrary to the desires of its inhabitants. The Eight Point Atlantic Charter also called for the disarmament of the aggressors, and the reaffirmation of the right of a people to choose their own form of government.

Creation of the Reconstruction Finance Corporation (RFC) (1932)

Created by Congress in 1932, the Reconstruction Finance Corporation lent money to insurance companies, banks, agricultural organizations, railroads, and local governments, in an effort to battle the depression. The RFC's "pump-priming" loans actually were useful for the economy, and brought a lot of money to the government as a banker.

The United States Steel Corporation (1901)

Created by J. P. Morgan in 1901, the United States Steel Corporation was America's first billion-dollar corporation.

The Society of Cincinnati

Created by the American Continentals, the Society of Cincinnati established an exclusive hereditary order. It was highly ridiculed by Americans.

Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA, 1933)

Created in 1933 by the Hundred Days Congress, the Tennessee Valley Authority was designed to construct dams on the Tennessee River. As well as providing employment and long-term recovery, these projects would give the government information on exactly how much money was required to produce and distribute electricity. The government could use this metric to assess the rates charged by electric companies.

Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC, 1934)

Created in 1934, the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) was meant to oversee the stock market.

Committee for Industrial Organization (CIO, 1935)

Created in 1935, the Committee for Industrial Organization (CIO) led a series of strikes, including the sit-down strike at the General Motors automobile factory in 1936.

Cuban "insurrectos"

Cuban "insurrectos" were around in 1895, when Cubans were revolting against Spanish rule. Cuban "insurrectos" burned sugar cane fields in the hopes that if they destroyed enough of Cuba, Spain might pull out and/or the US might help them with their independence.

Daniel Webster

Daniel Webster proposed a new charter for the Bank of the United States along with Henry Clay. This charter would lead to what is now known as the Bank War, due to Jacksonian disagreement. Webster was generally against tariffs, and he was Pro-Union

The Immortal Trio: Daniel Webster

Daniel Webster, a Northerner, called for people to make concessions and support Clay's proposals for the sake of maintaining the Union. All in his Seventh of March Speech, he was against slavery, but he placed the collapse of the Union at a higher priority.

Darwinism

Darwinism is the belief that species developed through the process of evolution.

David A. Wells

David A. Wells was an economic scholar that advised Presidents Lincoln, Garfield, and Grant on business and currency matters. David A. Wells was also one of the first to recognize that the machinery of the Gilded Age was resulting in "worker displacement."

David G. Phillips

David G. Phillips was a progressivist that published the series "The Treason of the Senate" in the Cosmopolitan that declared that 75 of 90 senators represented railroads and trusts rather than the people.

Watts Riot (1965)

Days after the Voting Rights Act of 1965 was passed, a bloody riot erupted in Watts, a black ghetto in Los Angeles - marking increasing militant confrontation in the black struggle.

De Facto Segregation

De Facto segregation was the racial segregation of people by virtue of local custom rather than legislation.

De Jure Segregation

De Jure Segregation is the racial segregation of people by law.

The Challenge of National Expansion in the Face of Slavery

Debate over slavery slowed any attempts at national expansion (Manifest Destiny). Furthermore, Free Soil Supporters had suspicion of any expansion attempts under Franklin Pierce's presidency.

Debating Spanish Colonization: Moral Treatment of Natives

Debates over Spanish colonization actually occurred between the Spanish themselves. There were debates over how Natives should be treated and the question of how "civilized" they were in relation to European standards was asked.

Texan Independence: Background Information

Declared in 1836, Texans claimed that they were independent, naming Sam Houston the Commander-in-Chief. In return, Santa Anna promptly swept his 6,000 man army into Texas, where the Battle of the Alamo took place. Santa Anna's inhumane conduct, such as the murder of war prisoners, caused Texans to vengefully raise to arms.

Defense Secretary Robert McNamara: Flexible Response

Defense Secretary Robert McNamara pushed the strategy of Flexible Response - the idea that America would deploy military options worldwide that could match any crisis at hand. Kennedy increased his spending on the Special Forces.

Defense Secretary Robert McNamara: Removal from Office

Defense Secretary Robert McNamara was quietly removed from office when he expressed discomfort about the Vietnamese war.

Defense Secretary Robert McNamara: Flexible Response - Result on American Military

Defense Secretary Robert McNamara's strategy of flexible response lowered the level at which diplomacy would give way to troops - providing a way to progressively and increasingly use force.

Deism

Deism featured less revelation with more reliance on reason and less focus on the bible and more on science. Regardless, they still believe in God.

1754 Intercolonial Congress in Albany, New York (also known as the Albany Plan of Union)

Delegates from 7 out of the 13 colonies (6 didn't show) debated how to keep the Iroquois to stay on the British side. They decided on giving the Iroquois generous gifts. Regardless, the whole point of the Congress was to bolster colonial unity and common defense.

Two great dynamics in American Culture

Democracy: Equality, opportunity Capitalism: Individuality (differing values, difference in how hard people work),

The Lincoln-Douglas Debates circa 1860 [1858]: Background Information

Democratic President James Buchanan backed the fraudulent pro-slavery Lecompton constitution of 1858. However, Douglas opposed, declaring the "Freeport Doctrine" in debates with Lincoln.

Democratic Support for the New Deal Programs

Democrats received support from the millions of people that benefitted from the New Deal Programs.

Britain's defiance of America during the Franco-Anglo battles in the 1790s: Background Information

Despite America's neutral status under the Neutral Proclamation of 1793, Britain still seized hundreds of American merchant ships in the West Indies.

Andrew Johnson: Political Confusion

Despite being a Southerner, he was the ideal VP-Candidate for Lincoln. He refused to secede with his own state of Tennessee, and his role on the ticket as VP served to gain support from War Democrats and other pro-Southern elements.

Commodore George Dewey's Fleet

ON May 1, 1898, Commodore George Dewey's 6-ship fleet attacked a 10-ship fleet at Manila, Philippines, and destroyed the Spanish ships.

Emancipation Proclamation: Exceptions

Despite commanding freedom for all Confederate slaves, it only asked for freedom in states that had already mostly regained Union control. Border states that still had the ability to secede were not asked to give their slaves freedom, out of Union fear that those border states would then go and join the Confederacy.

Reconstruction: Effects on Southern white-black perspectives

Despite relatively good intentions by the Republican Party, the Reconstruction of the South didn't really change how Southerners treated or viewed blacks.

"The Large-State Plan"

Despite the explicit instructions of Congress to merely revise the Articles, some delegates suggested scrapping it. Proposed by Virginia in the Convention of 1787, its essence described that the representation of a bicameral (two branch) Congress should be based on population, an arrangement that would benefit the larger states.

Election of 1968: Democratic Loss

Despite winning most major cities and about 95% of the black vote, the Democrats lost the election.

Stephen A. Douglas

Differing from Frederick Douglas, Stephen A. Douglas was an Illinois Senator that proposed the idea that the Territory of Nebraska should be split into two territories, Kansas and Nebraska, in order to soothe the political unbalance between the North and the South. The status of slavery in Kansas and Nebraska would be decided through popular vote, though it was presumed that Kansas would be a slave state while Nebraska would be a free state.

Direct Democracy

Direct Democracy was the winds of Populism drifting into Progressivism.

Gordon Wood

Displaying a sense of American Exceptionalism (the idea that the American experience was different or unique from others, and that God favors America.) Wood believed that a state exists solely to represent the individual interests and protect individual rights. He supported democracy.

Dorothy Dix

Dorothy Dix traveled the country visiting insane asylums and reporting the conditions of them. Her efforts resulted in improved conditions for the mentally ill.

Opponents to FDR's Policies: Dr Francis E. Townsend

Dr Francis E. Townsend was an opponent to FDR's policies. Dr Townsend attracted millions of senior citizens with plans that would allow each citizen over the age of 60 to receive $200 a month.

Dr. W.E.B. Du Bois: Role in racial equality

Dr. W.E.B. Du Bois helped form the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) in 1910.

Dred Scott v Sanford: Background Information

Dred Scott, a slave that lived with his master for 5 years in the Illinois and Wisconsin territories, sued for his freedom on the basis of his long residence on "free soil", as he lived in a free state.

"Dry-Farming"

Dry-Farming was the use of shallow cultivation to grow crops in the dry western environment - unfortunately, this practice dried and depleted the soil in the long term.

Gilded Age (1870 - 1915)

Dubbed the "Gilded Age" by Mark Tawin, the Gilded Age began in 1870 and ended in 1915. The Gilded Age saw a development of large-scale corporation and national industry, the completion of Westward Expansion (very little swathes of "open" area for folks to claim), expanding urbanization (movement into cities/suburbs), and a soaring demand for labor that started changing the nature of work in favor of a sectionalized difference between physical labor (low wage) and mental labor (high wage.) Furthermore, huge amounts of immigrants from everywhere rushed into America.

North Korean Invasion of South Korea (1950): General MacArthur's Insubordination

Due to General MacArthur's insubordination and disagreement with the Department of Defense's Joint Chiefs of Staff about increasing the size of the war, Truman removed MacArthur from command in 1951.

Division of Whig Votes: Consequences in the Election of 1852

Due to Northern & Southern Whig divison, the Democrats won the election of 1852 with their candidate Franklin Pierce. The election of 1852 marked the end of the Whig party, which died upon the issue of the Fugitive Slave-Law.

Citizen perspective on Jails

Due to public demand, states gradually abolished debtors' prisons, criminal codes were being softened, and the number of capital offences was being reduced. The ideology that prisons should be for reform rather than for punishment developed.

Drinking problems in the Early 1800s

Due to social norms and a hard monotonous life, many people developed drinking problems, including women, clergymen, and even members of Congress. Drinking problems played a factor in the creation of the American Temperance Society in 1826

The Gilded Age: Western Agriculture

Due to the dry western environment, tougher strains of wheat flourished, and new federally-financed irrigation projects caused the Great American Desert to bloom.

FDR's "Hundred Days"

During FDR's first 100 days, he created jobs through the likes of the Civilian Conservation Corps, stabilized banks through Federal Insurance, curtailed deflation through the ending of the gold standard, assisted farmers distraught by the "dust bowl" through the Farm Security Administration, provided money to older citizens through Social Security, promoted heap electricity and flood control through the Tennessee Valley Authority, and demonstrated support for unions through the Wagner Act that established a National Labor Relations Board that reasserted the right of the laborer to self-organize.

Nixon's Southern Strategy During his Campaign

During Nixon's Presidential campaign, his Southern strategy helped him win the Southern vote. Nixon's Southern strategy consisted of opposing Civil Rights for African Americans.

Reconstruction: Republicanism in the Southern States

During Reconstruction, the Republican Party wanted to protect freed slaves as well as promote their own fortunes- principles which led to the removal of support for the Republican Party in the south for nearly 100 years.

General George B. McClellan: Peninsula Campaign (1862)

During Union General George B. McClellan's 1862 "Peninsula Campaign", he launched a series of waterborne attacks targeted at gaining access to the Confederate capital of Richmond. The campaign came within sight of Richmond and attacked Confederate General "Stonewall" Jackson. However, another Confederate General, General Robert E. Lee, launched a counterattack against the Union army through what is now known as the Seven Days' Battles.

Jimmy Carter: Political Platform

During his campaign, Jimmy Carter promised to never lie to the American public.

Black Religious Structure during Slavery

During slavery, blacks formed their own religions with Christian and African inspirations.

Pequot War (1630s)

During the 1630s, the Pequot War took place, in which New England Colonists massacred the Pequot tribe.

Planned Obsolescence

During the 1920s, Planned Obsolescence became a thing - which was the planning of style change and action change so that things would go "out of style" at a calculated time.

1940s: Lifestyle of Leisure and Affluence

During the 1940s, the innovations of the credit card, fast-food, and new forms of recreation highlighted the emerging lifestyle of leisure and affluence.

1970s: Loss of American Industrial Dominance

During the 1970s, countries like Japan and Germany started to dominate industries that had traditionally been led by the Americans (steel, automobiles, and consumer electronics.)

1980's: Income Gaps

During the 1980s, income gaps widened between the rich and the poor.

The 2nd Great Awakening: The Midwest and South: Methodists

During the 2nd Great Awakening, Methodists led by revivalists such as Charles Grandison Finney attracted thousands of followers to their cause.

The 2nd Great Awakening: Influence on Social Conscentious

During the 2nd Great Awakening, the social Conscientious raised for many Americans. Slavery, temperance, and prohibition and even public schooling were all "awakened". Furthermore, the 2nd Great Awakening also influenced the intellectual community, like Ralph W. Emerson and Henry D. Thoreau. Intellectuals began questioning the pace of life, materialism, conformity, and slavery. They offered to not look to faith, but to look at nature and inward for self-knowledge.

The 2nd Great Awakening: Women

During the 2nd Great Awakening, women become the majority of new Church members, and will play a role in bringing the family back to God.

The Naval Aspect of the Civil War: Blockades

During the Civil War, the Union navy occupied many of the Confederacy's main ports, therefore strangling its imports, exports, and resources.

The Use of the Radio in Election Campaigns

During the Election of 1928, for the first time, the radio was widely used, mostly in support of Hoover's campaign.

FDR's Attack on the Republican Old Deal

During the Election of 1932, FDR attacked the Republican Old Deal, pushing a New Deal for the "forgotten man." Many Americans distrusted the Republican Party because of the depression. Hoover, however, believed that the worst of the Depression was over, and he reaffirmed his ideals of American free enterprise and individualism.

Election of 1932

During the Election of 1932, the Republicans nominated Herbert Hoover, while the Democrats nominated FDR, who had been born to a wealthy family and served as Governor of New York.

"Checkers Speech" (1952)

During the Election of 1952, Nixon went on TV to defend himself against corruption allegations. This speech was dubbed the "Checkers Speech."

Election of 1952: Usage of the Television

During the Election of 1952, TV became a popular medium for campaigning.

The Gilded Age: Unification of America

During the Gilded Age, America was fraught with the post-Civil War unity as well as standardization and mechanization.

The Gilded Age: Labor Specialization

During the Gilded Age, Labor Specialization became a widespread ideology. Rather than being "ok" at a large variety of things, people got good at one thing and got jobs paralleling their skill, ie. accountants, engineers, etc.

Laissez Faire

During the Gilded Age, Laissez Faire was mostly the practice. Laissez Faire is the practice of having no industry regulation and no government meddling in the economic tendencies of its nation.

Industrial City Developments

During the Gilded Age, city limits were extended by electric trolleys, and people became attracted to cities due to amenities such as electricity, indoor plumbing, and telephones.

The Gilded Age: Corporate Economic Advantages

During the Gilded Age, corporations mechanized, divided labor, and automated manufacturing in order to drop the prices of their products in favor of exporting more of their products while still costing the same amount to the manufacturer.

The Gilded Age: The pseudo-slave status of farmers

During the Gilded Age, farmers were at the mercy of various corporations: harvester trust, the barbed-wire trust, the fertilizer trust, railroad trust. Farmers made up half of the 1890's American population, but they failed to organize until federally forced to 50 years later.

The Gilded Age: Railroad Dependent Industries

During the Gilded Age, railroads gained a large role in the economic industries of America, such as mail-order catalogs, ranching (export), meat packing (export), rail cars (transport) and mining (export).

The Gilded Age: National Marketplace

During the Gilded age, regional autonomy diminished. Macroeconomics took a larger role than local economics, and there was rapid economic expansion.

Totalitarianism's Spread During the Great Depression

During the Great Depression, Totalitarianism spread throughout Europe.

Industrialization: Forces of Change - Urbanization

During the Industrial Revolution Urbanization had a huge role - urban areas were the centers of capital, education, and modernity, not rural farm areas.

Industrialization: Forces of Change - The Gold Standard

During the Industrial Revolution, the government pushed for the "Gold Standard": for money to be backed by gold, rather than the traditional silver. Unfortunately, this failed.

Yalta Conference: Poland, Bulgaria, and Romania

During the Yalta Conference, it was agreed that Poland, Bulgaria and Romania should have free elections - an agreement that Stalin eventually broke.

Battle of Britain (August 1940): Usage of the Radio

During the air attacks, Britain broadcasted warnings and such over the radio, which brought the drama into American homes that were able to hear from those stations. American sympathy

The Death of General Wolfe (painting, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Benjamin_West_005.jpg/1024px-Benjamin_West_005.jpg)

During the battle of Quebec for control of the Saint Lawrence river valley, it depicts the death of General Wolfe. The battle was a pivotal point for the Seven Year's War and decided the fate of present day Quebec.

Liquor Consumption in the 1800s

During the late 1800s, liquor consumption increased.

The Gilded Age: Liquor Consumption

During the late 1800s, liquor consumption increased.

OSHA (1970)

OSHA was established by Congress through the Occupational Safety and Health Act, and it was an attempt to improve dangerous working conditions for laborers.

Oberlin College

Oberlin College was one of the most progressive colleges and was the first to allow women into education.

Conservatives and their opponents in the 1780s

During the time under the conservative Confederation in the 1780s, conservatives (Federalists) pushed for a strong central government, anxious to defend their position and wealth. All the while, poorer citizens disagreed: a central government would force debtors to pay back their debts.

Dwight Lyman Moddy

Dwight Lyman Moody, a Protestant evangelist, preached about kindness and forgiveness. Dwight Lyman Moody adapted old-time religion to city life, thus modernizing Protestantism. The "Moody Bible Institute" was founded in Chicago in 1889 to carry out his work.

Earl Warren

Earl Warren was appointed as a justice to the Supreme Court in 1953, and Warren made many controversial rulings.

Jacksonian Democracy in the eyes of Historians

Early 19th century historians believed that Jacksonian Democracy was merely an irresponsible, ill-bred outburst that overturned the electoral system and wrecked major havoc to the nation's financial system. Later 19th and earlier 20th century historians believed the opposite: the frontier was the symbolic idealization of democratic values. Historians believed that Jacksonian Democracy was not the outright rejection of capitalism, it was merely the promotion of Laissez-Faire.

Art Essence of America between 1800-1820

Early American architects used the "Federal Style", which emphasized symmetry, balance, and restraint (columns, domes, pediments.)

Southern Colonies; South Carolina

Early South Carolina primarily had a rice cash crop plantation economy, a wealthy aristocratic elite, and heavily utilized African slave labor.

Early Environmentalists

Early environmentalists were most commonly well-off townsfolk and city dwellers - however, reinvigorating the lifestyles of American pioneers, such as hunting and fishing, became a practice - and therefore another reason to not cut forests down yet. Early environmentalists also argued that forests were the producers of gallant homes, so they argued that humans should wait until there is a populace that demands the cutting of the trees.

The Technical Loopholes for Early Monopolists

Early monopolists used their lawyers to thwart controls by state legislatures, since the Constitution gave Congress (and not states) jurisdiction over interstate commerce. Early monopolists and their large trusts also sought safety behind the 14th Amendment (rights as a citizen and fair laws), arguing that corporations were legal "people."

Impact of the Industrial Revolution on America

Economic developments after the Civil War increased the standard of living in the United States, and the agriculture industry was replaced by the manufacturing industry.

Post World War 2 Economic Prosperity: Population Mobility.

Economic prosperity caused by World War 2 enabled people to move abut the country at a higher rate than the past.

Edgar Allen Poe

Edgar Allen Poe wrote his literature with a pessimistic tone, unlike the Transcendentalist works of his era.

Factors affecting Reform in this era: Education

Education became more easily available and "doable" for the common man, especially in urban areas, which may have been one of the reasons for urbanization.

Edward Bellamy

Edward Bellamy was a Socialist wrote the utopian novel "Looking Backward." "Looking Backward" portrayed a time in the future where big businesses are nationalized in order to serve public interest, and there are no class divisions or wealth gaps.

"Corner Saloon" by Edward Hopper

Edward Hopper's "Corner Saloon" represented the awful quality of life in manufacturing districts. In every manufacturing district ruled by factories, saloons (now known as bars) were extremely prevalent.

Edward Teller

Edward Teller was one of the youngest and most brilliant members of the Manhattan project. Teller was interviewed by the Committee on Un-American Activities (HUAC), but pointed the finger at J. Robert Oppenheimer, whose security clearance was later taken away.

Edwin M. Stanton

Edwin M. Stanton was the contemporary Secretary of War to the Democratic former-VP-now-President Andrew Johnson. He was a Republican spy - and Congress passed the Tenure of Office Act in 1867 in order to make sure that Johnson doesn't remove Stanton from the Cabinet. Unfortunately for Congressional Republicans, Johnson removed him anyways, and managed to not get impeached by a factor of 1 vote.

President Eisenhower: Budget Balancing

Eisenhower only managed to balance the budget 3 times throughout his 2 term stay in office. In 1959, Eisenhower incurred the biggest peacetime deficit in the history of the United States.

President Eisenhower: Perspective on Native Americans

Eisenhower tried to revert to the policy of assimilating Native American tribes into American culture, but his plan was dropped in 1961 after most tribes refused to comply.

Ellis Island Immigration Station

Ellis Island Immigration Station was an early Immigration Checkpoint through which around 40% of early immigrants went through in order to be approved for immigration.

Emancipation in the conquered Confederacy

Emancipation didn't work out exactly the same everywhere- while some slaves were joyful for freedom, others fought against the Union army due to their loyalty to their masters.

Emilio Aguinaldo

Emilio Aguinaldo led an insurrection again occupying American forces on February 4th, 1899, in the Philippines. Emilio Aguinaldo led this insurrection because Filipinos thought that the treaty would give them independence, like the Cubans, but that wasn't the case. Aguinaldo was caught by American soldiers in 1901, and the insurrection ended.

"The New Colossus" by Emma Lazarus

Emma Lazarus' "The New Colossus" was a poem that supported immigration. "The New Colossus" explains that the Statue of Liberty (America) was welcome to any and every individual, and Lazarus even dubbed the statue the "Mother of Exiles", as if to say that all exiles were welcome. She likens the Statue of Liberty to a Greek statue of Helios from thousands of years ago.

King Philip's / Metacom's War (1675-1676)

Occuring between 1675 and 1676, Metacom was the leader of the Wampanoag tribe that was defeated by New England colonists. Metacom tried organizing a Native alliance in an attempt to forcefully remove Puritan settlements from his territory. Unlike during the Pequot War, Metacom has weapons. Unfortunately, Metacom later died, and with his death so did the war. Metacom's war was the end of major Native resistance to the New England colonies.

The Monroe Doctrine of 1823

Enacted by President Monroe, the Monroe Doctrine claimed that European countries could no longer create any new colonies, and America will simply allow current colonies to exist. Having just beaten England, America could now back its word.

Proclamation Line of 1763

Enacted by the London government, the Proclamation of 1763 prohibited settlement in the area beyond the Appalachians. Colonists ignored it, and thousands of wagons crossed through Salisbury, North Carolina heading towards the Appalachians.

Employment Act of 1946

Enacted in 1946, the Employment Act of 1946 created a 3 member Council of Economic Advisers to advise the President on policies regarding employment, production, and purchasing power.

Equal Employment Opportunity Act of 1965

Enacted in 1965, the Equal Employment Opportunity Act forced employers to pay the same as their equally-skilled male counterparts.

English colonization: Protestantism

England was a Protestant country that would soon challenge Spanish Colonization of the North America.

The Battle of Thames

Occuring in 1813, American General Harrison's army overtook the British at Detroit and Fort Malden.

Nuremberg Trials (1945-1946)

Occurring between 1945 and 1946, the Nuremberg Trials were a set of trials of Nazi leaders that were punished for war crimes. Punishments included hangings and long jail sentences.

The Louisiana Purchase

Occurring in 1803, it was President Jefferson's (successful) attempt to expand national territory.

The National Association of Colored Women (1896, NAC)

Established by African-American female scholar Ida B. Wells in 1896, the National Association of Colored Women worked to improve living conditions and political conditions for African-American women.

The Draft Act (1917)

Established by Congress in 1917, the Draft Act required the registration of all males between the ages of 18 and 45, and it didn't allow for a man to purchase his exemption from the draft. For the first time, women were allowed in the armed forces.

Operation Wetback (1954)

Established by Eisenhower in 1954 out of the Mexican government's fear that illegal immigration would undercut the bracero program of legally imported farm workers, Operation Wetback was program that would end up moving to deport a million illegal immigrants.

Hay-Pauncefote Treaty (1901)

Established by John Hay, the Hay-Pauncefote Treaty of 1901 allowed the US to create and fortify a central American canal alone, without British involvement.

The Bolshevik Revolution (1917)

Occurring in 1917, the Bolshevik (Communist) Revolution in Russia was the overthrowing of the Tsar regime. The new Bolshevik regime decided to pull Russia out of the "capitalist" war, freeing up thousands of Germans on the Russian front to fight against France on the western front.

Potsdam Conference (1945)

Occurring in 1945, the Potsdam Conference was the final wartime meeting of the allied leaders, aka the U.S, Britain, and the Soviet Union. Truman, Churchill, and Stalin met, discussing the future of Europe, but their collective failure to reach meaningful agreements soon led to the onset of the Cold War.

Dennis v United States (1951)

Occurring in 1951, Dennis v United States was a court ruling over the Smith Act of 1940, where 11 Communists were imprisoned for violating the Act. The Act was upheld.

Battle of Dien Bien Phu (1954)

Occurring in 1954, the Battle of Bien Dien Phu was a battle that the Nationalists won, and resulted in piece being called, with Vietnam being divided at the 17th parallel.

New England Colonies: The Massachusetts Bay Colony - Background Information

Established by Puritans rather than Puritan Pilgrims, Puritan John Winthrop received a charter in 1629 to establish the Massachusetts Bay Colony in the same location as modern Boston. The goal of the Massachusetts Bay Colony was to build a holy society that would serve as a model for the rest of the world. In this colony, religious freedom was reserved ONLY for Puritans, and nobody else. Education was extremely important, and Harvard was established. Additionally, to participate in politics, Church membership was required.

International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (World Bank)

Established by the Bretton Woods Conference in 1944, the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development was meant to promote economic growth in underdeveloped areas.

Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC)

Established by the Civil Rights Act of 1964, the goal of the Federal Equal Employment Opportunity Commission was to eliminate discrimination in the hiring process.

National Security Council (NSC)

Established by the National Security Act, the National Security Council was meant to advise the President on security matters.

The New England Confederation (1643)

Established in 1643, the New England Confederation was a military alliance of the New England Colonies intended to defend the colonies against potential threats.

The Society for Propagating the Bible Among Indians

Established in 1787, the Society for Propagating the Bible Among Indians obviously had the goal of spreading Christianity throughout the Native Indian peoples.

Alexander v Holmes Board of Education

Occurring in 1969, 15 years after the Brown SCOTUS decision which called for the immediate desegregation of schools, the decision stated that delays in desegregation are no longer tolerable.

Jay's Treaty

Established in 1794, the British once more promised to abandon their northern frontier outposts as well as pay damages to seized American merchant ships. Furthermore, the Treaty demanded that Americans pay pre-Revolutionary debts to British merchants. This treaty resulted in an American-British alliance, which caused Spain to also strike a deal with the Americans out of fear. The deal that Spain discussed with Americans became known as Pinckney's Treaty of 1795.

The National Prohibition Party (1869)

Established in 1869, the National Prohibition Party seeked to do exactly as the name stats: promote prohibition.

The Woman's Christian Temperance Union (1874)

Established in 1874, the Woman's Christian Temperance Union seeked to promote prohibition through the rally of supposedly purer and more morale women.

The American Protective Association (APA)

Established in 1887, the American Protective Association was an anti-foreigner organization that urged to vote against Roman Catholic candidates in office.

Henry Street Settlement (1893)

Established in 1893 by Lilian Wald, the Henry Street Settlement was a settlement house.

The Anti-Saloon League

Established in 1893, the Anti-Saloon league was the most successful temperance political organization. The Anti-Saloon League convinced states to regulate the sale of alcohol.

Elkins Act (1903)

Established in 1903, the Elkins Act was meant to bring the railroad under the watchful eye of the government - and the long-established Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC) was put in charge of insuring fair railroad rates, as well as banning railroads from using rebates.

Hepburn Act (1906)

Established in 1906, the Hepburn Act established the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC) as the government agency to investigate railroad issues and changes for consumers and corporations. The Elkins Act added to the above by putting the burden of proof for rate changes on railroads and adding telegraph, telephone, and cable companies into the fold.

Pure Food & Drug Act (1906)

Established in 1906, the Pure Food & Drug Act eliminated patent medicines and different formulations, required a statement of contents for food and other consumables, and leads to the acceptance of the Food and Drug Administration (FDA)

The Root-Takahira Agreement (1908)

Established in 1908, the Root-Takahira Agreement was a joint agreement under which the U.S. and Japan pledged themselves to respect each other's territorial possessions.

Taft's Payne-Aldrich Tariff (1909)

Established in 1909, the Payne-Aldrich Tariff was meant to reduce tariffs, however hundreds of upward tariff revisions were tacked on. Taft signed the bill anyways, outraging the Progressive wing of the Republican Party.

Sheppard-Towner Maternity Act of 1921

Established in 1921, the Sheppard-Towner Maternity Act gave federally financed instruction in maternal and infant health care.

Dawes Plan of 1924

Established in 1924 and negotiated by Charles Dawes, the Dawes Plan set up German reparations and allowed Americans to make private loans to Germany, who then used those loans to pay reparations to Britain and France, who then paid America.

Resettlement Administration (1935)

Established in 1935, the Resettlement Administration moved near-farmless farmers to better lands.

Committee on Un-American Activities (HUAC, 1938)

Established in 1938, the Committee on Un-American Activities (HUAC) was created in order to investigate "subversion" (opposition to government.)

Hitler-Stalin Pact (1939)

Established in 1939, the Hitler-Stalin Pact meant that Germany could wage war on Poland and the Western democracies without fear of retaliation from the Soviet Union.

International Monetary Fund (IMF)

Established in 1944 by the Bretton Woods Conference, the International Monetary Fund was meant to encourage world trade by regulating currency exchange rates.

Department of Defense

Established in 1947 after Congress passed the National Security Act, the Department of Defense was headed by a new cabinet officer, the Secretary of Defense. The heads of each branch of the military were brought together as the Joint Chiefs of Staff.

Korean War Armistice (1953)

Established in 1953 due to Eisenhower's threat to use nuclear weapons, the Armistice put an end to the Korean War.

Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC, 1960)

Established in 1960, the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Companies (OPEC) was composed of Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Iraq, Iran, and Venezuela.

Affirmative Action (1965)

Established in 1965, Affirmative Action was the statistic holding of higher positions or just positions in general for racial or gender minorities. So, institutions and jobs would have to set aside a certain number of spots for women, a certain number of spots for blacks, etc.

Central Intelligence Agency (CIA)

Established in the National Security Act, the Central Intelligence Agency was created to coordinate the government's foreign fact-gathering.

Ethel and Julius Rosenberg

Ethel and Julius Rosenberg were Soviet spies that were sent in order to steal technology and information. Ethel and Julius Rosenberg helped the Soviet Union develop the atomic bomb, and their execution drew sympathy from those tired of the "red-hunts."

Ethnic Islands

Ethnic Islands, for example Ellis Island, were islands that served as immigration "checkpoints" that would serve as deciders for whether or not immigrants would move through or be deported.

Eugene V. Debs

Eugene V. Debs helped to organize the American Railway Union, and led the Pullman Strike of 1894 when the Pullman Palace Car Company cut wages. Federal troops had to break up the strike.

European view on American Slavery

Europeans were concerned over American slavery, because they had moved away from slavery hundreds of years earlier while Americans seem more entrenched than ever on the policy.

Evangelical Protestantism

Evangelical Protestantism played a decent role in the 2nd Great Awakening, creating a feeling of religious and social unity.

Post Korean War: 38th Parallel

Even after the Korean War, Korea was still divided at the 38th parallel.

Democratic Convention of 1852

Occurring in Baltimore, Maryland, Democrats in the Democratic Convention of 1852 voted Franklin Pierce as their Presidential nominee. Franklin Pierce supported the Compromise of 1850 as well as the Fugitive-Slave Law of 1850.

Personnel Shortage following the Draft of WW2

Even though some agricultural and industrial jobs were exempt from the draft, many jobs were still open. As a result, in 1942, thousands of Mexican workers called braceros were brought to America to harvest the farms of the West.

Financial Sector during the 1920s

Everyone wanted to make money in Wall Street. Banks loaned money to people for investments, and they loaned far too much. When the stock market crashed, they had no money to put back into peoples accounts (where they first gained the money to cover loans.)

Election of 1928: Coolidge's Decision

Ex-President Calvin Coolidge decided to not run for another term in the Presidency.

Excise Taxes

Excise Taxes are taxes that are paid upon the purchase of goods.

Executive Order 9066

Executive Order 9066 allowed the Secretary of War and U.S. Armed Forces to declare areas from which certain groups of ethnic people were banned. Executive Order 9066 led to the relocation of Japanese Americans to relocation camps.

Variable Exchange

Expenditures that can vary from week to week or month to month. For example, food, clothing, and recreation or entertainment.

The Haymarket Square Incident (1866)

Occurring on May 4th, 1886 in Haymarket square, Chicago police tried to break up a protest against alleged police brutalities. Someone threw a dynamite bomb, which killed several people - 8 anarchists were convicted and 5 were sentenced to death while the other 3 were sentenced to jail (later pardoned in 1892 by the governor of Illinois, John P. Altgeld.) The Knights of Labor were blamed for the dreadful incident at Haymarket Square, and soon lost public support.

Fixed Expensives

Expenditures that remain the same from week to week or month to month, such as mortgage, rent or car payments.

FDR's Savior of Capitalism

FDR potentially saved Capitalism by eliminating some of its worst faults (ex. poor labor conditions.) Had FDR's programs not been implemented, Socialism could've taken a bigger hold on the nation.

Roosevelt after Re-Election: New Deal Perspective

FDR saw his re-election as a mandate to continue the New Deal programs.

FDR as a Public Speaker

FDR was a very good public speaker. This helped the Democrats in the Election of 1932, when they called for a balanced budget and social and economic reforms.

FDR-Hamiltonian and Jeffersonian Similarity

FDR was similar to Alexander Hamilton in that he supported big government, but he was a Jeffersonian in that he fought for the "forgotten man."

Election of 1932: Roosevelt's Victory

FDR won the Election of 1932 in sweeping margins, both in the Electoral College and the Popular Vote. Beginning in the Election of 1932, blacks became a vital part of the Democratic party, especially in Urban centers in the North.

Election of 1940: Victor and Reasoning

FDR won the Election of 1940 because voters generally believed that the experience of FDR was needed.

The Effect of the New Deal Programs on the Depression: Supporter Perspective

FDR's supporters argued that relief, not the economy, was the primary objective of their war on the Depression. Roosevelt believed that the government was morally bound to prevent mass hunger and starvation by "managing" the economy.

Eleanor Roosevelt: Role in FDR's Career

FDR's wife, Eleanor Roosevelt, was very active in her husband's career. Liberals loved her, and conservatives hated her.

Evolution: Effect on Religion

Facing the theory of Evolution, conservatives stood by their beliefs of God and religion, while Modernists simply refused to accept the Bible in its entirety.

Kansas's 1855 Legislature Elections: Abolitionists

Failing to win the legislature elections of 1855 in Kansas, abolitionists simply decided to set up another government in Topeka, Kansas that would rival the winning pro-slave Southerner government.

"Black Tuesday" (1929)

Occurring on October 29th, 1929, "Black Tuesday" was when millions of stocks were sold in a panic. Two months later, it was determined that stockholders had lost $40 billion.

Battle of Britain (August 1940)

Occurring throughout August 1940, the Battle of Britain was a series of German air attacks on Britain.

Opponents to FDR's Policies: Father Charles Coughlin

Father Charles Coughlin was an opponent to FDR's policies. Father Charles Coughlin preached anti-New Deal speeches over the radio.

Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC)

Part of FDR's attempt to create more jobs, the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) employed about 3 million men in army-ran government camps. Their work included reforestation, fire fighting, flood control, and swamp drainage. Men were able to become educated and acquire life-skills that would help them even after leaving the Civilian Conservation Corps.

Safeguards for Conservatism

Federalist delegates explicitly elected safeguards against the "mob": federal justices were appointed for life, and the president was elected "indirectly" by the electoral college. Only in the House of Representatives were the delegates "directly" voted in by citizens.

The Hartford Convention

Federalists from Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Connecticut (where Hartford is located) idiotically met in 1814 to plot the departure of the English from the country. In the end, the states demanded financial assistance from Washington (the government), Constitutional amendments requiring 2/3 Congressional vote to pass an embargo, annex a new state, or declare a war, the abolition of slavery, the limit of 1 term on a president, among others. The Convention marked the Death of the Federalist party.

Finance Capitalism

Finance Capitalism was an investment sponsored by banks and bankers.

Clinton's Ditch

Finished in 1825, Clinton's Ditch served to promote interstate commerce., trade, and transportation. It was meant to "tie" the Nation together.

Reasons for Napoleon's Decision to Sell Louisiana

First of all, Napoleon failed to conquer Santo Domingo, an economic hotspot that Louisiana was made only to serve as a source of foodstuffs. Furthermore, selling Louisiana to the Americans stopped the British from being able to take ownership. Not only that, but Napoleon also needed the money to fund the war.

John Dean III

First, Nixon tried to deny any knowledge about the illegal activities, but John Dean III, a former White House lawyer, testified to Nixon's attempts to cover the scandal up.

Marquis de Lafayette

Fleeing from boredom, the "French gamecock" was made a major general in the colonial army at the age of 19. His relationship with France was vital to secure France's aid.

Robert de La Salle

Floated down the Mississippi in 1682 to the point where it mingles the Gulf in order to check Spanish penetration into the region of the Gulf of Mexico. There, he founded Louisiana in honor of Louis XIV. He left and returned in 1687 but actually landed in Texas, not Louisiana, and he was murdered by his mutinous men.

Florence Kelley

Florence Kelley took control of the National Consumers League in 1899 and mobilized female customers to push for legislation safeguarding women and children in the workplace.

Florence Kelley

Florence Kelley was a lifelong supporter for the welfare of women, children, blacks, and consumers.

Floridian Seminoles

Floridian Seminoles (native tribe) continuously fought against American territory encroachment. They retreated and retreated into the Everglades for several years, where they either retreated deeper or relocated to the Oklahoma area.

Changes in social structure after the Exodus of British Loyalists

Flushed with Republican fervor, the need for artisans and laborers resulted in the revoking of medieval inheritance laws, such as primogeniture, which awarded all of a father's property to the eldest son.

Formal End of World War 2 (1945)

Following Japan's surrender a month earlier, the formal end of the war came on September 2nd, 1945, and was proclaimed as V-J (Victory in Japan) Day.

Marshall Plan (1947): Deeper Purpose

Following World War 2, France, Italy, and Germany were suffering from the hunger and economic chaos caused by the war. They were in danger of being taken over by Communist parties within the countries.

The Gilded Age: Class Conflicts and Ethnic Clashes

Following the Panic of 1873 and the resulting depresson, railroad workers went on strike after President Hayes cut their wages. The strike failed.

The state of Natural Literature: After the War of 1812

Following the war of 1812, a war that was fought between America and Britain over maritime disputes (resulting in a "draw" Treaty of Ghent), American literature received a boost due to a wave of nationalism as well as the arrival of Romanticism to America.

Cotton's role in the early agricultural American economy

For a period after 1840, cotton was half the value of all American exports, and 75% of British cotton imports were from the American south.

Jefferson's overwhelming support

For his second term, Jefferson won overwhelmingly. His Federalist opponent, Charles Pinckney, had 14 votes, while Jefferson had 162.

Election of 1928: Democratic Nominee

For the Election of 1928, Democrats elected Alfred E. Smith, a Roman Catholic in an overwhelmingly Protestant country

Election of 1952: Republican Nominee

For the Election of 1952, since Eisenhower was already well-liked by the public, Republicans nominated him.

Election of 1952: Democratic Nominee

For the Election of 1952, since Truman lacked public support, Democrats nominated Adlai Stevenson.

Northern Resistance to Slavery and the Fugitive Slave Act

For the first time in history, Northerners actually resisted the institution of slavery. Moderate northerners suddenly became sympathetic to the abolitionist movement, resulting in a growth of the Northern Abolitionist movement. This resistance led to the establishment of the Personal Liberty Laws that wouldn't allow the use of local jails for housing fugitive slaves.

The American Temperance Society

Formed in 1826, members of the American Temperance Society attempted to persuade avid drinkers from their addictions. After all, drinking decreased worker efficiency and threatened family structure.

The American Peace Society

Formed in 1828 and led by William Ladd, it declared a "war-on-war", in which it urged for the avoidance of the Civil War.

The Formation of the Republican Party (1854): Background Info

Forming in the midwest two months before the passing of the Kansas-Nebraska Act in 1854, the Republican Party was formed. Republicans were anti-immigrant, anti-slavery, and anti-Catholic. Republicans later redacted anti-Catholic belief in order to be more palatable to Catholics and therefore gain more votes.

WCTU, the Women's Christian Temperance Union

Founded by Frances Willard in 1879, the Women's Christian Temperance Union (WCTU) was Protestant-driven and the natural follow-up to Dow's American Temperance Society.

The Oneida Community

Founded by John Humphrey Noyes as a result of the impact of the 2nd Great Awakening on him, those within the Community were Millennials. They believed that the end was "near", aka the turn of 2000 or simply whenever they die. The Oneida Community was tremendously influential on mainstream Protestant faiths.

New Harmony, Indiana

Founded by William Owens, New Harmony, Indiana was one of the Utopian communities that were established, as the name may represent. New Harmony and others saw socioeconomic equality as the next step on the path, beginning with newfound political equalities in the American and French Revolutions.

American Colonization Society (1807)

Founded in 1807, the American Colonization Society focused on transporting blacks back to Africa.

Republic of Liberia (1822)

Founded in 1822, the African Republic of Liberia was meant to serve as a homestead for returning slaves. Regardless, by 1860, all living Southern slaves were born in America, and didn't care for returning to Africa.

American Anti-Slavery Society (1833)

Founded in 1833, the American Anti-Slavery Society was meant to (as the name states) oppose slavery.

Johns Hopkins University (1876)

Founded in 1876, the Johns Hopkins University had the nation's first high-grade graduate school.

The Church of Christ, Scientist (1879)

Founded in 1879 by Mary Baker Eddy, the Church of Christ, Scientist preached that the true practice of Christianity heals cancer.

The Moody Bible Institute (1889)

Founded in 1889, the Moody Bible Institute was meant to carry out the work of Dwight Lyman Moody, a Protestant evangelist that modernized Protestantism to fit city life.

Congress of Racial Equality (CORE, 1942)

Founded in 1942, CORE, aka the Congress of Racial Equality, worked for black civil rights.

Edwin L. Godkin

Founder of the highly influential contemporary magazine "New York Nation", Godkin was an American Journalist.

Allied Acceptance of Japanese Surrender (1945)

Four days after Tokyo proposed to surrender on the condition that Emperor Hirohito kept his title of Emperor, the Allies accepted the proposal.

Impact of the French and Indian War on France

France had to give up a lot of territory in the New World to Britain as a result of their loss of the war.

General Colonization: Trade and Intermarriage

France, Holland, and Spain will trade and intermarry with Native Americans. England, however, was not interested in the more complex relationships with the indigenous population.

Frederick Douglass

Frederick Douglass was a black abolitionist that lectured in support of abolitionism and looked to politics in order to find a resolution. He later published a book titled, "Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass."

Free Soilers

Free Soilers were typically Northerners that were opposed to extending slavery to the western territories. Free Soilers were composite of mainly Whigs. While Whigs wanted to stop the EXPANSION of slavery, they didn't want to END it.

The Volstead Act

From 1919 to 1933, the Volstead Act made non-religious production of liquor illegal.

Tokyo Trials (1946-948)

From 1946 to 1948, top Japanese "war criminals" were tried in Tokyo.

The Embargo Act of 1807

Fueled by the attack of the U.S.S Chesapeake by the HMS Leopard (an event dubbed the Leopard) in the Atlantic, it dropped US exports by 80% after it asked citizens to avoid trading with all foreign nations. Manufacturing fell some 20% from 1795 and smuggling through Canada was up around 30%. The act was an attempt to force Britain and Canada to respect America as an economic power.

Economic Growth in the 1800s

Fueled by the increase in territory, the economic growth combined new lands with new labor in order to develop a market economy. Older traditions of male dominated workplaces started withering, as women joined the economy.

The Union & Confederate Armies: Confederate Black Enlistment

Further into the Civil War, the Confederate army began allowing blacks to enlist. However, it was already too late for the Confederates to claw back.

Ole Miss

Ole Miss is the shorter name for the University of Mississippi, which James Meredith (the first black student to be admitted) became a student in 1962.

The Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo

Gave a lot of land to America including California, Utah, Nevada, and Arizona.

General Douglas MacArthur

General Douglas MacArthur took control of the Democratization of Japan when it surrendered. The Japanese people cooperated with many of MacArthur's plans, as they saw that good behavior and the adoption democracy would speed the end of the occupation.

General Francisco Franco

General Francisco Franco led the Spanish Civil War of 1936-1939 and overthrew the Loyalist Regime.

General George G. Meade

General George G. Meade was Joseph Hooker's replacement after the battle at Chancellorsville, Virginia.

General James Wilkinson

General James Wilkinson, the corrupt governor of the Louisiana territory, Wilkinson plotted with Burr to seperate western America from eastern America and to expand their confederacy by pushing into Spaniard Mexico and Florida. Wilkinson betrayed Burr when he found that Jefferson knew of the plot. Burr was nevertheless pardoned by Chief Justice John Marshall, and Burr fled to Europe.

North Korean Invasion of South Korea (1950): General MacArthur's Push

General MacArthur managed to push the North Koreans past the 38th parallel. However, thousands of Communist Chinese "volunteers" attacked the U.N. forces, pushing them back to the 38th parallel.

General Nelson A. Miles

General Nelson A. Miles was an American general that met little resistance when he took over Puerto Rico.

General William Henry Harrison

General William Henry Harrison was one of the many Whig candidates for the electoral race of 1836.

"Cliff Dwellers" by George Bellows

George Bellows' "Cliff Dwellers" was meant to depict the negatives of the increased immigration. Cities were packed, streets to the brim, and standards of living conditions were declining due to the effect of industrialization.

George Caitlin

George Caitlin was a painter and student of Native American life, and was one of the first Americans to advocate for the deliberate preservation of nature. Caitlin offered up the idea of a National Park later, effects of which can be seen in the establishment of the Yellowstone Park in 1872.

The Stamp Act of 1765

George Grenville imposed this measure to raise revenue in support of the new military force. The Stamp Act mandated the use of stamped paper or the affixing of stamps, certifying payment of the tax.

George Washington Carver

George Washington Carver, another educated slave, coincidentally taught and researched at Tuskegee Institute in 1896. George Washington Carver would soon become an internationally fameous agricultural chemist.

George Washington Carver

George Washington Carver, another educated slave, coincidentally taught and researched at Tuskegee Institute in 1896. George Washington Carver would soon become an internationally famous agricultural chemist.

The Franco-Alliance of 1778: Political Figure Analysis

George Washington and Hamilton agreed that America was not ready to fight a war. They believed they had to wait a generation or so, at which point America would be powerful and populous enough to be able to enforce its powers.

Southern Colonies; Georgia

Georgia was very different from South Carolina and North Carolina in that it wasn't purely intended for profit. Georgia was meant to serve as a buffer colony against Spanish threats in Florida and French threats in Louisiana. It's original purpose was to serve as a penal colony to offer "new beginnings" to debtors. Oddly, it additionally originally banned slavery and the sale of rum.

Gerald Ford: Assumption of the Role of President

Gerald Ford became the first unelected President due to Nixon's and Vice President Agnew's resignation.

Gerald Ford

Gerald Ford was Congress' replacement for ex-VP Spiro Agnew after Spiro Agnew resigned due to being found to have taken bribes.

Japanese Proposal to Surrender (1945)

On August 10th, a day after the bombing of Nagasaki, Tokyo proposed a surrender under the condition that Emperor Hirohito was allowed to keep his title as emperor.

Spanish-American Armistice (1898)

On August 12th, 1898, Spain had signed an armistice to end the fighting between Americans and the Spanish.

August 13, 1898

On August 13, 1898, American troops captured Manila.

President Harding: Death (1923)

On August 2nd, 1923, President Harding died in San Francisco of Pneumonia and Thrombosis.

Bombing of Nagasaki (1945)

On August 9th, 1945, 3 days after the bombing of Hiroshima and one day after Stalin's invasion of Japanese Manchuria and Korea, a second atomic bomb was dropped on Nagasaki, killing around 80,000 people.

Germany and Italy's Declaration of war (December 11th, 1941)

On December 11th, 1941, following suit with America's declaration of war on Japan, Italy and Germany declared war on America, and America declared war on them.

Attack at Pearl Harbor (December 7th, 1941)

On December 7th, 1941, the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor, killing around 2300 Americans. Most of the stationed battleships were destroyed or significantly damaged except for 3 aircraft carriers, which were out of the harbor.

Bull Run, Virginia: July 21, 1861

On July 21st, 1861, Union forces met the Confederate forces at Virginian Bull Run. Unexpectedly, famed Confederate general Thomas Johnson "Stonewall" Jackson successfully held the Confederate line until reinforces arrived. The Union defeat dispelled the illusion that the war would be a quick one.

Johnson's Prosecution: Verdict

On May of 1868, the Senate voted Johnson "not guilty" with a margin of one vote. The radical Republicans had failed to gain the necessary 2/3 majority vote in the Senate in order to pass an impeachment.

Washington's Farewell Address

Given in 1797, Washington's farewell address stressed maintaining commercial but not political relations with other countries. It also stressed not entering into permanent alliances with other countries.

Yalta Conference "Argonaut"

Given the code-name Argonaut, the Yalta Conference, the U.S (FDR), Britain (Churchill), and Stalin (USSR) met. The USSR agreed to declare war on Japan after the surrender of Germany, as long as it received Manchuria and other territorial losses that Russia suffered in the Russo-Japanese War.

Tehran Conference "Eureka"

Given the code-name Eureka, the Tehran Conference was the first meeting between the Big Three (US, Britain, USSR), of whom organized the 1944 assault on France and agreed to divide Germany into zones of occupation after the war.

Casablanca Conference "Symbol"

Given the code-name Symbol, occurring in 1943 and attended by the US and the British, the Casablanca Conference was held in Morocco. During the Casablanca Conference, Roosevelt and Churchill insisted that Germany unconditionally surrender to preclude a future armed comeback.

Gloria Steinem

Gloria Steinem was the founder of Ms. Magazine and was a spokesperson of women's issues and feminist activism. Unlike other magazines, Ms. Magazine covered topics such as lingual bias and sexual harassment.

September 2nd, 1940

On September 2nd, 1940, President Roosevelt transferred 50 destroyers that were left over from World War 1 to Britain. In exchange, Britain transferred 8 valuable defensive base sites in the Western Hemisphere. This trade was a flagrant violation of America's Neutrality Treaties

Pickett's Charge

On the 3rd day of the Battle of Gettysburg in 1863, Lee asked his fellow General George Pickett to commandeer troops on a last ditch mile-and-a-half run against the Union army, where they were then slaughtered.

Gradualist

Gradualists wanted to gradually abolish slavery.

Grover Cleveland

Grover Cleveland was the Democratic Candidate for the Election of 1884. He was a very honest and admirable man, which lead to his victory in the Election of 1884.

Alexander Hamilton and his role as Secretary of the Treasury: His argument for a National Bank Background Information

Hamilton argued for a national bank, much like the Bank of England, where the US would be a major stockholder and the federal Treasury would deposit its surplus money. The central government not only would have a convenient strongbox, but federal funds would stimulate business by remaining in circulation. The bank would also print urgently needed paper money and thus provide a sound and stable national currency in a time where the currency was worth next to nothing.

Alexander Hamilton and his role as Secretary of the Treasury: How he handled the National Debt

Hamilton's first objective was to establish tariffs. His first tariff law imposed a low tariff of about 8 percent on the value of dutiable imports, a law that was speedily passed by an anxious Congress in 1789, even before Hamilton was sworn in. Although the law brought revenue, it was also meant as a measure to protect infant American industries. Hamilton had a vision for the Industrial Revolution in the Americas. He argued for more protection for these industries, however a disagreeing Congress raised the tariff slightly only twice. His second objective was to secure a tax on a few domestic items, notably whiskey. The new tax of 7 cents per gallon was chiefly paid by distillers in the backcountry, where distilled liquor was so numerous that it was often used as a placeholder for money.

Alexander Hamilton and his role as Secretary of the Treasury: National Credit

Hamilton's first order as Secretary of the Treasury was to bolster the National Credit. To do so, he called on Congress to pay off the national debt on par (with interest, around 54 million dollars). He also pushed for Congress to assume debt for the states, then some 21.5 million dollars. In Hamilton's mind, assuming the states' debt would cause them to "owe one" to the union, as well as the idea that wealthy creditors would become connected to the federal government rather than to the State. States like Massachusetts, which held a large debt, enjoyed the plan. States like Virginia, which had a smaller debt, disagreed. In 1790, the plan was finally passed after Virginia was offered a plot of land on the Potomac in return for their vote.

Federalist Party: Why Couldn't Hamilton Run for President?

Hamilton, a well known Federalist, headed the Federalist Party, also known as the "high Federalists." Hamilton was unable to run for president because his economic policy was highly controversial and no doubt resulted in congressional and populous unpopularity.

Alexander Hamilton and his role as Secretary of the Treasury: Background Information

Hamilton, in an attempt to revitalize America's economy, his plan was to shape economic policy to favor wealthier groups. These wealthier groups, in turn, would loan the government monetary and political support. For a time, this worked, and the "trickle-down" effect was observed at its peak.

Harriet Tubman

Harriet Tubman was an illiterate runaway slave that helped rescue hundreds of slaves through the Underground Railroad.

Harry Truman: Contemporary treatment of blacks

Harry Truman was elected President in 1948, and when he heard that black war veterans were being lynched in 1946, he exclaimed that he had no idea that it was "that bad."

Oliver Hazard Perry

He was an American naval officer that captured a British fleet in Lake Erie.

American General Nathanael Greene

He was well known for his tactic of tiring out the enemy by standing, defending, and then retreating repeatedly. His tactics and army were vital to clearing Georgia and South Carolina of British troops.

German Baron von Steuben

He whipped American soldiers into shape so that they could face off against Britain's Regulars.

Andrew Jackson as The Great Father (lithograph)

On the surface, Andrew Jackson's role as the "Great Father" in the lithograph seemed to depict him as caring for Native Indians, who were his "children". Despite Jackson forcefully pursuing his Indian Removal Act of 1830 opponents often called out his professed passion for Natives.

Dumbarton Oak Conference (1944)

Held in 1944 near Washington D.C, the Dumbarton Oak Conference was a meeting between the U.S, the USSR, Britain, and China, meant to draft a Constitution for the United Nations.

Henry Clay

Henry Clay created a system called the American system, which was a plan for developing a profitable U.S. economy. It had 3 main parts: A strong banking system, a protective tariff, and a network of roads and canals. Another one of his ideas was a compromise that he introduced to decide whether or not Missouri should be admitted as a slave state.

Henry Clay's Banking Policies: Transportation

Henry Clay's final economic principle was to create an array of roads and canals, especially in the Ohio valley, that would help to link the nation together.

Henry Clay's Banking Policies: Protective Tariffs

Henry Clay's second economic principle was to enact tariffs on foreign goods. Known as a protective tariff, the purpose of the tariff was to help American industry prosper.

Hawaii: Queen Liliuokalani

Once America's imperialistic desires became evident, Hawaii's standing ruler, Queen Liliuokalani, insisted that native Hawaiian citizens should rule the islands.

Henry Clay

Henry Clay, a Republican, lost in the Electoral race of 1824. However, due to his role as Speaker of the House, he still had a large say in who became President of the United States. He used his power to make a deal with John Quincy Adams: he would persuade the House to elect Adams if he was promised the role of Secretary of State. When Adams won, Clay received his desired role as Secretary of State. Later, in order to soothe Southern discontent, Clay would propose the Compromise Tariff of 1833, which ended up resolving Southern issues with the earlier Tariff of 1832. Furthermore, in 1832, clay began what is now known as the Bank War. Clay was a supporter of internal improvement.

The Immortal Trio: Henry Clay

Henry Clay, a Southerner that was also known as the "Great Compromiser", proposed a series of compromises some in which he suggested that the North enact stricter fugitive-slave laws.

Henry David Thoreau

Henry David Thoreau was a transcendentalist who believed that bodily desires should be ignored and that people should pursue truth through study and meditation.

Henry Demarest Lloyd

Henry Demarest Lloyd, a progressivist, was critical of the Standard Oil Company in 1894 with his book, "Wealth Against Commonwealth."

Henry Ford in Early America

Henry Ford pushed Early America to what it is today. Ford established the assembly line, increased his wages from $2.35/day to $5/day, standardized automobile parts, and lowers the cost of cars while pumping out many more.

Henry George

Henry George wrote the book "Progress and Poverty" in 1879, which addressed the association of progress with poverty. In it, he proposed a 100% tax on profits, since profits would indirectly increase land value. All in all, Henry George was an American economist, journalist, and philosopher.

Henry Wadsworth Longfellow

Henry Wadsworth Longfellow was one of the most famous poets to come to America. Longfellow wrote for the upper class, and was adopted by the less-cultured class.

The Impact of the French Revolution on the US: The support of American Citizens

Once French citizens turned France into a republic, Americans were overjoyed. They sang songs referencing the French. However, once the king of France was executed in 1793, God-fearing Federalist aristocrats began eyeing Jeffersonian masses nervously. Lukewarm Federalist approval of the French revolution turned, overnight, into heated talk of "blood-drinking cannibals." Jeffersonians acknowledged the bloodshed, and while regretting it, also noted that it was a cheap price to pay for human liberty.

Herbert C Hoover

Herbert C. Hoover led the Food Administration, and unlike Europe, Hover didn't want to use ration cards to save food for export. Alternatively, he initiated days such as "wheatless Wednesdays" and "meatless Tuesdays" on a voluntary basis.

Herbert C. Hoover

Herbert C. Hoover led the Food Administration. Unlike Europeans, he didn't want to use rations to save food. Rather, he instituted voluntary days such as "wheatless Wednesdays" and "meatless Tuesdays". Congress' restriction of foodstuffs required to make alcohol helped speed up the 18th Amendment, which totally banned all nonreligious manufacture of alcohol.

Election of 1928: Victor

Herbert Hoover won the Election of 1928 in a landslide, becoming the first Republican candidate in 52 years (except for Warren Harding's Tennessee victory), to win a state that had seceded.

The Gilded Age: Concentration on Cash Crops

High prices caused farmers to focus on single "cash crops" such as wheat or corn, and use their profits to buy produce at the general store and manufactured goods in town.

Hinton R. Helper

Hinton R. Helper, a non-aristocrat from North Carolina, wrote "The Impending Crisis of the South" in 1857. Hinton R. Helper was a huge critic of slavery, and he attempted to use statistics to prove that the "real" sufferers of slavery were non-slaveholding whites.

Black involvement in political office: Hiram Revels

Hiram Revels became the first African American to be elected into Congressional Office in 1870. Revels is a true-to-life example of the effect of increased rights (such as through the Civil Rights Act of 1866) on the African political scene.

Opposition towards Beard's "elitist conservative" concept

Historians such as Robert Brown argued that the Constitution derived from an emerging consensus that the country needed a stronger central government, not from the desire of a small sect of elite conservatives.

Hitler's Invasion of Poland (1939)

Hitler invaded Poland in 1939. Britain and France, honoring their commitments to Poland, declared war on Germany, and World War 2 had begun.

Lend-Lease Act (March, 1941): Hitler's Point of View

Hitler saw the Lend-Lease Act as an Act of War

Hitler's Invasion of the Soviet Union (1941): Reasoning

Hitler's reasoning for invading the Soviet Union in 1941 was to take the oil and other resources that the Soviet Union had, and then concentrate on England. President FDR sent resources to the Soviet Union.

Ho Chi Minh: Communism

Ho Chi Minh, the Vietnamese leader, became increasingly Communist while America became increasingly anti-Communist.

President Hoover: His Plan during the Great Depression

Hoover developed a plan in which the government would help railroads, banks, and rural credit corporations with the hope that if financial health was restored at the top of the economic pyramid, then unemployment would be relieved as the prosperity trickled down. However, Hoover's efforts were criticized, because it was believed that he gave government money to the big bankers who had allegedly started the depression.

President Hoover: Anti-Socialist

Hoover opposed any projects that he viewed as "socialistic", such as the Muscle Shoals Bill, which was designed to dam the Tennessee River and sell government-produced electricity in competition with citizens in private companies.

President Herbert Hoover: Ideology

Hoover supported isolationism, individualism, free enterprise, and small government. Hoover was also a good leader that was full of integrity, and he believed in humanitarianism, passion for assembling the facts, efficiency, talents for administration, and the ability to inspire loyalty in close associates

Horace Mann

Horace Mann in Massachusetts and Henry Bernard in Connecticut sought to increase educational opportunity for all children by creating the common school movement. Mann's reform focused on longer school terms, compulsory attendance, expanded curriculum, and more schools. The North was the primary beneficiary of this reform.

Horatio Alger

Horatio Alger was a Puritan New Englander who wrote more than 100 volumes of juvenile fiction involving New York newsboys in 1866, often having to do with developing from impoverished boys into men with the economic security of the middle-class.

John D. Rockefeller: Horizontal Integration

Horizontal Integration, used by John D. Rockefeller, was the business tactic of allying with competitors in order to monopolize a given market.

Hull House

Hull House was a settlement house created by Jane Addams that offered immigrants instructions in English, counselling to help immigrants deal with big-city life, childcare services for working mothers, and cultural activities for neighborhood residents.

The Compromise of 1850: Utah and New Mexico

Once Texas gave away with its land disputes, New Mexico and Utah were established as territories. Their people were to decide over whether or not they wanted to be admitted as a free state or a slave state by virtue of popular sovereignty. Additionally, slave trade was banned in Washington D.C. As a result of the Compromise of 1850, a new stricter Fugitive Slave Law was introduced by the South in order to increase the amount of runaway slaves being returned.

The Union League: The Effect of Freedmen

Once freedmen began joining the Union league, its platform took a turn. The Union League turned into a network of political clubs that educated members and campaigned for Republican candidates. Additionally, the Union League built churches and schools, represented black grievances before local employers and governments, as well as recruited militias to protect black communities from white retaliation.

Ida B. Wells

Ida B. Wells was an African-American suffragette, journalist, newspaper editor, and sociologist. Ida B. Wells helped launch the black women's club movement, which led to the establishment of the National Association of Colored Women in 1896.

Ida M. Tarbell

Ida M. Tarbell was a progressivist that published a devastating depiction of the Standard Oil Company.

Public Office after Democratic Jackson's Election

Once the Democrats took control of the White House, they replaced most public officials with their own people: the "Common Man". Democratic political supporters and campaign contributors, typically illiterate and uneducated, now took the place of former Republican public officials.

Election of 1860: Immediate Consequences of the election of Republican Abraham Lincoln

Immediately after Abraham Lincoln was elected, Southern Carolina receded. Within two months, Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas follow Southern Carolina's lead.

Immediatist

Immediatists were those that wanted abolition immediately.

Factors affecting Reform in this era: Immigration

Immigration in the 1830s-1840s saw a large number of Catholics immigrating to America.

Imperialism: Forces of Change - New Territories

Imperialism led to new sources of agricultural goods by virtue of new territories, as well as new competition. This resulted in sources of inexpensive labor competing against American farmers, which just made it more difficult for them.

Townshend Acts (1767)

Imposed light taxes on glass, white lead, paper, paint, and tea.

British "Impressment"

Impressment was the British practice of taking any sailors (not just British sailors) and forcing them into military service if necessary.

Key Concepts

Improvements - Social, economic, political, religious

The Black Codes: Content - Response to "Jumping"

One component of The Black Codes were to impose very harsh penalties onto black contract "jumpers," many of which asked the individual to work one extra year for the employer.

Women's Trade Union League

One example of the products of the club movement.

The Massacre of 1622: Background Information

In 1622, the Powhatan Confederacy attacks Virginian colonists tired of the continuous territorial poaching as well as European disease.

Another Chesapeake Colony: Maryland - Act of Tolerance (1649)

In 1649, the Act of tolerance was passed to cement religious freedom for all Christians (particularly Catholics). Maryland served as a safe zone for Catholics seeking refuge from Protestant England. The Act of Tolerance in Maryland didn't apply to Jews, Muslims, or other denominations, only Christians.

Seven Years War: Claims to land between the French and the British

In 1754, both the British and the French laid claim to the Ohio river area. From March-July in that year, there was a conflict in the Allegheny Mountains with Washington surrendering on 07/03/1754.

Ottawa Chief Pontiac

In 1763, Ottawa Chief Pontiac led several tribes and some French traders against the British in the Ohio country. They overran most British settlements, but his plan was crushed by retaliation from the British. Pontiac himself was killed by a rival chieftain in 1769.

The Continental Congress in 1774

In 1774, the Continental Congress called for the complete abolition of the slave trade. Most northern states responded positively, granting their slaves gradual emancipation or outright freedom. However, no state south of Pennsylvania outlawed slavery, and the laws in all states heavily disfavored blacks. Furthermore, laws also failed to take note of women.

Second Continental Congress

In 1774, the Second Continental Congress met to discuss repealing British acts. As a byproduct, they also raised money to fund an army and navy.

The Continental Congress in 1776

In 1776, the Continental Congress asked each state to rewrite their constitution so that it would rest on the authority of the people. Although Connecticut and Rhode Island barely touched their Constitutions, writers of elsewhere worked tirelessly to capture Republican Spirit and convey it on paper.

Anthony Burns

One famous example of the assistance of vigilance committees was when runaway slave Anthony Burns was arrested. A mob came to defend him, and troops were sent in to disarm the event.

Catherine the Great of Russia

In 1780, she took the lead in organizing the Armed Neutrality, which lined up all of the remaining European neutrals in an attitude of passive hostility toward Britain.

Shay's Rebellion

In 1786, impoverished Massachusetts farmers, many of them Revolutionary War veterans, were losing their farms through mortgage foreclosures and tax delinquencies. Eventually quashed by authorities, the movement collapsed, but the residue lingered.

President FDR's Goals: Modest Inflation

One of FDR's goals was modest inflation. Modest inflation would relieve debtors' burdens and stimulate new production. Inflation was achieved by buying gold at an increasing price over time. This policy increased the amount of dollars in circulation.

Main causes of the Great Depression: Farming

One of the main causes of the Great Depression was the overproduction of crops and goods by farms and factories - the nation's ability to produce goods had outrun its capacity to consume or pay for them, and all of the money was being invested in factories and other agencies of production with not enough money going into salaries and wages.

Alexander Hamilton and his role as Secretary of the Treasury: The Effect of the Signing of a National Bank

In 1791, Washington reluctantly gave in to Hamilton's persuasions and signed a bill that created a national bank. The most enthusiastic support for the bank naturally came from the commercial and financial centers of the North, whereas the strongest opposition was in the agricultural centers of the South. The Bank was charted for 20 years, having a capital of $10 million, a fifth of it being owned by the federal government. Its stock was thrown to public sale, which were very quickly all bought up, much to the surprise of Hamilton.

The Whiskey Rebellion: Effects on America

In 1794, the Whiskey Rebellion proved the states would be able to work together in assistance of a sister state when militia were called, and sent, to curtail the Rebellion. The militia found nothing, and the two convicted culprits were pardoned by Washington. However, the effects of the Rebellion were longstanding: it was now proven that Washington was able to muster a significant force against a foe.

The Whiskey Rebellion: Background Information

In 1794, the Whiskey Rebellion sharply challenged the newly formed government's tax on whiskey. Distillers cried out, claiming it a burden on economic necessity rather than a tax on a luxury. The Rebellion tarred revenue offices, grinding tax collection to a halt.

The Battle of Fallen Timbers

In 1794, when American General Wayne routed the Miamis, the British refused to shelter the fleeing Indians. Without the British at their back, the Indians soon offered a peace treaty to the Americans, now known as the Treaty of Greenville, signed in August 1795.

The Treaty of Greenville

In 1795, a peace treaty was signed between Natives and Americans. Americans would pay a lump sum and an annual "rent" to Indians in exchange for land, as well as allowing Indians hunting rights to any land Americans purchased. Although unfair for the Indians, their main hope was that America would recognize their rights as sovereigns.

Alien Laws

In 1798, Federalist congress brazen with Anti-French frenzy passed a multitude of laws designed to minimize and/or silence their Jeffersonian foes. The laws raised residence requirements for aliens that wanted to become citizens from 5 years to 14 years. The laws also declared that the President could deport or jail foreigners in times of peace or in times of hostility.

Marbury vs Madison (1)

In 1803, a man named Marbury sued a man named Madison in order to get Madison's job. Marbury issued a Writ of Mandamus, which was a court order that asked a party to perform a specific action. Writs of Mandamus were later ruled unconstitutional by the SCOTUS. Marbury vs Madison set the precedent that the Supreme Court had the final authority to determine Constitutionality.

Fletcher vs Peck (2)

In 1810, Georgian land was sold to speculators. Opponents claimed that only the central government was able to sell Native American lands. The resultant contract of the trade was declared constitutional by Chief Justice John Marshall. The decision established firmer protection for private property and asserted the right of the Supreme Court to invalidate state laws in conflict with the federal Constitution.

The Battle of New Orleans

In 1815 as part of the war of 1812, lacking notice that the treaty of Ghent was signed a month prior, Andrew Jackson commandeered statesman sharpshooters against British redcoats that were marching away.

General Andrew Jackson

In 1818, General Andrew Jackson went into Florida saying he would punish the Natives and recapture runaways that were hiding in Spanish Florida. While doing this, he also captured St. Marks and Pensacola, the 2 most important Spanish posts in the area.

McCulloch vs. Maryland (4)

In 1819, a branch of the bank of the United States was taking money from Maryland, so Maryland tried taxing them. The Bank of the United States denied it, and when the case went to SCOTUS, where SCOTUS mandated that states can't tax federal institutions (the Bank of the United States.) The decision of SCOTUS strengthened federal authority and upheld the constitutionality of the Bank of the United States.

The Tariff of 1824

In 1824, Congress increased tariffs on imported goods in an attempt to flush out cheaper British manufactured goods. This didn't cause any problems in and of itself, however, it compounded Southern outrage when the Tariff of 1828 was passed.

Gibbons vs. Ogden (5)

In 1824, New York gave Ogden a monopoly over navigation in the Hudson River, which was challenged when Gibbons acquired a federal license to also navigate the Hudson River. SCOTUS ruled that it was unconstitutional for states to regulate interstate commerce, and because the Hudson is owned bilaterally by New Jersey and New York, it was considered interstate commerce. This ruling reasserted the fact that SCOTUS had the sole power to regulate interstate commerce.

Nat Turner's Rebellion

In 1831, Nat Turner's Rebellion, a rebellion against slavery led by slave Nat Turner, was composed of black slaves and was later defeated.

South Carolina: 1835 Mail Incident

In 1835, the Southern Carolina government called for postmasters to destroy anything to do with the abolitionist movement after an anti-abolitionist mob trashed another post office.

California Gold Rush (1848)

In 1848, gold was discovered in California, resulting in the California gold rush. The California gold rush brought disease and violence that overwhelmed the small Californian government. Seeking help, California bypassed the territorial stage of a state and drafted their own Constitution (that excluded slavery) in 1849. After drafting their Constitution, the Californian government applied to Congress for admission into the Union.

General Lewis Cass

In 1848, the Democrats chose General Lewis Cass, a veteran of the war of 1812, to be their Presidential nominee. Cass was a supporter of popular sovereignty.

Zachary Taylor

In 1848, the Whigs chose Zachary Taylor, a man that didn't hold a particular stance on slavery but held many slaves, as their Presidential nominee. Henry Clay would have been the Whig nominee if he didn't have so many enemies. Zachary Taylor won the election of 1848, and was sworn into office in 1849. Taylor evidently opposed slavery, as once sworn in, he seemed ready to veto any proposition made between the North and the South. Suddenly in 1850, Taylor died and Vice President Millard Fillmore took the presidency.

Harriet Beecher Stowe's "Uncle Tom's Cabin" (1852)

In 1852, Harriet Beecher Stowe's "Uncle Tom's Cabin", focusing primarily on northerners, was an exposé of the realities of slavery. Her book helped begin the Civil War.

1855: Lucy Stone

In 1855, Lucy Stone became the first woman on record to keep her last name after marriage. This set a trend among women who became known as "Lucy Stoners".

Kansas' Statehood (1857): Background Information

In 1857, Kansas finally had enough citizens to apply for statehood with the Union, which again brought up the issue of popular sovereignty.

General George B. McClellan: Background Information

In 1861, a Northern general by the name of George B. McClellan was given command of the Army of the Potomac. Afterwards, he began the "Peninsula Campaign", a series of waterborne attacks that moved towards Richmond. The Peninsula Campaign continued until it was repelled by Confederate General Robert E. Lee.

Bull Run, Virginia: Background Information

In 1861, after the creation of the Confederacy, President Abraham Lincoln decided to attack a small military encampment at Bull Run, Virginia. Lincoln had hoped that the attack at Bull Run, if successful, would show Union superiority and may later lead to the capture of the Confederate capital, Richmond.

1862: Mary Jane Patterson

In 1862, Mary Jane Patterson became the first African-American woman to receive a full bachelor's degree, from Oberlin college (the first college to accept women.)

The Naval Aspect of the Civil War: Southern Counters to Blockades - New Armor on Ships (1862)

In 1862, the Confederacy took an older wooden ship named Merrimack and equipped it with metal armor- dubbing its new name as "Virginia." The "Virginia" was a threat to Union blockades because it had the ability to crush through the still-wooden ships that made up the Union's blockade.

Lincoln's "10 percent" Reconstruction Plan 1864

In 1863 in order to reintegrate the Confederate States, Lincoln release his "10 Percent" reconstruction plan, under which 10% of a states voters must taken an oath of allegiance to the United States and pledge to abide by emancipation. Then, a formal state would be constructed within the state, and then the state could join the Union.

Chancellorsville, Virginia (1863)

In 1863, at a battle in Chancellorsville, Virginia, Joseph Hooker became badly injured. The battle at Chancellorsville, Virginia served as a trigger for Joseph Hooker's replacement with General George G. Meade. Coincidentally, Stonewall Jackson was mortally wounded at the very same battle.

Colonel J. M. Chivington

In 1864 at Sand Creek, Colorado, Colonel J. M. Chivington's militia ended up killing 400 innocent Indians.

The Creation of the Freedmen's Bureau (1865): Background Information

In 1865, Congress created what is known as the Freedmen's bureau - an organization that provided clothing, medical care, food, and education to both freedmen and white refugees. Union General Oliver O. Howard led the Freedmen's Bureau.

William J. Fetterman

In 1866 in Wyoming's Bighorn Mountains, William J. Fetterman along with his command of 81 soldiers and civilians were attacked and killed by a Sioux war party.

Sioux War Party (1866)

In 1866 two years after the massacre at Sank Creek, Colorado (1864), a Sioux war party attacked and killed Captain William J. Fetterman's command of 81 soldiers and civilians in Wyoming's Bighorn Mountains.

The Purchase of Alaska: Background Information

In 1867, a year before the election of 1868, Secretary of State William Seward signed a treaty with Russia that gave Alaska property rights to the US in exchange for a sum of $7.2 million dollars.

Colonel George Armstrong Custer's Seventh Cavalry (1876)

In 1876, Colonel George Armstrong Custer's Seventh Cavalry was slaughtered as they tried to suppress the Indians after the Sioux attacked settlers who were searching for gold in the "Great Sioux reservation." This event was also known as Custer's Last Stand.

1877 Railway Strike

In 1877, a group of railway workers on the Baltimore and Ohio railroad rose up and began to strike due to wage cuts. The strike spread like wildfire until President Rutherford B. Hayes sent in troops. 100 people died during the strike.

Nez Perce Indians (1877)

In 1877, the Nez Perce Indians were sent to a dusty reservation.

1878: Susan B. Anthony Amendment

In 1878, an amendment was introduced to Congress called the "Susan B. Anthony" amendment. This amendment would ask to grant the ability to vote to women.

Hawaii: 1887 Hawaiian-American Treaty

In 1887, a treaty with the Native Hawaiian government guaranteed naval-base rights at Pearl Harbor.

National American Woman Suffrage Association (1890, NAWSA)

In 1890, the National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA) was founded, with the goal as the name states, to gain the right for women to vote- however, the group as well as the reborn women's suffrage movement didn't apply to African-American women.

1892 Homestead Steel Strike

In 1892, there was a steelworker strike near Pittsburgh against the Carnegie Steel Company that ended with 10 workers dead. This 1892 strike was known as the Homestead Steel Strike.

Hawaii: 1893 Overthrow of the Queen

In 1893, Americans successfully overthrew Queen Liliuokalani. However, most Hawaiians didn't want to be annexed, so President Grover Cleveland decided to delay the annexation of Hawaii.

1894 Pullman Strike

In 1894, there was a strike by railroad workers that were upset by drastic wage cuts. The strike was lead by Socialist Eugene Debs, but it wasn't supported by the AF of L. Eventually, contemporary President Grover Cleveland sent troops in to stop the strike. The 1894 Pullman Strike showed divisions within labor as well as the newfound government willingness to use soldiers to stop labor strikes.

Cuba: 1895 Revolt

In 1895, Cubans revolted against Spanish rule. Cuban "insurrectos" burned sugar cane fields, believing that if they destroyed enough of Cuba, then Spain might simply abandon Cuba or the US might move in and help Cubans in their fight for independence.

Cuba: 1896 Congressional Recognition

In 1896, Congress passed a resolution that recognized the revolting Cubans. However, President Cleveland opposed imperialism, and stated that he refused to go to war with Spain over Cuba.

Plessy v. Ferguson (1896)

In 1896, the SCOTUS ruling of Plessy v Ferguson was that separate segregated ("separate but equal") institutions were Constitutional so long as they were interpreted as equal.

J.P Morgan-Andrew Carnegie Clashings

In 1900, Andrew Carnegie wanted to sell his holdings of his steel companies, and he threatened to ruin J. P. Morgan's steel pipe production business if Morgan didn't buy him out. Morgan ended up buying out Andrew Carnegie for 400 million.

Third Wave Tenement Reform (1901)

In 1901, the final tenement law added provisions for improved lighting and ventilation, as well as the replacement of school sinks in favor of individual, flushing toilets, followed by city inspection.

Lochner vs New York (1905)

In 1905, the SCOTUS decision on Lochner vs New York invalidated legislation that limited the work hours of a baker. Following several workplace accidents, more laws were put into place to assure consumer safety.

San Francisco School Board's Segregation (1906)

In 1906, San Francisco's school board segregated the Chinese, Japanese, and Korean students in order to make room for white students - the Japanese saw this as an insult and threatened with war.

Immigration Act of 1906

In 1906, another Immigration Act was passed that made knowledge of the English language a requirement for naturalization (the action of gaining citizenship by virtue of living somewhere for a certain period of time.)

The Gilded Age: The "Sooner State"

In 1907, Oklahoma was admitted as the "Sooner State".

Berea College v. Kentucky (1908)

In 1908, one of the first civil rights SCOTUS cases of the 20th century, SCOTUS upheld the Kentucky laws that banned private schools from admitting black students and white students to the same campus. This ruling was a sign that Jim Crow laws are becoming more and more entrenched.

Muller vs Oregon (1908)

In 1908, the SCOTUS decision on Muller vs Oregon set the precedent that it was constitutional to enact legislation that specifically pertained to women and children in the workplace.

National Progressive Republican League (1911)

In 1911, the National Progressive Republican League was formed with La Follette instead of Roosevelt, because it was assumed that Roosevelt wouldn't re-run.

1912: Roosevelt-Taft Challenge

In 1912, Roosevelt challenged Taft for the Republican presidential nomination. Roosevelt disliked Taft, because he felt like Taft abandoned many fundamental Roosevelt policies. Taft won regardless, because Roosevelt voters refused to vote in the election of 1912, claiming fruad.

The Ending of the Gilded Age: 16th Amendment

In 1913, the 16th Amendment was established, which created an income tax.

1917: Jeannete Rankin of Montana

In 1917, Jeanette Montana becomes the first woman to be elected to the U.S. Congress.

Wilson's 1917 Ask of Congress

In 1917, Wilson asked for a declaration from Congress of war after 4 unarmed merchant ships were sunk. Wilson stated the Zimmerman Note, the German declaration of unrestricted submarine warfare, and the Bolshevik Revolution.

Bernard Baruch

In 1918, Bernard Baruch was appointed by President Wilson to lead the War Industries Board and create order over the economic confusion.

French Marshal Foch in 1918

In 1918, for the first time, the Allies fought in unison under Supreme Commander French Marshal Foch to fight the German expansion on the Western front.

Rise of Gangs and Speakeasies in the 1920s

In 1919, Congress passed the National Prohibition Act, which provided guidelines for the outlaw of alcohol. As a result, speakeasies (which smuggled alcohol) and secret clubs gained insane popularity.

1919: Suffrage Amendment

In 1919, the House of Representatives passes the woman suffrage amendment 304 to 89, while the Senate passes it with just two votes to spare, 56 to 25.

1919 Steel Strike

In 1919, the greatest strike in American history hit the Steel Industry. More than 250,000 steelworkers went on strike, seeking the right to organize and bargain. Steel companies brought in 30,000 African-Americans to keep the mills running, and the strike collapsed, crippling the Union movement.

1920: Ratification of the 19th Amendment

In 1920, the 19th Amendment to the Constitution was quietly ratified. The 19th amendment guaranteed American women citizens the right to vote. The 19th Amendment was signed into law at a ceremony which the press and suffragists weren't invited.

Sheppard-Towner Maternity Act of 1921

In 1921, Congress passed the Sheppard-Towner Maternity Act, which gave federally-funded education on maternal and infant health care.

Charles R. Forbes: 1923

In 1923, head of the Veterans Bureau Colonel Charles R. Forbes was caught stealing $200 million from the government, in connection with the building of veterans' hospitals.

The Johnson Act (1924)

In 1924, the Johnson Act, also known as the National Origins Act of 1924, revised the earlier Quota Law of 1921 and reduced the percentage to 2% with usage of the 1890 population census rather than the 1910 population census.

1926 Mexican Declaration of Control Over its Oil

In 1926, the Mexican government declared that it had control over its oil resources. Despite the call for war from American oil companies, Coolidge resolved the situation diplomatically.

Japanese Imperialists: Attack on Manchuria (1931)

In 1931, after Japanese Imperialists saw that the West was bogged down in the Great Depression, invaded the Chinese province of Manchuria. Although it was a direct violation of the League of Nations, the League was unable to do anything because it lacked America's support.

London Economic Conference (1933)

In 1933, 66 nations sent delegates to the London Economic conference in hopes of coordinating an international response to the global depression. They wanted to stabilize currencies and the rates at which they could be exchanged.

Emergency Banking Relief Act of 1933

In 1933, Congress passed the Emergency Banking Relief Act, which gave the President the power to regulate banking transactions, foreign exchange, and to reopen solvent (profitable) banks.

President FDR: Formal Recognition of the Soviet Union (1933)

In 1933, President FDR formally recognized the Soviet Union, which opened up trade and the fostering of a friendship to counter-balance the German European threat and the Japanese Asian threat.

Termination of the Washington Naval Treaty (1934)

In 1934, Japan terminated the Washington Naval Treaty and accelerated their construction of large battleships.

Benito Mussolini: Attack on Ethiopia (1935)

In 1935, Benito Mussolini attacked Ethiopia, because he sought power and glory in Africa.

Works Progress Administration (WPA, 1935)

In 1935, Congress passed the Works Progress Administration (WPA) in an attempt to provide employment for useful projects such as the construction of buildings, roads, etc. Some taxpayers criticized the agency for paying people to do "useless" jobs such as painting murals.

Hitler's Violation of the Treaty of Versailles (1935)

In 1935, Hitler violated the Treaty of Versailles when he introduced mandatory military service in Germany.

Hitler's Violation of the Treaty of Versailles (1936)

In 1936, Hitler violated the Treaty of Versailles again when he took over the demilitarized German Rhineland.

Rome-Berlin Axis (1936)

In 1936, Nazi Hitler and Fascist Mussolini allied themselves in the Rome-Berlin Axis.

Agricultural Adjustment Act (AAA): SCOTUS' Perspective

In 1936, SCOTUS ruled that the Agricultural Adjustment Act was unconstitutional, stating that its taxation programs were illegal.

Sinking of the Panay (1937)

In 1937, Japanese planes sunk an American ship, the Panay, and Tokyo quickly apologized and the U.S. accepted.

Quarantine Speech (1937)

In 1937, President FDR gave his Quarantine Speech, in which he proposed economic embargoes against aggressive dictators. The public opposed this, so FDR didn't follow through with his plan.

Japanese Invasion of China (1937)

In 1937, the Japanese invaded China.

1937 Economic Downturn

In 1937, the economy took another downturn, caused by reduced spending, caused by social security taxes that cutted into payrolls. The Roosevelt administration also cut down on spending, in an attempt to keep a balanced budget.

Hitler's Invasion of Austria (1938)

In 1938, Hitler invaded Austria.

Conference in Munich, Germany (1938)

In 1938, in a conference in Munich, Germany, Western European democracies allowed Germany to keep Sudetenland (part of Czechoslovakia) in the hopes that it would stop Hitler from invading other countries. Obviously, it didn't. In 1939, Hitler took over all of Czechoslovakia.

CIO-A F of L Merge (1938)

In 1938, the CIO joined with the A F of L and the name "Committee for Industrial Organization" was changed to "Congress of Industrial Organizations." The CIO was led by John Lewis, and the CIO claimed about 4 million members by 1940.

Mexican Government: Seizure of American Oil Properties (1938)

In 1938, when the Mexican government seized American oil properties, President Roosevelt held to his unarmed intervention policy and a settlement was eventually worked out in 1941.

Hitler Taking Over Czechoslovakia (1939)

In 1939, Hitler took over all of Czechoslovakia.

American Trade Embargoes on Japan

In 1940, Washington enabled embargoes on Axis Japan.

FDR's Decision on American Warships (1941)

In 1941, FDR decided that American warships would escort supplies to Britain so that German ships couldn't continuously sink them.

Hitler's Invasion of the Soviet Union (1941)

In 1941, Hitler invaded the Soviet Union. This was an event that marked the course of World War 2.

Bretton Woods Conference (1944)

In 1944, the Western Allies met at Bretton Woods, New Hampshire, and established the International Monetary Fund (IMF) in order to encourage world trade by regulating currency exchange rates, as well as the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (World Bank) in order to promote economic growth in underdeveloped areas.

Stalin's Invasion of Japanese Defenses (1945)

In 1945 two days after the bombing of Hiroshima, Stalin invaded Japanese Manchuria and Korea.

Stalin's Desire for Oil (1946)

In 1946 due to Stalin's desire for oil, the USSR broke an agreement to remove his troops from Iran's northernmost province Soviet troops were used to aid a rebel movement. Regardless, Stalin backed down when Truman protested.

Bernard Baruch: U.N. Agency

In 1946, Bernard Baruch wanted to create a U.N. Agency, free from the great-power veto, with worldwide authority over atomic energy, weapons, and research.

Post World War 2: Japanese Constitution with MacArthur's Oversight

In 1946, a MacArthur dictated Constitution was adopted by Japan, which renounced militarism and introduced western-style Democratic Government.

Richard M. Nixon's Conviction of Alger Hiss

In 1948, Congressman Richard M. Nixon led the conviction of Alger Hiss, a prominent ex-New dealer. This conviction, as well as the Committee on Un-American Activities and the Smith Act, led to Americans joining the hunt for Communist spies who were thought to be living in America.

1948 Presidential Elections: Republican Nominee

In 1948, Republicans chose Thomas E. Dewey to run for president.

North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO, 1948)

In 1948, the United States joined the European Pact, called the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), which ppledged each nation to regard an attack on one as an attack on all. The NATO ppact talso marked a departure from American diplomatic convention, a boost for European unification, and a significant step in the militarization of the Cold War.

Smith Act of 1940: Violations of the Act

In 1949, 11 Communists were sent to prison for violating the Smith Act of 1940 after it was found that they were supporting the overthrow of the American government.

Establishment of East and West Germany (1949)

In 1949, the governments of East and West Germany were established.

Joseph R. McCarthy: His Accusation (1950)

In 1950, Republican Senator Joseph R. McCarthy accused Secretary of State Dean Acheson of employing 205 Communist party members. Although the accusation was proved false, McCarthy gained the support of the public, and with the Republican victory in the election of 1952, his rhetoric became bolder as his accusations of Communism grew.

Segregation in the 20th Century

In 1950, around 15 million Blacks were American citizens, with around 2/3rds residing in the ironclad anti-Black Southern society.

North Korean Invasion of South Korea (1950)

In 1950, the North Korean Army invaded South Korea. In response, Truman ordered American air and naval units to be sent to support South Korea without Congress' approval.

Julius and Ethel Rosenberg

In 1951, Julius and Ethel Rosenberg were convicted and sentenced to death for stealing American atomic bomb plans and selling them to the Soviet Union. They were the only people in history to be sentenced to death for espionage.

North Korean Invasion of South Korea (1950): Path towards Truce

In 1951, truce discussions dragged out over the issue of prisoner exchange.

Ernest Hemingway: The Old Man and the Sea (1952)

In 1952, Ernest Hemingway, a post World War 2 writer, published "The Old Man and the Sea"

President Eisenhower's Attempts to End the Korean War

In 1953, after Eisenhower threatened to use nuclear weapons, the Korean war was ended with an armistice.

CIA-Iranian Coup (1953)

In 1953, in an attempt to secure Iranian oil for the West, the CIA created a coup and installed Mohammed Reza Pahlevi as the Iranian Dictator.

Laos' Independence (1954)

In 1954, Laos gained independence from the French and erupted in violence.

Joseph R. McCarthy: Attack on the U.S. Army (1954)

In 1954, McCarthy overstepped his bounds and verbally attacked the U.S. Army. McCarthy was later condemned by the Senate for "conduct unbecoming a member."

Geneva Summit Conference (1955)

In 1955 at the Geneva Summit Conference, President Eisenhower attempted to make peace with the new Soviet Union dictator Nikita Khrushchev. Peace negotiations were rejected.

NATO: West Germany's Acceptance (1955)

In 1955, West Germany was let into NATO.

Hungarian Uprising (1956): Background Information

In 1956, Hungarians rose up against the Soviets in an attempt to gain their independence.

Founding of SCLC (Southern Christian Leader Conference) in 1957

In 1957, the SCLC, aka the Southern Christian Leader Conference, was founded by Martin Luther King Jr, and it promoted nonviolent protest in effort to gain civil rights.

Lebanon's Call for Aid (1958)

In 1958, Lebanon called for aid under the Eisenhower doctrine as Communism threatened to take over the country

Alaska and Hawaii: Acceptance as States (1959)

In 1959, Alaska and Hawaii became states.

Fidel Castro: Coup (1959)

In 1959, Fidel Castro led a coup that overthrew the American-supported Cuban government in 1959.

Nikita Krushchev: Call for Disarmament (1959)

In 1959, Krushchev appeared before the U.N. General Assembly and called for complete disarmament.

Congress' Economic Plan for Latin America (1960)

In 1960, Congress authorized $500 million in order to prevent Communism from spreading in Latin america.

American U-2 Spy Plane over Russia (1960)

In 1960, Russians shot down an American U-2 spy plane that flew over Russia. This event ended the possibility of a quick peaceful resolution.

Founding of SNCC (Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee) in 1960

In 1960, black youths and current Georgia politician John Lewis founded the SNCC, aka the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee. These black youths sought immediate reform, not gradual.

Freedom Riders: Actions (1960)

In 1960, groups of Southern Freedom Riders tried to end segregation in facilities serving interstate bus passengers. When Southern officials did nothing to stop violence that erupted at these protests, Federal marshals were dispatched to protect them.

Election of 1960: Democratic Presidential & Vice Presidential Nominee

In 1960, the Democrats nominated John F. Kennedy for President and Lyndon B. Johnson for Vice President.

Election of 1960: Republican Presidential & Vice Presidential Nominee

In 1960, the Republicans nominated Richard Nixon for President, and Henry Cabot Lodge Jr for Vice President.

1960: Women wages

In 1960, women earned 60 cents for every dollar that men make. This is a decline from women's wages in 1955. African-American wages are only around 42 cents.

Bay of Pigs: Event (1961)

In 1961, 1,200 American-supported Cuban exiles landed at the Bay of Pigs. This was an attempt by America in order to overthrow the Castro regime. Since Kennedy didn't support DIRECTLY overthrowing Castro, he didn't prove enough support for the exiles. Thus, the invasion failed.

Southern Vietnamese "Military Advisers"

In 1961, Kennedy increased the number of Southern Vietnamese "military advisers" in order to protect Diem (the President of South Vietnam) from the Communists.

1961: Birth Control Pills

In 1961, near the release of "The Feminine Mystique" in 1963, birth control pills were approved for marketing in the United States.

President John F. Kennedy: The Economy - the Steel Industry

In 1962, Kennedy managed to negotiate a noninflationary wage agreement with the steel industry as an attempt to stop inflation. Later, the steel industry announced significant price increases, which would obviously promote inflation, and Kennedy attacked the executives of the steel industry. As a result, the prices decreased.

Cuban Missile Crisis (1962)

In 1962, it was found that Soviets were installing nuclear missiles in Cuba after Castro sought them due to frustration with America. It took a week for the Soviet's Khrushchev to agree to a compromise which would result in the pull-out of nuclear missiles from Cuba.

Southern Vietnamese Coup (1963)

In 1963, Kennedy became fed up with Southern Vietnamese President Diem embezzling US Economic Aid funds. As a result, he staged a coup, and killed Diem.

Martin Luther King's Birmingham Campaign (1963)

In 1963, MLK launched a campaign against discrimination in Birmingham - the most segregated big city in America. At Birmingham, Civil Rights marchers were repelled by police with attack dogs and high-pressure water hoses.

Martin Luther King: March on Washington (1963)

In 1963, Martin Luther King led 200,000 black and white demonstrators on a peaceful protest in support of the proposed new civil rights legislation.

John F. Kennedy: Death (1963)

In 1963, President Kennedy was shot and killed in an open limousine in Texas by Lee Harvey Oswald, who was later shot and killed by vigilante Jack Ruby. Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson was then sworn into office, retaining most of Kennedy's cabinet.

Pact Prohibiting Trial Nuclear Explosions (1963)

In 1963, a Pact prohibiting the trial of nuclear explosions in the atmosphere was signed.

Martin Luther King's Birmingham Campaign (1963): President Kennedy's Speech

In 1963, in response to the maltreatment of peaceful Civil Rights protesters in Birmingham, Kennedy delivered a speech in which he dedicated himself to finding a solution to the racial problems.

Escobedo (1964) and Miranda (1966)

In 1964 and 1966 cases Escobedo and Miranda, SCOTUS ruled that those who were arrested had the "right to remain silent" (Miranda rights.)

Election of 1964: Outcome

In 1964, Lyndon B. Johnson won the Presidential vote.

Election of 1964: Republican Presidential Nominee

In 1964, Republicans chose Senator Barry Goldwater as their Presidential Nominee.

Election of 1964: Democratic Presidential Nominee

In 1964, the Democrats elected Lyndon B. Johnson as their Presidential Nominee.

Congress: Creation of Medicare and Medicaid (1965)

In 1965, Congress created Medicare for the elderly and Medicaid for the poor.

Sending Troops to the Dominican Republic (1965)

In 1965, President Johnson sent 25,000 troops to the Dominican Republic in order to restore order after a revolt against the military government began - causing him to be widely condemned.

President Johnson: 1965 Executive Order

In 1965, President Johnson signed an executive order that required all Federal contractors to take affirmative action against discrimination.

Viet Cong Guerrilla Attack at Pleiku, South Vietnam (1965)

In 1965, Viet Cong Guerrillas attacked an air base at Pleiku, South Vietnam, resulting in Operation Rolling Thunder later that year.

William Fulbright: Televised Hearings (1966, 1967)

In 1966 and 1967, Senator William Fulbright held a series of televised hearings in which he convinced the American public that it had been deceived about the causes and "winnability" of the war.

Six Day War (1967)

In 1967, Israel launched a preemptive attack on Egypt's air force, starting the Six-Day War.

President Johnson: Orders for the CIA (1967)

In 1967, President Johnson ordered the CIA to spy on domestic antiwar activists.

Prague Spring (1968)

In 1968 under Alexander Dubcek's reign, Czechoslovakia began a program of reform. Alexander Dubcek promised civil liberties, Democratic political reforms, and a more independent political system. The Soviet Union shortly invaded Czechoslovakia and put an end to the short-lived period of freedom.

Election of 1968: McCarthy & Robert Kennedy

In 1968, Eugene McCarthy and Robert F. Kennedy entered the Democratic Presidential Nomination.

Martin Luther King Jr: Death (1968)

In 1968, MLK Jr. was shot and killed by a sniper in Memphis, Tennessee.

President Johnson's Informal Declaration to Withdraw from Vietnam (1968)

In 1968, President Johnson stated that he would freeze American troop levels and gradually shift more responsibility to the South Vietnamese, with bombings also being scaled down.

Tet Offensive (1968): Attack

In 1968, the Viet Cong attacked 27 key South Vietnamese cities, including Saigon.

President Nixon's Speech to the "Silent Majority" (1969)

In 1969, President Nixon delivered a televised speech to the "silent majority" who presumably supported the war. President Nixon hoped to gain supporters.

American Attack on Cambodia (1970)

In 1970, President Nixon ordered American forces to attack the North Vietnamese in Cambodia.

Title IX of the Education Amendments (1972)

In 1972, Congress passed Title IX of the Education Amendments, which prohibited sex discrimination in any federally assisted educational program.

Equal Rights Amendment (ERA, 1972)

In 1972, Congress passed the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) to the Constitution, although it was never ratified by enough states. The Equal Rights Amendment would have prohibited laws that discriminated based on sex.

President Nixon: Visit to China (1972)

In 1972, President Nixon visited China and paved the way for improved relations between the United States and Beijing.

Roe vs Wade (1973)

In 1973, SCOTUS's decision on Roe vs Wade invalidated legislation that banned abortion, giving women the right to an abortion as part of the 9th and 4th amendments.

Milliken vs Bradley (1974)

In 1974, SCOTUS' decision on Milliken vs Bradley stated that desegregation laws could not force students to move across school-district lines reinforced what is known as "white flight".

Fall of Saigon (1975)

In 1975, the North Vietnamese took over the capital of South Vietnam, Saigon.

United States vs Wheeler (1978)

In 1978, SCOTUS' decision in United States vs Wheeler set the precedent that native tribes have limited sovereignty.

University of California vs Bakke (1978)

In 1978, SCOTUS' decision on University of California vs Bakke set the precedent that racial characteristics can't play a role in whether or not a person is accepted into college.

Carter's Malaise Speech (1979)

In 1979, Carter gave his malaise speech, which chastised the American people for their obsession of material goods - which stunned the nation.

Carter's Retreat to Camp David (1979)

In 1979, Carter retreated to Camp David with hundreds of advisers in order to come up with a solution to America's problems.

Mohammed Reza Pahlevi's Overthrowal (1979)

In 1979, Iran's Shah, Mohammed Reza Pahlevi, was overthrown by Ayatollah Khomeini, an Iranian fundamentalist that was opposed to Western customs.

President Reagan Sending Military Advisers to El Salvador (1979)

In 1979, President Reagan sent "military advisers" to El Salvador in order to support the pro-American government.

President Reagan: Call for Tax Cuts (1981)

In 1981, Reagan called for substantial tax cuts, and Congress approved a set of tax reforms that lowered individual tax rates, reduced federal estate taxes, and created new tax-free saving plans for small investors.

President Reagan: Shot (1981)

In 1981, Reagan was shot. He recovered 12 days later and returned to office.

Sandra Day O'Connor (1981)

In 1981, Sandra Day O'Connor became the first woman to be appointed to the U.S Supreme Court.

Recession of 1981-1982: Background Information

In 1981-1982, the economy slipped into a recession as unemployment rose and banks closed.

Israeli Invasion of Lebanon (1982)

In 1982, Israel invaded Lebanon, seeking to destroy the Guerrilla bases from which Palestinian fighters attacked Israel.

Israeli Invasion of Lebanon (1982): President Reagan's Response

In 1982, President Reagan sent peacekeeping troops to stop Israel, but after a suicide bomber killed 200 marines, he withdrew the troops.

President Reagan Sending Forces to Grenada (1983)

In 1983, President Reagan sent military forces to the island of Grenada, where a military coup had killed the Prime Minister and brought Marxists to power.

Adam Smith

In Adam Smith's book "Wealth of Nations", Smith claims that laissez faire (pure capitalism free from restraints) would benefit everyone.

Carribean Colonies; Barbados and Jamaica

In Barbados and Jamaica, the cash crop was sugar cane. From the very beginning, the Carribean colonies had a very strict slave labor system in order to ensure profitability

American "Constitution" vs British "Constitution"

In Britain, traditionally, a constitution was merely the accumulation of laws, customs and precedent. The American constitution was fundamentally different in that it drew its authority from the people, rather than a distant King.

Daniel Webster's Seventh of March Speech

In Daniel Webster's Seventh of March Speech, he asked the people to make concessions and support Clay's proposal for the sake of maintaining the Union.

President Johnson's Reconstruction Plan: Success

In December of 1865, Johnson had announced that all Southern states had completed the guidelines underlined in his Reconstruction Plan. Therefore, the States were to be readmitted into the Union. Republicans were frustrated, because Southern states were predominantly Democrat.

Dred Scott v Sanford: Supreme Court Ruling

In Dred Scott v Stanford, Chief Justice Roger Taney ruled that Dred was a black slave, not a citizen, therefore the 5th amendment that forbade Congress from depriving people of their property without lawful due process doesn't apply to him. Additionally, SCOTUS decided that slaves were private property so he could be taken into any territory and be legally held there as a slave.

Dred Scott v Sanford: Missouri Compromise of 1820

In Dred Scott v Stanford, SCOTUS ruled that the Missouri Compromise of 1820 was unconstitutional, ruling that Congress had no power to ban slavery from the territories, regardless of the desires of the territorial legislatures themselves.

Andrew Jackson's 2nd Annual Address to Congress

In Jackson's 2nd Annual Address to Congress, he argued in support for the western movement of Indians. Jackson stated that the Western Movement of Indians would return many positive benefits, such as decreasing tension between States, populating the states more densely, make the Natives happier as they will be farther from American control, and may, with government influence, Christianize them.

Jacksonian Democracy

In Jacksonian Democracy, the worth of the common man as well as the equal opportunity to succeed was acknowledged. Jacksonian Democrats supported the idea that the government shouldn't create special advantages for different political and socioeconomic classes. Furthermore, Jacksonian Democrats supported the strict interpretation of the Constitution, and held the belief that the Union was a permanent entity. Additionally, Jacksonian Democrats were committed towards Western expansion, but were reluctant to confront the longstanding Natives.

Development of English and French tensions in 1754

In January of 1754, George Washington delivers a letter that demands the exportation of the French from Pennsylvania. The plan, of course being denied, led to Washington's observance on the way back of a perfect location of a fort. The British acted on Washington's suggestion and constructed a fort.

The Senate and the House of Representatives: Johnson's Judge and Jury; Johnson's Defense

In Johnson's defense, he claims that the Tenure of Offices Act was unconstitutional, and that he dismissed Stanton in order to be able to challenge the policy before the Supreme Court.

Kennedy's June 1963 Speech

In June of 1963, President Kennedy gave a speech in which he encouraged Americans to abandon the negative views of the soviet union, in support for a policy of peaceful coexistence with the Soviet Union.

The Naval Aspect of the Civil War: The Monitor vs Merrimack (Virginia) [1862]

In March of 1862, Union flagship "The Monitor" met the Confederacy's Merrimack. Both of these ships met and fought to a standstill.

The Convention of 1787

In May of 1787, a convention was called in order to discuss the control of commerce, as well as to revise the Articles of Confederation. The political makeup of the convention was mostly conservative (Federalist): the voters were typically property owners who, of course, voted for those that would support their personal affairs. The delegates pushed for a central authority with the power to create and control tariffs, in order to allow the nation to facilitate satisfactory commercial trade. Furthermore, the delegates wanted to stomp out "mobocracy" as well as democracy from the states. At the end of it all, everyone walked out having compromised on something one way or another.

Sputnik II (November 1957)

In November 1957, one month after the launch of Sputnik I, the Soviets launched Sputnik II, which carried a dog.

Sputnik I (October 1957): Launch

In October 1957, the Soviets successfully launched he Sputnik I satellite into space.

Pinckney's Treaty of 1795

In Pinckney's Treaty of 1795, Spain granted the Americans free navigation of the Mississippi river and the largely disputed territory of Florida.

US Economic State 1933-1937

In Roosevelt's first term, unemployment still ran high and recovery had been slow. 1933 was the worst year overall of the Great Depression.

McKinley's Death (1901)

In September 1901, President McKinley was assassinated, and he was replaced by Theodore Roosevelt.

The Detonation of the Soviet Union's First Atomic Bomb: Western Response

In September of 1949, the Soviet Union exploded its first atomic bomb, 3 years before American experts thought they would. In order to stay one step ahead, Truman ordered the development of the Hydrogen bomb, which was first exploded in 1952.

Sweatt v Painter

In Sweatt v Painter, lawyer Thurgood Marshall managed to wring out the fact that a separate school for blacks failed to meet the standard of equality.

Gunnar Myrdal

In Swedish Scholar Gunnar Myrdal's book "An American Dilemma", he specifies the contradiction in American ideology where all men are born equal, but Blacks are still seen as the "lower race."

National Recovery Administration (NRA): SCOTUS' View

In a 1935 SCOTUS decision in the case Schechter vs United States, SCOTUS ruled the National Recovery Administration unconstitutional, because it gave legislative powers to the President, and it allowed Congress to control individual businesses, not just interstate commerce.

Brown v Board of Education in Topeka Kansas (1954)

In a 1954 never-seen-before-feat, all SCOTUS judges unanimously decided that segregation in public schooling was "inherently unequal". The ruling shocked Conservatives, as it also repealed the earlier SCOTUS ruling in Plessy v Ferguson which stated that "separate but equal" institutions were allowable under the Constitution.

Engel v. Vitale (1962) and School District of Abington Township v. Schempp (1963)

In a 1962 case Engel v. Vitale and a 1963 case School District of Abington Township v. Schempp, SCOTUS ruled that public school couldn't require prayers or Bible reading.

Gideon v. Wainwright (1963)

In a 1963 case Gideon v. Wainwright, SCOTUS ruled that all criminals were entitled to legal counsel, even if they were unable to afford it.

Reynolds v. Sims (1964)

In a 1964 case Reynolds v. Sims, SCOTUS ruled that the state legisatures would be required to be reapportioned according to population.

Griswold v. Connecticut (1965)

In a 1965 case Griswold v. Connecticut, SCOTUS struck down a state law that banned the use of contraceptives, even by married couples, creating a "right to privacy."

Griggs v. Duke Power Co (1971)

In a 1971 SCOTUS Case, SCOTUS ruled that affirmative action included preferable treatment on groups, not just individuals. Some whites protested this ruling, dubbing it "reverse discrimination."

Roe v. Wade (1973)

In a 1973 SCOTUS decision, Roe v. Wade invalidated laws banning abortion.

Milliken v. Bradley (1974)

In a 1974 SCOTUS decision, Milliken v. Bradley stated that desegregation plans couldn't require students to move across school-district lines, which reinforced "White Flight."

United States v. Wheeler (1978)

In a 1978 SCOTUS decision, United States v. Wheeler stated that Native American tribes had limited sovereignty.

University of California v. Bakke (1978)

In a 1978 SCOTUS decision, University of California v. Bakke stated that universities couldn't favor applicants based on the quality of race.

University of California v. Bakke (1978)

In a 1978 decision, SCOTUS ruled that a university's use of racial "quotas" in its admissions process was unconstitutional, but also stated that a school's use of "affirmative action" to accept minority applicants was constitutional in some cases.

Fisher v University of Texas (2016)

In a 2016 decision, SCOTUS decided that Fisher, a caucasian woman that claimed affirmative action caused her to be declined from the University of Texas due to her being Caucasian, was incorrect and that affirmative action was constitutional.

Soil Conservation and Domestic Allotment Act of 1936

In a second attempt to get farmers to farm less (in addition to the AAA), Congress passed the Soil Conservation and Domestic Allotment Act of 1936, which reduced crop acreage by paying farmers to plant soil-conserving crops

Jefferson's Moderation after Becoming President

In accordance with his inaugurational speech, he allowed Federalist officials to serve out their reign in their political roles. Jefferson quickly proved an able politician, using his personal charm instead of party influence due to the fact that his party was so weak-jointed.

Encomienda System: Religious motive

In addition to the economic motives, Spaniards sought to convert Natives to the majority religion of Spain, Catholicism. This religious motive was often used as a tool to support white superiority over Native Americans.

Munn v. Illinois (1877)

In an 1877 SCOTUS decision over Munn v. Illinois, the power of the Federal government to regulate private industries was reaffirmed.

Wabash, St. Louis & Pacific Railroad Company vs Illinois (1886)

In an 1886 SCOTUS decision over Wabash, St. Louis & Pacific Railroad Company vs Illinois, states were prohibited from regulating railroads because that right was Congress', not the states'. As a result, reformers now looked to the Federal government instead of the state government.

Tariff of 1832

In an attempt by Congress to meet Southern demands, the Tariff of 1832 was passed, which held a slightly lower tariff than that seen in the Tariff of 1828. Of course, the new Tariff fell short of Southern demands.

Britain's Canadian defiance of America

In defiance of the Peace Treaty of 1783, for ten long years the British Government retained their chain of northern frontier posts. The British hoped to create an Indian buffer state against the Americans. British agents also openly sold arms to the Indians of the Miami confederacy, Indians that terrorized American land. In 1790 and 1791, a native chieftain by the name of Little Turtle, armed with British weapons, defeated several American armies.

Kennedy-King Family Relationship

In general, the relationship between President John F. Kennedy's family and Martin Luther King's family had a good relationship.

Freeport Doctrine

In his debates with Abraham Lincoln circa 1860, Stephen A. Douglas argued for the Freeport Doctrine, a Doctrine which argued that the people of a territory had the right to vote for legislation, so it would void the Lecompton Constitution by virtue of the fact that the Lecompton Constitution wasn't a document under which every aspect was eligible for vote.

Generalissimo Jiang Jieshi's Flee

In late 1949, the Chinese nationalist government headed by Generalissimo Jiang Jieshi was forced to flee the country to the island of Formosa (Taiwan) after the Mao Zedong led Communists took over the country.

Congress' Reconstruction Act: Military aspect

In many ways, Congress' Reconstruction Act was seen as "Military Reconstruction" - it took control of certain functions of the president and set up a military rule of the South by dividing it into districts and having each district commanded and policed by Union military individuals.

President Reagan: Major Goal for the Government - Proposal

In order to attempt to reduce the size of the government, President Reagan called for a new federal budget that sought cuts of $35 billion, mostly in social programs, including food stamps and federally-funded job training centers.

The Naval Aspect of the Civil War: Southern Counters to Blockades - Agile Ships

In order to bypass the Union's blockades, the Confederacy developed a new type of ship that would be speedy enough to run through the blockades. These types of ships were extremely profitable by exchanging cotton for weapons.

Earl Warren: Replacement

In order to curb Liberal SCOTUS rulings, after Earl Warren (liberal Justice that made many controversial decisions) retired, President Nixon appointed Warren E. Burger.

Braceros

In order to fill the worker gap left by the draft, thousands of Mexican workers called braceros were used.

Hungarian Uprising (1956): Call for American Help

In order to get assistance and win their independence, Hungarians asked the U.S. for aid. They were denied and slaughtered by Soviet forces.

Wyoming Stock-Growers' Associations

In order to make the cattle business profitable, cattle-raisers organized the Wyoming Stock-Growers' Associations.

Virginia: Headright system

In order to motivate companies and people to hire more indentured servants, Virginia established the Headright system. Under the Headright system, groups would get compensated with land in return for paying for someone's journey to the colony.

Racial Gerrymandering

In order to remove the effects of racial gerrymandering, where lines were drawn to form districts that created a mostly uni-racial community, a lot of the 1960s were spent in forced integration, where other races would move into uni-racial dominant communities.

Thomas Jefferson's Private and Public Indian Policy

In private, Jefferson sent a letter to Indiana Territorial Governor William Henry Harrison in 1803, which essentially stated (very aggressively) that the Natives will eventually be forced to either join American culture or worthlessly fight back. In public, Jefferson gave a speech to the Wolf and Mandan peoples in 1806 that spoke in a contradictory manner to his 1803 private letter to Harrison, where he spoke to the Natives in a friendly, persuasive tone, trying to get them to peacefully join American society.

Operation Rolling Thunder (1965): President Johnson's Belief

In regards to Operation Rolling Thunder, President Johnson believed that an orderly escalation of American force in Vietnam would defeat the enemy.

North Korean Invasion of South Korea (1950): Truman's Response

In response to North Korea's invasion of South Korea, Truman ordered American air and naval units to be sent to support South Korea without Congress' approval.

President Johnson-Congress Clashes

In response to President Johnson's veto of the extension of the Freedmen's Bureau, Congress passed the Civil Rights Bill of 1866, giving blacks American citizenship and striking at the Black Codes. Congress also passed the 14th amendment, fearing that Southerners may some day try to repeal the Civil Rights Bill of 1866.

Specie Circular

In response to the fact that "wildcat currency" issued by stable banks were being used to fund land purchases, Jackson issued what is known as a Specie Circular, of which limited the purchase of land to gold and silver, rather than paper currency. His purpose was to slow down the "land fever".

Post World War 2: Baby Boom

In the 15 years after 1945, the birth rate in the United States exploded as the "baby boom" took place. More than 50 million babies were born by the end of the 1950s.

Disagreements on State Boundaries

In the 1780s, states began to have minor scuffles, since there were no clearly declared state boundaries.

Societal role of Men in the 1900s

In the 1900s, men were viewed as strong but crude, the breadwinners, and enjoyed more rights than women (such as voting rights).

Societal role of Women in the 1900s

In the 1900s, women were expected to be insubordinate to men. Women lacked the ability to vote, and were lawfully required to give up their property rights upon marriage, a consequence that made some women avoid marriage.

Muller v. Oregon (1908)

In the 1908 Muller v. Oregon SCOTUS decision, SCOTUS ruled that female maximum hour laws are constitutional due to a woman's "physical structure and ...maternal functions." However, this ruling was later overturned.

1920s Deregulation of Business

In the 1920s, business was being de-regulated. So, finance companies could charge crazy interest with no federal regulation. Installment plans were created to SOUND enticing, but charged high interest.

1920s Income Distribution

In the 1920s, income distribution becomes increasingly skewed in favor of the rich - the top families owned above 70% of the total American income.

Female Gender Barriers circa 1920s

In the 1920s, women started to break gender barriers by holding Federal positions, including the President's Cabinet.

Mississippi Valley Drought (1930s)

In the 1930s, a drought scorched the Mississippi Valley, causing thousands of farms to be sold.

The "Sunbelt": California

In the 1950s, California alone accounted for 1/5th of the nation's population growth. It became the most populous state in 1963.

White Collar (non-manual labor) vs Blue Collar (manual labor) Jobs in the 1950s

In the 1950s, white collar jobs (jobs without manual labor) increased while blue color jobs (jobs with manual labor) fell behind. As such, union memberships declined.

Antiwar Demonstrations (1960s)

In the 1960s, antiwar demonstrations increased significantly as the number of American casualties in the Vietnamese war increased.

1960s: Call for Sexual Tolerance

In the 1960s, gay men and lesbians were increasingly emerging and demanding sexual tolerance.

Source of American Immigration circa 1960s

In the 1960s, the sources of immigCration shifted from Europeans to Latin Americans and Asians.

1970s: Growth of American Economy

In the 1970s, the growth of the American economy slowed down. More women and teens were entering the work force, earning less money than males. Deteriorating machinery and new regulations also hindered growth. The Vietnam War and the Great Society Programs also contributed to inflation.

A Rise in American Economy

In the 19th century, America faced major economic upheaval. Citizens quickly pushed West in search of cheap land, immigrants arrived seeking a new beginning, and new inventions were created that revolutionized agriculture and industry. The momentum of all of these factors gave rise to a more dynamic, market-oriented, national economy. Some argue that the election of Andrew Jackson, a Western President, was indicative of American desire for Western territory. However, to achieve all the great things stated above, sacrifices were made.

The Election of 1824: Background Information

In the Election of 1824, there were 4 main "Republican" Candidates: Andrew Jackson, John Quincy Adams, Henry Clay, and William Crawford. No candidate won a majority of the electoral votes, although Jackson was the leader in both electoral and popular votes. Crawford had the support of Georgia and home-state Virginia, while Adams had the support of the Northeast.

Election of 1892

In the Election of 1892, Democratic elect Grover Cleveland won the vote to succeed the Presidency.

President FDR: 3 Terms

In the Election of 1940, President FDR decided to run. Since the two-term culture had only been tradition and not law at this point, he was able to. FDR believed that the country needed his experience.

Election of 1940: Republican Presidential Nominee

In the Election of 1940, the Republicans chose Wendell L. Willkie as their Presidential Nominee.

JFK: Campaign Civil Promises vs Presidential Civil Accomplishments

In the Election of 1960, John F. Kennedy gained the black vote by stating that he would pass civil rights legislation. In actuality, he was very slow to pass Civil Rights legislation.

Election of 1968: Republican & Democratic Platform on Vietnam.

In the Election of 1968, both republicans and Democrats supported the Vietnamese War.

The Florida Purchase Treaty of 1819

In the Florida Purchase Treaty of 1819, Spain ceded Florida and Spanish claims to Oregon in exchange for America's claim to Texas.

New England Colonies: The Massachusetts Bay Colony - Policies

In the Massachusetts Bay Colony, religious freedom was reserved ONLY for Puritans, and nobody else. Education was extremely important, and Harvard was established. Additionally, to participate in politics, Church membership was required.

Ostend Manifesto

In the Ostend Manifesto, a group of southerners plan to buy Cuba from Spain and turn it into a slave state. News of the plan leaked to the press, and Free Soilers and and other Northerners denounced this plan, increasingly fearing a slave empire ("slaveocracy")

Teapot Dome Scandal (1921)

In the Teapot Dome Scandal of 1921, the Secretary of the Interior, Albert B. Fall, convinced the Secretary of the Navy to transfer valuable oil-laden land to the Interior Department (when the land was owned by the navy.) Fall promptly received a bribe for $100,000 to lease the lands to oilmen Harry F. Sinclair and Edward L. Doheny.

Early Northern Discontent for Abolitionists

In the beginning, Northerners didn't like abolitionists because the northerners were still owed a decent sum of money in the form of debt by southerners, which would be expedited through the usage of slaves. Additionally, New England textile mills only worked because of cotton derived from slave labor. Without slavery, debt wouldn't be repaid, and there would be no cotton to supply the mills.

James Buchanan

In the election of 1856, Southerner James Buchanan succeeded Franklin Pierce to the presidency. Having a strong southern influence, he approved of the Lecompton Constitution.

The Gilded Age: Deflation

In the late 1800s, deflation caused the relative prices of crops to decrease. Thousands of farms foreclosed, and some farmers became tenant farmers, renting instead of owning the land that they farmed.

Families in the late 1800s

In the late 1800s, divorce rates increased while family sizes decreased, signalling a move away from the housewife status of the average women.

The Gilded Age: Families of the Late 1800s

In the late 1800s, divorce rates increased while family sizes decreased, signalling a move away from the housewife status of the average women.

Farmers' Alliance (Late 1870s)

In the late 1870s farmers formed the Farmers' Alliance. The Farmers' Alliance cooperated in buying and selling to gain control over railroads and manufacturers, but it had limited power because it excluded blacks and landless tenant farmers.

Late 1920s: American Point of View on War

In the late 1920s, Americans called for the "outlaw" of war. Contemporary President Calvin Coolidge's Secretary of State, Frank B. Kellogg, signed the Kellogg-Briand Pact in 1928, also known as the Pact of Paris and was ratified by 62 nations, tried to outlaw war with a big exception: defensive wars were permitted.

Political Meaning of Concessions

In the political sense, "concessions" are the act of a losing candidate publicly yielding to the winner.

Owning Slaves: Dictatorship-esque qualities

In the south, slaves were often not permitted to read because reading brought ideas and ideas brought discontent.

"Peculiar Institution"

In the south, the slave system became known as the "Peculiar Institution."

Federalist and Republican Mudslingers: Federalists

In their fight for survival, Federalists fought under heavy handicaps. Their Alien and Sedition acts spawned a host of enemies--and Hamilton continued to rile up fellow Federalist John Adams, the presiding president. The most damaging blow to the Federalists was Adams' lack of desire to go to war with France, despite the fact that the Federalists already have swelled public debt in their war preparations. This public debt resulted in disagreeable new taxes, including a Stamp Tax. On the defensive, the Federalists started a "whisper campaign" against Jefferson, the leader of the Democratic Republicans. They slandered his name and tarnished his reputation with false rumors.

Gratz & Grutter v. Bollinger (2003)

In these two 2003 SCOTUS decisions, SCOTUS upheld Affirmative Action stating that while colleges can't explicitly allocate admission points for being a certain race or minority, colleges CAN take race into "consideration" when excluding/including applicants.

American Fear of Government Interference of the Markets

Individuals held fears of big government to coordinate the economy.

Early Money Tycoons

Individuals like Andrew Carnegie (steel king), John D. Rockefeller (oil baron), and J. Pierpont Morgan (bankers' banker) circumvented their competition.

Industrial Capitalism

Industrial capitalism benefited but also victimized the working class - the working class was offered a better state of living, but they were also forced to work dangerous labor with no power.

Factors affecting Reform in 1800-1860: Industrialization

Industrialization developed the idea that people aren't measured on their own worth as a person, but by what job they have, the money they make and how much education they have.

Industrial Agriculture: Supply and Demand

Industrialization made it more difficult for farmers - they had no control over any aspect of price except for the supply - the biggest chunk of the profits went to traders and food producers.

The Compromise Tariff of 1833

Initially proposed by Henry Clay in a successful attempt to soothe Southern states that were outraged over the Tariff of 1832, the Compromise Tariff of 1833 offered to gradually reduce the Tariff of 1832 by 10% over 8 years. By 1842, rates would be back to how they were prior to both the Tariff of 1828 as well as the Tariff of 1832.

The Columbian Exchange

Initiated after Columbus' arrival in 1492, the Columbian Exchange was the Trans-Atlantic exchange of people, diseases, food, trade, ideas, etc between the Western Hemisphere, Africa, and Europe. One example was horses, which would dramatically change life for Native Americans. Another example would be smallpox, which was deadly to Natives and led to massive Native population decline.

Loyalty Oath Program (1947)

Instituted by President Truman in 1947, the Loyalty Oath Program forced Federal employees to take an oath of loyalty, in trorder to root out all potential Soviet spies. More than 3 million Federal employees were investigated.

J. Pierpont Morgan: Interlocking Directorates

Interlocking Directorates was the tactic of J.P. Morgan, where he put his people on the boards of directors of rival companies.

The Telephone (1876)

Invented in 1876, the telephone was created by Alexander Graham Bell. Obviously, the telephone revolutionized the way Americans communicated.

President Coolidge's Isolationism

Isolationism continued in President Coolidge's second term, except for the Caribbean and Central America, where America participated in a few armed conflicts (Haiti and Nicaragua).

Isolationism

Isolationism was prominent in 1920s Washington. Contemporary President Warren G. Harding hated the League of Nations and at first, Harding refused to support the League's world health program.

The Neutrality Proclamation of 1793

Issued by Washington, the Neutrality Proclamation of 1793 declared America's neutrality in the Anglo-Franco war. The Proclamation proved to be a major prop in spreading isolationist tradition. Pro-French Jeffersonians were outraged that Washington decided to issue this unilaterally, meaning without consulting congress. Pro-British Federalists were joyful. Regardless, historians agree that if America entered the war, the British navy would have cut off its supply routes. France was better off having America as a neutral supply provider than a cut-off ally.

Stimson Doctrine (1932)

Issued by contemporary Secretary of State Henry L. Stimson in 1932, the Stimson Doctrine declared that the U.S. wouldn't recognize and territory acquired by force. Japan ignored the doctrine, moving onto Shanghai in 1932. The violence continued without the League of Nation's intervention.

English Orders in Council

Issued in 1806, these English doctrines closed European ports under French control to foreign shipping. As a result, the French ordered the seizure of all merchant ships that entered British ports.

Factors affecting Reform in this era: Rigid socioeconomic status

It became more difficult to traverse social classes by virtue of wealth, as the wealthy hunkered down in preparation for the coming of the common man.

The 2nd Great Awakening: Baptism and Awakening

It became popular to have public baptisms in order to display the "purification" of one's soul.

The Land Ordinance of 1785

It called for the sale of Old Northwest acreage in order to pay off the national debt. It was to be divided into townships six miles square, each of which in turn was to be split into thirty-six sections of one square mile each. The sixteenth section of each township was set aside to be sold for the benefit of the public schools—a priceless gift to education in the Northwest.

Northwest Ordinance of 1787

It created a policy for administering the Northwestern Territories; it included a path to statehood and forbade the expansion of slavery into the territories. Also, it created the states of the Midwest, being Ohio, Indiana, Michigan, Illinois, Wisconsin, and Indiana. The Ordinance ruled that to become a state, a territory must have at least 60,000 citizens, as well as its own Constitution.

Peace Treaty of 1778 (also known as the Treaty of Alliance)

It established peace between the French and the Americans after the American Revolution.

The Treaty of Paris in 1763

It gave all of the New World east of the Mississippi other than New Orleans to the British. Also, the French turned over their claims to New Orleans and lands west of the Mississippi to Spain, as compensation for the Spaniard surrender of Florida to the British.

Cuba-American Relations

It is now known that during the Cuban revolt, America had a large investment in Cuba and had also conducted substantial trade with Cuba.

The "Olive Branch Petition" of 1775

It professed American loyalty to the crown and begged the king to prevent further hostilities, but it was too late given what happened at Bunker Hill.

The Independent Treasury Bill

Passed by Congress in 1840, the Independent Treasury Bill succeeded in meeting Van Buren's demands under the Divorce Plan. Unfortunately, Whigs successfully repealed it later, in the next year. Miraculously and ironically, Democrats revived the bill in 1846, where it continued until it merged with next century's Federal Reserve System.

Wade-Davis Bill (1864)

Passed by Congress in 1864 due to fear that the reintegration of Southern states may lead back to a planter aristocracy and the re-enslavement of blacks, the Wade-Davis bill required that 50% of a state's voters take the oath of allegiance (instead of Lincoln's 10%) and for there to be stronger safeguards for emancipation before a state can be readmitted into the Union. President Lincoln refused to sign the bill.

The 15th Amendment

Passed by Congress in 1869, the 15th Amendment granted Black men the right to vote.

The Chinese Exclusion Act (1882)

Passed by Congress in 1882, the Chinese Exclusion Act barred the Chinese from immigrating into the United States.

The Sherman Anti-Trust Act of 1890

Passed by Congress in 1890, the Sherman Anti-Trust Act of 1890 forbade business activities that the government deemed as anti-competitive. The Sherman Anti-Trust Act of 1890 also required the government to investigate trusts. Unfortunately, the law was deemed ineffective because it contained legal loopholes and made all large trusts suffer, not just the bad ones.

The 18th Amendment

Passed by Congress in 1919, the 18th Amendment banned alcohol in America.

Norris-La Guardia Anti-Injunction Act (1932)

Passed by Congress in 1932, the Norris-La Guardia Anti-Injunction Act outlawed anti-union contracts and barred federal courts from stopping strikes, boycotts, and peaceful picketing.

The Declaration of Independence (1776)

It was a statement tasked to be created by Thomas Jefferson that explained Lee's Resolution.

The Impact of the Seven Years War (1756-1763)

It was the first instance of colonies unifying against a common enemy. The poor treatment of militia by the British further compounded colonist discontent. The war, overall, led to a skyrocket in the British Debt which in turn caused Britain to tax the New World. All in all, the Seven Years War played a significant factor in the initial events of the American Revolution.

The Emergence of American Historians

It wasn't until the mid 1800s until American historians began emerging, looking back and analyzing American history.

Southern farmer aristocracy

It's argued that the South was actually more like an oligarchy, in which a few ruled the government. As such, the rich aristocracy that maintained government roles enforced decisions that would continue to support them, widening the rich-poor gap. Southern plantation wives commanded the slaves.

20th Amendment (1933)

Passed by Congress in 1933, the 20th Amendment shortened the period from election to inauguration to 6 weeks.

J. Pierpont Morgan

J. Pierpont Morgan financed the reorganization of railroads, insurance companies, and banks. Morgan created the United States Steel Corporation in 1901.

Jack Ruby

Jack Ruby was the murderer of Lee Harvey Oswald, the murderer of President Kennedy.

The Bank War: Political effects and Long-Term meaning

Jackson's veto of the bill offered up by Clay and Webster, determining it unconstitutional, showed that Jackson still believed that the executive branch (the President) had more power in determining the constitutionality of a law than the judicial (supreme court) branch. This idea is compounded by the fact that the trial of McCullough vs Maryland had been completed, where the Supreme Court had already contradictorily determined that the Bank was Constitutional.

Jacksonian Democracy vs Jeffersonian Democracy: Differences

Jacksonian's didn't believe that education was a requirement, while Jeffersonian's held it as a principle belief. On one hand, Jeffersonian's thought it was "ok" to be a common man, but Jacksonian's glorified them to a higher degree. In Jacksonian eyes, the "best" kind of people were common people. Initially, Jackson was a defender of States Rights and supporter of the government being held in a Federal sphere, he soon found himself fighting to keep the States from encroaching powers that rightly belonged to the Federal government..

Jacob A. Riis

Jacob A. Riis, a progressivist writer, shocked middle-class Americans in 1890 with his depiction of the slums of New York in his book "How the Other Half Lives."

James A. Garfield

James A. Garfield was the Republican Electoral candidate for the election of 1880, because the Republican Party disliked their earlier President Hayes. Garfield was part of the "Half-Breed" faction of the Republican Party, and ended up winning the electoral race - but he was assassinated by Charles J. Guiteau

James Fillmore Cooper

James Fillmore Cooper was the first American novelist to gain world fame.

James G. Blaine

James G. Blaine was the Republican Candidate for the Election of 1884.

Madison's veto of state aid for infrastructure

James Madison and his Democratic Republicans believed that states aid for infrastructure was unconstitutional. The Jeffersonian Democratic-Republicans were opposed to using Federal money to support interstate improvements.

"The Father of the Constitution"

James Madison, a student of government that was dubbed this due to his contributions to the Constitution.

James Meredith

James Meredith was the first black student to be admitted into the University of Mississippi in 1962 after finally getting past segregationist politicians that were blocking his admission. James Meredith was shot in a civil rights march in 1966, but didn't suffer anything fatal.

James Monroe and Robert Livingston

James Monroe and Robert Livingston were the two envoys sent in 1803 to buy as much land as possible for $10million. In 1803, they settled on a deal that would cede Louisiana to the US at a price of $15million, or, 3 cents an acre.

James Naismith

James Naismith invented basketball in 1891.

Southern Colonies; Georgia - James Oglethorpe

James Oglethorpe was a key figure in early Georgia because he successfully defended the colony against the Spanish, but nobody really comes to Georgia due to restrictions and the Spanish and French threat. Since nobody came, restrictions were dropped and Georgia became a royal colony in 1752. Later, Georgia would become a plantation based slave economy much like South Carolina.

Jamestown becoming a Royal Colony

Jamestown becomes a royal colony in 1624 when the Virginia Company goes bankrupt and the Crown takes colonial Virginia over.

The Chesapeake Colonies: Jamestown

Jamestown was the first permanent English colony in North America established in 1607. The motive of the establishment of Jamestown was wealth, and it was setup under the joint stock company the Virginia Company. Many of the original settlers die of disease and starvation.

Jane Addams: Beliefs

Jane Addams condemned war and poverty - hence, Hull House offered instructions in English, counselling to help immigrants deal with the American big-city life, childcare services for working mothers, and cultural activities for neighborhood residents.

Jane Addams: Hull House

Jane Addams established the Hull House, the most prominent American settlement house.

The role of Jane Addams, Lillian Wald, and Florence Kelley in Industrial Feminism

Jane Addams, Lillian Wald, and Florence Kelley all paved the way for future women to enter the profession of social and industrial work, rather than being confined to the role of a housewife.

Jazz Music in the 1920s Modernist Era

Jazz music, as seen by the older populace, was the "Devil's Music," for corrupting the young, who didn't agree with their Victorian ideals.

Jefferson's Actions Against Hamiltonian Economic Policy

Jefferson actually only did away with one tax: the excise tax. Other than that, Jefferson did nothing to tamper with economic policy.

Tripoli

Jefferson capsized the American army to a small force of only 2500 officers. He held this ideal until the leader of Tripoli declared war, and Jefferson's navy was fighting Tripoli for 4 years until they offered a trade: $60,000 USD for American prisoners, which Jefferson agreed to in 1805.

Jefferson's 1807 American Vision

Jefferson had his Secretary of Treasury, Albert Gallatin, propose a plan that included a turnpike from Maine through what was then the Western frontier to Georgia, canals around the canals of the Susquehanna, Potomac, and James rivers, and roads leading from the Allegheny.

Jefferson's Presidential Victory in the 1800s

Jefferson narrowly won the presidency in the electoral college 73 to 65. So, the scene shifted away from Federalists and towards Democratic Republicans. Jefferson, following the fade of Federalists into political oblivion, argued that Federalists such as Hamilton and Adams betrayed the ideals of 1776, the year of America's conception. During his inaugurational speech in 1801, he soothed Federalists by claiming that everyone is a Republican, and everyone is a Federalist. Fearing appearing like a Federalist, he had a clerk read his letters to Congress, so as to not be paralleled with a monarch reading to his parliament.

Thomas Jefferson

Jefferson presented himself as a "man of the people" even though he lived richly. However, he was able to maintain good relations with commonfolk. Jefferson did not give public addresses; he was not good at them-- however, he sent written decrees to congress in place of himself. Jefferson was a Democratic Republican, also known as an anti federalist.

The New Naturalization Law of 1802

Jefferson undid the sedition and alien acts, and pardoned those affected by it. Shortly after Congress met, the Jeffersonians enacted the New Naturalization Law of 1802, whereby the harder to meet residence requirement of 14 years was reduced back to 5.

Alexander Hamilton and his role as Secretary of the Treasury: His argument for a National Bank and Jefferson's disagreements

Jefferson, in opposition to the creation of a National Bank, argued that the creation would be unconstitutional. The constitution, he said, held no specific authorization to create a national bank, and he maintained his belief that any powers not exclusively given to the federal government belonged to the state. Hamilton quoted a section of the Constitution that noted that any laws "necessary and proper" to carry out the powers vested in the branches were constitutional. As one of the powers was the collection and otherwise creation of taxes, Hamilton argued it to be constitutional.

The Franco-Alliance of 1778: Jeffersonian Democratic-Republican Analysis

Jeffersonians were eager to support their like-minded revolutionary French comrades. They argued that since the French helped the Americans with equipment and men, Americans had a duty to return the favor.

Agricultural Adjustment Act (AAA, 1933)

Passed by Congress in 1933, the Agricultural Adjustment Act gave millions of dollars in crop subsidies to reduce production and help farmers pay off their mortgages. It also paid for farmer education of soil conservation techniques.

Federal Housing Administration (FHA, 1934)

Passed by Congress in 1934, the Federal Housing Administration attempted to improve the home-building industry. The Federal Housing Administration gave small loans to homeowners for the purpose of improving their homes and purchasing new ones.

Frazier-Lemke Farm Bankruptcy Act (1934)

Passed by Congress in 1934, the Frazier-Lemke Farm Bankruptcy Act suspended mortgage foreclosures on farms for a period of 5 years. The Act was struck down by SCOTUS in 1935.

Indian Reorganization Act of 1934

Passed by Congress in 1934, the Indian Reorganization Act encouraged Native American tribes to establish self-government and to preserve their native crafts and traditions. 77 tribes refused to organize under the law, while hundreds did organize.

Jimmy Carter: Experience

Jimmy Carter was inexperienced in dealing with the politics of Washington.

John Brown: Seeds of his Pottawatomie Creek massacre

John Brown decided that he would lead a raid on a federal arsenal in Harper's Ferry, VA, in order to begin a slave rebellion. He handed out weapons to fellow sympathetic anti-slavers as well as slaves themselves, who then went out and attacked pro-slavers.

John Brown: Living place

John Brown was a Connecticut native with an apocalyptic vision.

John Brown: Background Information

John Brown was a fanatical abolitionist, his belief in which can be seen when he chopped down 5 pro-slavery citizens at Pottawatomie Creek after hearing about the partial burning at Lawrence. John Brown was later drawn and executed.

John D Rockefeller

John D. Rockefeller created the Standard Oil Company of Ohio in 1870, where Rockefeller attempted to eliminate the middlemen and knock out his competitors. By 1877, Rockefeller controlled 95% of all of the oil refineries in the nation, since Rockefeller expanded his company by eliminating his competitors.

John Dewey

John Dewey promoted the plan that ideas should be grounded in experience, with the phrase "learn by doing." Dewey pushed for education in Art/Home Economy/Industrialization, and said that education played a fundamental role in an industrializing nation.

President John F. Kennedy: The Economy

John F. Kennedy had campaigned on the theme of revitalizing the economy, a theme which Americans wanted after the recessions of the earlier Eisenhower years. To solve this, Kennedy tried to curb inflation.

John F. Kennedy

John F. Kennedy, elected President in 1860, was one of the youngest Presidents in American history. Additionally, he assembled one of the youngest cabinets, which included his brother Robert Kennedy as Attorney General

John Fiske's "The Critical Period of American History" (1888)

John Fiske's book claimed that America, lacking a central government and no lack of internal dissent and foreign threat, was saved by the adoption of a Constitution, the fulfillment of Republican ideals.

John Foster Dulles

John Foster Dulles was a Secretary of State in 1954 when he proposed a Policy of Boldness, suggesting that nuclear capable super-bombers should be built to threaten the USSR and China.

John Hay

John Hay was the American Secretary of State under Presidents William McKinley and Theodore Roosevelt. Hay attempted to preserve Chinese territorial integrity, and protect American interests in China through his Open Door Policy.

John Lewis

John Lewis, among others, founded the SNCC, aka the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee.

John Quincy Adams

John Quincy Adams, the 6th President of the United States, Federalist, and a fierce nationalist, supported the building of national roads and canals. Additionally, he supported education.

The Chesapeake Colonies: Jamestown - John Rolfe

John Rolfe introduced the cultivation of tobacco in Virginia, as a result, he gave Jamestown something they could profit off of.

The Chesapeake Colonies: Jamestown - John Smith

John Smith "saved" Jamestown in a way. John Smith established military discipline, and implements a "you don't work, you don't eat" policy.

John Steinbeck

John Steinbeck was a post World War 2 writer that wrote graphic portrayals of American society.

John Updike and John Cheever

John Updike and John Cheever explored the new mobility and affluence of American life.

John Winthrop

John Winthrop was the Puritan that first received the charter to establish the Massachusetts Bay Colony, and he would later become its Governor.

Joseph Heller: Catch-22

Joseph Heller was a post World War 2 writer that discussed the antics and anguish of American airmen in the wartime Mediterranean.

Joseph Pulitzer

Joseph Pulitzer was a leader in the techniques of news sensationalism, that is, writing headlines that will catch the attention of the reader despite perhaps not having all that much interesting content. (Yellow Journalism)

Joseph Smith

Joseph Smith was the founder of Mormonism, he creates the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints. Smith ends up travelling the country, eventually arriving in Illinois where he was killed by a mob in 1844 due to his beliefs.

Joseph Stalin

Joseph Stalin took control of the Communist USSR and killed hundreds of thousands of political opponents.

Johnson Debt Default Act (1934)

Passed by Congress in 1934, the Johnson Debt Default Act prevented debt-dodging nations from borrowing further from the united States.

Reciprocal Trade Agreements Act (1934)

Passed by Congress in 1934, the Reciprocal Trade Agreements Act was designed to lower the tariff. The Reciprocal Trade Agreements Act allowed the President to lower tariffs with a country if that country also lowered their tariffs. The Reciprocal Trade Agreements Act paved the way for the American-led free-trade international economic system that took shape after World War 2.

National Relations Labor Act of 1935 (Wagner Act)

Passed by Congress in 1935, the National Relations Labor Act, also called the Wagner Act, created a powerful National Labor Relations Board for administrative purposes, and it reasserted the rights of the laborer to engage in self-organization and to bargain collectively through representatives of its own choice.

Social Security Act of 1935

Passed by Congress in 1935, the Social Security Act provided federal-state unemployment insurance. To provide security for old age, specified categories of retired workers were to receive regular payments from Washington. Social Security came from the inspiration of several highly industrialized European nations.

United States Housing Authority (USHA, 1937)

Passed by Congress in 1937, the United States Housing Authority (USHA) was designed to lend money to states or communities for low cost housing developments.

Second Agricultural Adjustment Act (1938)

Passed by Congress in 1938, the Second Agricultural Adjustment Act continued conservation payments to farmers, as long as they obeyed acreage restrictions on specific commodities.

Hatch Act of 1939

Passed by Congress in 1939, the Hatch Act prevented federal administrative officials from active political campaigning and soliciting. The Hatch Act of 1939 also forbade the use of government funds for political purposes as well as the collection of campaign contributions from people receiving relief payments.

GI Bill of Rights (1944)

Passed by Congress in 1944, the GI Bill of Rights made money available to send former World War 2 soldiers to school. The GI Bill of Rights raised educational levels, stimulated the construction industry, and helped create the economic expansion that started in the late 1940s.

G.I Bill of Rights (1947)

Passed by Congress in 1947, the G.I. Bill of 1947 gave low cost mortgages to G.Is, as well as funding for college eduction.

Marshall Plan (1947)

Passed by Congress in 1947, the Marshall Plan was a reconstruction plan that offered financial aid to the Soviet Union and its allies on the condition that they would make political reforms and accept certain outside controls. During the 4 year period of its enactment, some $13 billion was given to Europe.

National Security Act (1947)

Passed by Congress in 1947, the National Security Act created the Department of Defense. The Department of Defense was headed by a new cabinet officer, the Secretary of Defense, and the heads of each branch of the military were brought together as the Joint Chiefs of Staff. The National Security Act also established the National Security Council (NSC) and the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA)

Social Security Act of 1950

Passed by Congress in 1950 as part of the "Fair Deal" programs, the Social Security Act of 1950 was an extension of the old-age insurance to many more beneficiaries.

Conscription Law (September 1940)

Passed by Congress in September of 1940, the Conscription Law initiated America's first peacetime draft.

Federal Emergency Relief Act

Passed by Congress, the Federal Emergency Relief Act was Congress' first major effort to deal with the massive unemployment. The Federal Emergency Relief Act created the Federal Emergency Relief Administration, which gave states direct relief payments or money for wages on work projects.

The Tallmadge Amendment

Passed by the House of Representatives in 1819 in order to make it more difficult for Missouri to join the Union, it outlawed slave trade in Missouri and brought up the idea of gradual emancipation of children born to slave parents already in Missouri. The amendment was defeated by the slave states in Congress.

The Sedition Act

Passed in 1798, the Sedition Act stated that anyone who impeded the policies of the government or falsely defamed its officials would be liable to heavy fines and imprisonment. It was the last measure of the Federalist clampdown. Many outspoken Jeffersonian editors were indicted under the Sedition Act.

The Homestead Act (1863): Living Land

Passed in 1863, The Homestead Act allowed anyone to file for a quarter-section of free land (160 acres) provided that at the end of five years, the landowner had built a house on it, dug a well, plowed 10 acres, fenced a specific amount, and actually lived there.

The 13th Amendment (1865)

Passed in 1865 8 months after the end of the Civil War, the 13th amendment legally ended slavery.

The Chinese Exclusion Act (1882)

Passed in 1882, the Chinese Exclusion Act barred all Chinese from entry for nearly 6 decades. Many travelers died or returned to their homeland, but after a time, those that remained created a new generation of American Chinese.

Dingley Tariff Bill (1897)

Passed in 1897, the Dingley Tariff Bill proposed even higher tariffs than the prior Wilson-Gorman Tariff in order to cover the annual Treasury deficits - tariffs were raised to a whopping 46.5%.

The 19th Amendment (1920)

Passed in 1920 and supported by President Woodrow Wilson, the 19th amendment gave all American women the right to vote.

Fordney-McCumber Tariff Law in 1922

Passed in 1922 because businessmen didn't want European products flooding American markets with cheap goods after World War 1, the Fordney-McCumber Act raised the tariff from 27% to 35%. The purpose of the 1922 Fordney-McCumber Tariff Law was to help big business.

Adjusted Compensation Act (1924)

Passed in 1924 by Congress due to persuasion from the American Legion, the Adjusted Compensation Act gave every former soldier a sum of money dependent on their years of service.

Agricultural Marketing Act (1929)

Passed in 1929, the Agricultural Marketing Act was designed to help farmers by setting up the Federal Farm Board, because the disorganized wage earners and farmers weren't getting rich in the growing economy.

Hawley-Smoot Tariff of 1930

Passed in 1930, the Hawley-Smoot Tariff was intended to be a mild tariff, but Congress tacked on several amendments, turning it into a bill that raised the tariff to 60%, the nation's highest protective tariff during peacetime. The tariff deepened the Depression that had already begun in America and other nations, and it increased international financial chaos.

Glass-Steagall Banking Reform Act (1933)

Passed in 1933, the Glass-Steagall Banking Reform Act created the FDIC, who insured individual bank deposits of up to $5,000, which ended the National epidemic of bank failures.

Fair Labor Standards Act (Wages and Hours Bill, 1938)

Passed in 1938, the Fair Labor Standards Act, also called the Wages and Hours Bill, mandated that companies must follow a 40 hour work week with time-and-a-half compensation, as well as banning child labor in most industries.

President John F. Kennedy: The Economy - Taxes

Kennedy also attempted to follow his theme of revitalizing the economy by stimulating it through cutting taxes and putting more money directly into private hands (instead of spending more government money).

"Peace Corps"

Kennedy also proposed the "Peace Corps", an army of idealistic and mostly youthful volunteers that would bring American skills to underdeveloped countries and help them develop.

President John F. Kennedy: The Economy - Space

Kennedy attempted to stimulate the economy by proposing a project that would reach a never-seen-before feat, creating jobs and nationalism for Americans. The plan was a multibillion-dollar project which would land an American on the moon, dubbed the Apollo Project.

John F. Kennedy: Platform towards Soviet Union

Kennedy's platform towards the Soviet Union for the Election of 1960 was that the Soviets were gaining on Americans, both prestige wise and power wise.

Kerosene: Background and Effects on the Oil Industry

Kerosene was the first major product of the oil industry. The invention of the electric bulb made kerosene obsolete. By 1900, the gasoline-burning internal combustion engine became the primary means of automobile propulsion. The birth of the automobile gave a great lift to the oil industry.

Keynesian Economics

Keynesian economics was a form of economic ideology under which government money was used to "prime the pump" of the economy and encourage consumer spending; this policy intentionally creates a budget deficit.

Kansas' Statehood (1857): Southern Response

Knowing that popular sovereignty could turn the slavery tide, the dominating pro-slave government passed the Lecompton Constitution, a bill in which decided that citizens could not vote for whether or not the Constitution would pass, but merely whether or not the Constitution would pass with slavery or without slavery. Although safeguards were set if slavery was declined, the bill passed with slave approval since many abolitionists boycotted voting.

Samuel Adams

Known as the "Penman of the Revolution", Adams was a master propagandist and engineer of rebellion. He was a strong political leader that was sensitive to the rights of the colonists. He began the Committees of Correspondence in Massachusetts, which were designed to oppose British policy forced on the colonists by spreading propaganda.

Neutrality Act of 1939

Passed in 1939, the Neutrality Act of 1939 enabled Americans to trade with the British and French, where they were prohibited by the earlier Neutrality Acts. European democracies were now able to buy American materials as long as they transported the goods in their own ships and paid in cash. This meant that Americans could avoid loans, war debts, and the sinking of American ships.

Truman Doctrine (1947)

Passed in 1947 and inspired by the Containment Doctrine, the Truman Doctrine mandated that the United States is obligated to aid any country that was resisting Communist aggression. As such, financial support was given to Greece to resist Communist pressures.

Taft-Hartley Act (1947)

Passed in 1947 over President Truman's veto, the Taft-Harley Act outlawed "all-union" businesses, made unions liable for damages that resulted from jurisdictional disputes among themselves, and required union leaders to take a non-communist oath. The Taft-Hartley Act made significant reform towards the wagner Act.

Landrum-Griffin Act (1956): Goal

Passed in 1956, the goal of the Landrum-Griffin Act was to hold labor leaders more accountable for financial illegalities.

1920s Labor Struggles

Labor struggled during the 1920s because without friendly government support, there were many strikes and wage cuts.

Laissez-Faire Economics

Laissez-Faire Economics is the practice in which a government doesn't interfere with the economy, and simply allows things to "play out".

National Defense and Education Act (NDEA, 1958): Causes

Passed in 1958, the National Defense and Education Act was created out of Amercan believe that the Soviet technological advances were indicative of a better educational system than the United States'.

Land Hungry Eastern States

Land hungry Eastern states, such as Pennsylvania and Maryland, lacked significant territory past the Allegheny mountains. Jealous over the masses of territories that other states had, like New York and Virginia, they argued that they deserved additional land.

Land-Grant Colleges

Land-grant colleges were colleges of which were built on property given to the state by the federal government as a result of the Morrill Act of 1862.

National Defense and Education Act (NDEA, 1958): Purpose

Passed in 1958, the purpose of the National Defense and Education Act (NDEA) was to grant $887 million in loans to college students and in grants in order to improve teaching sciences and languages.

Landrum-Griffin Act (1959): Causes

Passed in 1959, the reason the Landrum-Griffin Act was passed was because of fraud and corruption in American labor unions, which caused the president to take an interest in passing labor laws.

24th Amendment (1964)

Passed in 1964, the 24th amendment abolished poll tax in Federal elections.

Civil Rights Act of 1964: Content

Passed in 1964, the Civil Rights Act of 1964 banned racial discrimination in most private facilities open to the public, and strengthened the federal government's power to end segregation in schools and other public places. The Civil Rights Act of 1964 also created the Federal Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) to eliminate discrimination in hiring (race, national origin, gender.)

Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965

Passed in 1965, the Immigration and Nationally Act of 1965 abolished the earlier quota system that had been in place since 1921 - doubling the number of immigrants allowed to enter the country annually.

Voting Rights Act of 1965

Passed in 1965, the Voting Rights Act of 1965 sought to prohibit minorities from being disenfranchised (through poll taxes, literacy tests, etc.)

26th Amendment (1971)

Passed in 1971, the 26th Amendment lowered the voting age to 18

Title IX (9) of the Education Amendments (1972)

Passed in 1972, Title IX of the Education Amendments prohibited sexual discrimination in any federally assisted educational program.

Endangered Species Act of 1973

Passed in 1973, the Endangered Species Acta imed at protecting and preserving the environment.

Tenure of Office Act (1867)

Passed in Congress in 1867, the Tenure of Office Act required the President to secure the consent of the Senate before he could remove cabinet members that had already been approved by the Senate.

Latin American View on the Monroe Doctrine

Latin American countries despised the Monroe Doctrine because it had became an excuse for numerous U.S. interventions in Latin america, when the real person to blame should have been President Roosevelt.

The Virginia (Madison) and Kentucky (Jefferson) Resolutions

Passed in Kentucky in 1798 and 1799, resentful Jeffersonians, unwilling to take the Alien Laws and the Sedition Act lying down, passed their own legislation. Penned by Jefferson, the resolutions stated that the states had the right to refuse laws created by the government.

Lend-Lease Act (March, 1941)

Passed in March of 1941, the Lend-Lease Act gave President FDR the ability to sell, transfer, exchange, and lend equipment to any country to help it defend itself against the axis powers - a sum of about $50 billion was allocated by Congress. The Act was primarily passed out of fear that Britain would fall. The Act was pitched as one that would allow democracies to win the war - and marked the abandonment of any sense of neutrality.

Congress' Reconstruction Act (1867)

Passed later than Lincoln's and Johnson's Reconstruction Plan (1867), Congress passed the Reconstruction act. Under Congress' Reconstruction Act, Southern states would be divided into 5 military districts, each commanded by a Union general and policed by Union soldiers. Congress' Reconstruction Act additionally stipulated that a state must ratify the 14th Amendment before being allowed into the Union - and that the states Constitution allows former male adult slaves the right to vote.

The "Force Bill"

Passed on the same day as the Compromise Tariff of 1833, the "Force Bill" gave Andrew Jackson the power to use the army and navy to collect on the Tariffs of 1828 and 1832. Clearly in response to South Carolina's Columbia Convention which decreed that South Carolina wouldn't pay the tariff, it was never invoked, since the issue became resolved with the Compromise Tariff of 1833.

The Knights of Labor: Population Shortcomings

One shortcoming of the Knights of Labor was that it featured both skilled and unskilled workers - it may have worked well for skilled workers, but unskilled workers were simply replaced if they went on strike. As such, the American Federation of Labor siphoned members from the Knights of Labor, because it was exclusive to skilled workers.

1 Year After Congress Declared War

One year after Congress declared war, American troops reached France. American troops were used as replacements in the Allied armies and were generally deployed in quiet sectors with the British and French, but they were also sent to Belgium, Italy, and Russia. Americans were sent into Russia because they didn't want Russian munitions to fall into German hands. The allies were further plagued by shipping shortages.

Food Administration

Led by Herbert C. Hoover, the Food Administration instituted voluntary days such as "wheatless Wednesdays" and "meatless Tuesdays" in order to conserve resources. Congress' restriction of foodstuffs required to make alcohol helped speed up the passing of the 18th Amendment, which totally banned all nonreligious manufacture of alcohol.

Federalists vs Democratic Republicans: Democratic Republicans

Led by Thomas Jefferson, a stout Democratic Republican, demanded a weak central regime. To them, the best government was the government that governed the least. Democratic Republicans believed that the states should retain the bulk of the power. That way, citizens more involved in local affairs will be able to see and advocate for change on a local scale. Jeffersonian Democratic Republicans, typically agrarian, insisted that there be no special privileges for special classes. Jefferson advocated the rule of the people, but not ALL the people. He only wanted those educated and literate to vote, his faith presiding in the reasonableness and teachableness of the masses and their collective wisdom.

The Pueblo Revolt: Background Information

Led by a Native leader under the name of Pope, the Pueblo Revolt of 1680 led to the death of hundreds of Spanish colonists and the destruction of local Catholic Churches near present day Santa Fe. As a result, the Spanish were temporarily driven from the area.

Kansas's 1855 Legislature Elections: Pro-Slave Southerners

Legislature Elections in Kansas in 1855 saw an influx of pro-slave Southerners that voted for officials that would parallel pro-slave belief. Winning the elections, the pro-slave Southerners set up a government at Shawnee Mission.

General Lewis Wallace

Lewis Wallace was an American Lawyer, Union General, and author. He wrote the novel "Ben Hur: A Tale of the Christ" to combat Darwinism, an ideology about evolution.

President-Congress disagreement on state readmission: Long Term Meaning

Lincoln's disagreement with the Wade-Davis Bill represented the majority vs the radical minority. Many agreed with Lincoln as far as wanting to reintegrate the states as quickly as possible, however, a radical minority wanted to uproot Southern social structure, punish planters, and give federal protection to newly-emancipated blacks.

United Nations Conference (1945): Background Information

Opened in 1945, the United Nations Conference was a group of delegates from 50 nations that overwhelmingly agreed to create the United Nations Charter.

Lord Dunmore

Lord Dunmore was the Royal Governor of Virginia. Dunmore issued a Proclamation that promised freedom for any enslaved black in Virginia who joined the British army and fought back against the colonial revolutionaries.

Operation Rolling Thunder (1965)

Operation Rolling Thunder was a military operation that involved regular bombing attacks against North Vietnam.

Louis Sullivan

Louis Sullivan contributed to the development of the skyscraper.

Low Wages in Industrial Factories

Low wage conditions in industrial factories caused some factory workers to go on strike. As a result, some corporations forced their workers to sign "ironclad oaths" or "yellow-dog contracts," which stated that the workers would not join a labor union.

Lyndon B. Johnson: Four Legislative Achievements

Lyndon B. Johnson's four legislative achievements are as follows: First, aid to students in education. Second, medical care for the elderly and poor. Third, immigration reform. Fourth, new voting rights.

Lyndon B. Johnson: Appointment

Lyndon b. Johnson was appointed in 1963, after President Kennedy was shot and killed.

Macon's Bill No.2 (1809)

Macon's Bill No.2 decreed that the U.S. would trade with the nation that first recognized its neutrality. If Britain were to let go of their commercial restrictions against America, then America would embargo France. If France were to let go of their commercial restrictions against America, then America would embargo Britain. Napoleon haphazardly followed instruction, which meant that America had to resume its embargo against Britain. This bill eventually led to the War of 1812.

Malcolm X

Malcolm X was a black man that was considered an American Separatist - he wanted to create a completely separated society between whites and blacks, because he didn't believe that whites would be able to give blacks equality in a way that offers dignity to blacks, nor could whites do it in a reasonable timeframe(as, he believed, proven by history.) Malcolm X's radical ideals helped MLK's ideology turn into a more moderate one rather than a radical one.

Malcolm X: General Policy

Malcolm X was an African-American Muslim minister who rallied black Separatism.

Elementary Education

Mann and Bernard's focus was on elementary education, the idea that all young children should be schooled and the content of education should be the same for everyone.

The Dawn of Scientific Achievements: Background Information

Many Americans focused on inventing practical gadgets that would directly benefit them rather than researching into pure science. As a result, scientific findings were borrowed from European sources.

Progressivist Reformers: Populace Makeup

Many Progressive reformers were middle-class men and women.

The Gilded Age: Protestant Churches as a result of Urbanization

Many Protestant churches were in rural areas, so when people moved to the cities, they suffered.

The Issue of a Bill of Rights now that Washington is president (1789-1800s)

Many anti federalists sharply criticized the Constitution for a lack of Bill of Rights, a doctrine that guaranteed American citizens certain liberties (such as freedom of speech.) Finally adopted in 1791 by the necessary number of states, the first ten amendments to the Constitution were declared, known as the Bill of Rights, which cover most of the principle American ideals.

The Gilded Age: America Wasn't All It was Said to be for Immigrants

Many immigrant workers came to the U.S. seeking a new life and riches, but most found nothing close to it.. Finding this, immigrants either returned back home or stayed in America and faced extraordinary economic hardship.

The Gilded Age: Immigrants

Many immigrants came to America during the Gilded Age in seek of a "better future." Most of these immigrants were southern and eastern Europeans from countries with little to no democratic government and harsh living conditions.

The Gilded Age: Immigrants' Reason for Immigration

Many immigrants immigrated to America because they felt like Europe had no room for them. The population of Europe nearly doubled in the century following 1800 due to an abundance of American fish and grain, as well as the widespread cultivation of Europe.

The Gilded Age: Immigrants once they Reached America

Many immigrants never intended to stay in America - many of them returned to their homeland with wealth. The few immigrants that did decide to say in America had difficulties preserving their culture and traditions.

The Gilded Age: Reasons for Urbanization

Many moved to urban areas because those were the banks are - more business and economic opportunities, schools, infrastructure, etc.

John Brown: Abolitionist effect of his Conviction

Many northern abolitionists saw John Brown as an abolitionist martyr that gave his lief "for the cause".

Lend-Lease Act (March, 1941): Opposition

Opponents of the Lend-Lease Act, such as Senator Taft, criticized the bill. Taft argued that the weapons would be destroyed and therefore unable to be returned after the war.

Obstacles slowing down early Southern Industrialization

Many obstacles slowed down Southern Industrialization, such as northern-dominated railroad companies that charged lower rates on manufactured goods moving southward from the North, but higher rates when raw materials were shipped from the South to the North. By nature, this economic strategy would make Northern goods far more economically viable.

New England Colonies: Characteristics

Many of the people going to the New England Colonies are going for religious motives (escaping Protestant England). There's a decent mix of male and female settlers, many people are coming over as families, and they end up forming tight knit communities and establishing a mixed economy.

FDR's New Deal Programs: SCOTUS' Perspective

Many of the programs offered up by President Roosevelt were considered unconstitutional by SCOTUS, thus making the programs null.

Manifest Destiny

Many people believed that America was "destined" to secure territory from sea to sea. This belief drove the public desire for territorial acquisition.

Emancipation Proclamation: Southern Response

Many southerners believed that the Emancipation Proclamation was just an attempt by Lincoln to stir up a slave rebellion.

Reconstruction: Southern morale

Many white southerners felt that the Reconstruction was more painful than the War itself -- they were being handheld and told what to do with the very people they were fighting against not too long ago.

March 6-10: National Banking Holiday

March 6-10 was declared a National Banking Holiday by President FDR as a prelude to opening the banks on a sounder basis.

Marcus Alonzo Hanna

Marcus Alonzo Hanna was the Campaign Manager to the 1896 Republican Electoral Candidate, William McKinley. Hanna believed that the role of the government was to aid business and promote the "trickel down effect", while advocating for the Gold Standard.

Mark Twain: Anti-Imperialist League

Mark Twain was a famous writer that was the two-time President of the Anti-Imperialist League.

New Deal programs: Effect on National Debt

Opponents of the New Deal charged FDR with spending too much money on his programs, significantly increasing the national debt from $19 trillion to $40 trillion.

Stephen A: Douglas: Lecompton Constitution Opposition

Opposing contemporary president James Buchanan (after the election of 1856), Senator Stephen A. Douglas highly opposed the Lecompton Constitution, and he campaigned against it.

John Marshall

Marshall gets appointed to Chief Justice of the Supreme Court (SCOTUS). Marshall transforms the Supreme Court from a docile unimportant subbranch of the 3 branches to the most powerful.

The XYZ Affair

Marshall reached Paris in 1797 hoping to meet the Talleyrand, the French foreign minister. Marshall was met with 3 "go-betweens", French spokesmen asking for a 250,000$ bribe to talk with the Talleyrand. Marshall, infuriated by the terms, returned to America. America was infuriated and prepared for war by creating the Navy Department, expanding the navy, and the reestablishment of the United States Marine Corps.

Martin Luther King Jr.

Martin Luther King Jr. is the current icon of the 20th century black equality movement. He founded the SCLC (Southern Christian Leadership Conference) that promoted nonviolence, read his "I Have A Dream" speech at the March on Washington, and partook in a nonviolent protest at Baltimore where he was arrested. Martin Luther King Jr. was assassinated in 1968.

Martin Van Buren

Martin Van Buren, the 8th President of the United States, was Jackson's choice of successor. Despite Whig attempts to put a Whig in the White House, they lost to Van Buren. Despite winning the Presidency, Van Buren also had to face Jacksonian enemies. Meanwhile, a Canadian Rebellion in 1837 threatened to flair up more American-British conflict. While Van Buren attempted to remain neutral, anti-slavery Southerners were frustrated with the lack of things being done, as well as the annexation of Texas.

Operation Dixie

Orchestrated by the CIO (Committee for Industrial Organization), Operation Dixie was an attempt to unionize southern textile workers and steelworkers. Operation Dixie failed in 1947 because it couldn't overcome fears of racial mixing.

The Hydrogen Bomb

Ordered by Truman after the USSR detonated an atomic bomb earlier than expected in 1949, the Hydrogen bomb was supposed to keep America steadily ahead of the Soviets. The first Hydrogen bomb was detonated in 1952, with Soviets following up just a year later in 1953.

The Massachusetts Constitution

Massachusetts set a new bar when it submitted the final draft of its Constitution to the people for ratification (to confirm something by vote.) Once adopted in 1780, the constitution could only be edited by another specially called constitutional convention.

Massachusetts - Educational Breakthoughts

Massachusetts was the first state to pass compulsory school attendance laws in 1852, followed by New York in 1853.

McCarthyism

McCarthyism was the practice of spreading treasonous accusations without evidence, and the McCarthyist ideology thrived during the Cold War.

McKinley's Answer to his Philippines Crisis

McKinley Finally decided to Christianize all of the Filipinos. Since Manila had been captured the day after the war (technically not during,) America agreed to pay Spain $20 million for the Philippines.

Farms in World War 2: Mechanization and Fertilization

Mechanization and fertilization increased the productivity of farms, meaning that less people were needed to work on farms, and the work force shifted out of agriculture.

The Dawn of Scientific Achievements: Medicine

Medicine was still primitive in America by modern standards during the early 1800s. However, by 1840, several American doctors and dentists had successfully utilized laughing gas and ether as anesthetics.

The Middle Colonies: Pennsylvania (1681)

Pennsylvania was founded by Quaker William Penn as a refuge for Quakers escaping Protestant England. Once granted land by English royalty, William Penn creates a very liberal colony with representative assembly (people are voting for representation). Penn also treats Natives fairly by purchasing their lands rather than taking them, and Pennsylvania establishes widespread religious toleration and freedom. Certain rights, such as the right to be active in the church, were extended to women (something that didn't happen in the New England Colonies).

Factors affecting Reform in this era: Urbanization

People moved to urban areas from rural areas because urban areas had more options for education and professions.

Mestizo

People of mixed Indian and European heritage

Mulatto

People of mixed White and Black ancestry

The First Continental Congress

Meeting in 1774, delegates from 12 of the 13 colonies (Georgia didn't join) orchestrated successful boycotts of British goods (nonexportation, nonimportation) and stated their grievances against the Crown. Parliament, in 1775, as a result of the First Continental Congress, declared that the colonies were in rebellion.

Winfield Scott

Meeting in Baltimore, Whigs chose Winfield Scott as their Presidential nominee for the election of 1852. Like the Democrats' Franklin Pierce, Winfield Scott also supported the Compromise of 1850 and the Fugitive-Slave Law of 1850.

Election of 1856: Democratic Presidential Nominee

Meeting in Cincinnati, Democrats decided to make James Buchanan their presidential candidate, since he was one of the few that wasn't involved in the Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854. A large foundation of the Democratic Party's platform was popular sovereignty.

Election of 1856: Republican Presidential Nominee

Meeting in Philadelphia, Republicans decided to make Captain John C. Fremont their presidential candidate because much like Democratic James Buchanan, he wasn't influenced by the Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854. A large foundation of the Republican Party's platform was the curbing of the extension of slavery.

Herman Melville

Melville, the writer of "Moby Dick", used the book to attack Transcendentalist ideals. The whale, Moby Dick, is the personification of evil. This concept opposes the Transcendentalist ideal that only good exists in the world.

Mexico: Effects of the Stephen Austin Deal

Mexicans and newfound Texans created friction over their beliefs: they disagreed on topics such as slavery, immigration, and local rights. Slavery in particular was a touchy subject for Mexican citizens. Regardless, Americans kept on bringing more and more slave into the Texas territory. Stephen Austin, going to Mexico City in 1833 in an attempt to negotiate with Mexican authorities, was briefly put in jail for 8 months. The Stephen Austin Deal eventually lead to an event now known as the "Santa Anna Explosion"

Mexico's Loyalist Regime

Mexico's Loyalist Regime, supported by the Soviet Union, was overthrown by General Francisco Franco in the Spanish Civil War of 1936-1939.

Millard Fillmore

Millard Fillmore was the Vice President under Taylor's presidency, so when Taylor died in 1850, Fillmore became President. In a total 180 from Taylor's policy, President Millard Fillmore signed a series of compromises contained within the Compromise of 1850. Fillmore was the electoral candidate of the Protestant "Know-Nothing" Party for the Election of 1856.

Mohammed Reza Pahlevi

Mohammed Reza Pahlevi was the CIA-installed dictator of Iran in 1935.

John Quincy Adams

Monroe's Secretary of State

Republican Principles

More agrarian, individual liberties (bill of rights), supportive of self-government i.e. states rights, local governments, and representatives in national Congress.

The Early Western Pioneers

Most early western Pioneers were poorly fed, ill-clad, living in hastily-erected shanties, and perpetual victims of disease, depression, and premature death. A popular entertainment was no-rules wrestling, where things such as biting off noses and ears were allowed. However: seeds of unity could be found. Pioneers worked together in their daily jobs such as logrolling and barn raising, all the while calling on local government to build better infrastructure such as roads.

American Jobs Post-World War 2

Most new jobs created after World War 2 went to women since the service sector of the economy dramatically outgrew the old industrial and manufacturing sectors.

The notion of a formal party apparatus in the 1790s

Most parties were more so factions: they were created when an issue was discovered, and faded away as the issue got resolved. Nobody foresaw a permanent political party as seen today.

The Gilded Age: Quality of Life

Most people, due to decreasing wages and bad working conditions, were forced to have 72-84 hour work weeks. This created a discrepancy between social life and work.

Republican Motherhood

Mothers were seen as the best example of Civic Virtue, as it was their duty to teach the sons, daughters, and husbands of the states morals and ethics. Thus, Republican women now bore crucial responsibility for the survival of the nation.

Nat Turner

Nat Turner was a black slave that organized Nat Turner's Rebellion.

Bacon's Rebellion (1676): Nathaniel Bacon

Nathaniel Bacon was the leader of the mob that attacked the Natives at the frontier and razed Jamestown. Bacon died of dysentery during the movement, and it died out.

Jack London

Naturalist author Jack London was a famous nature writer who wrote about a possible fascistic revolution in his book "The Iron Heel"

Stephen Crane

Naturalist author Stephen Crane wrote about the unpleasant side of life in urban, industrial America.

Theodore Dreiser

Naturalist author Theodore Dreiser wrote with disregard for prevailing moral standards.

Senator Charles Sumner: Northern Perspective on his Oratory

Naturally, Northerners applauded Senator Charles Sumner's speech, because it denounced slavery.

Senator Charles Sumner: Southern Perspective on his Oratory

Naturally, Southerners disliked Senator Charles Sumner's oratory because it denounced slavery.

Neal S. Dow

Neal S. Dow ("Father of the Prohibition") argued that drinking should be illegal. Dow supported the Maine Law of 1851, which banned the manufacture and sale of liquor in Maine. The country would later ban the sale of all alcohol in 1918 with the adoption of the 18th amendment.

The Supremacy of Steel during the Industrialization Era

Nearly every aspect of society used steel - by the late 1800s, the United States was producing 1/3rd of the world's steel supply, simplified by the Bessemer process, which involved blowing cold air on red-hot iron to ignite the carbon and eliminate impurities.

Soviet Union-China Detente (1972)

Negotiated by President Nixon, the Soviet Union-China detente relaxed tensions between the Soviet Union and China, with the U.S. agreeing to sell the Soviets at least $750 million worth of wheat, corn, and other cereals.

Woodrow Wilson: New Freedom Diplomacy

New Freedom Diplomacy was the domestic policy of US President Woodrow Wilson - New Freedom Diplomacy promoted antitrust modification, tariff revision, and reform in banking and currency matters.

The Middle Colonies: New Amsterdam (New York)

New York was originally a Dutch colony called New Amsterdam. Unfortunately for the Dutch, they didn't have a firm grasp on their colony, so Charles II (monarch of England) sends a military expedition and takes it over, granting the area to his brother James the Duke of York in 1664. The area would become New York, and would remain a very religious and ethnically diverse colony.

The Four Constitutional Holdouts: Background Information

New York, North Carolina, Virginia, and Rhode Island all dug in against the Constitution. Patrick Henry, a Virginian statesmen, cried out against the Constitution, claiming it was the death of liberty.

A principle difference in the political beliefs of Anti federalists and federalists, pertaining to the branches of Government

Unlike anti federalists, who believed that the sovereignty of the citizens belonged in one branch, the legislation, the federalists believed that every branch- the executive, judiciary, and legislation, effectively represented the people through its system of checks and balances.

The American Federation of Labor

Unlike the Knights of Labor, the American Federation of Labor included only skilled workers, while the Knights of Labor also took in unskilled workers. As such, they siphoned skilled members from the Knights of Labors, thus compounding the death of the Knights of Labor as an organization.

The Black Codes: Louisiana

Unsurprisingly, Louisiana, the state that was part of the "black-belt" during slavery and one of the first secessors in the baby stages of the Civil War, also implemented harsh variations of the Black Codes, denying blacks a multitude of rights that were offered to whites.

Crisis over Mexican cession

Until California tried to become a free state, there was an equal balance of power in the Union. There were 15 free states, and 15 slave states. If California entered the Union as a free state, it would throw the whole balance off.

Harry Truman: Response to contemporary treatment of blacks

Upon hearing of the lynching of black war veterans, Harry Truman issued an order which called for the ending of segregation in federal civil services and ordered "equality of treatment and opportunity" in the armed forces.

Andrew Carnegie: Vertical Integration

Vertical Integration was the tactic used by Andrew Carnegie in order to combine all phases of manufacturing into one organization. Carnegie and his business controlled every aspect of production from mining to marketing in order to improve efficiency - no markups from any production or marketing companies.

McCarran Internal Security Bill (1950)

Vetoed by Truman and overrided by Congress in 1950, the McCarran Internal Security Bill authorized the president to arrest and detain suspicious people during an "internal security emergency."

Vice-President Calvin Coolidge after Harding's Death

Vice President Calvin Coolidge took the presidency after Harding's death. Coolidge was very shy and delivered boring speeches. Coolidge didn't change the business-friendly policies that Harding established.

Victoria Woodhull

Victoria Woodhull was a radical Feminist propagandist who wrote the periodical "Woodhull and Clafin's Weekly" in 1872, which proclaimed her belief in free love.

Virginia: Early problems with cash crop and labor forces

Virginia encountered some early problems with their cash crop, tobacco, and labor force issues. Tobacco destroyed the land while demand for land and labor simultaneously went up. Demand for land pushes people further and further into the frontier, causing increased tensions with Natives.

Walter Rauschenbuschmul

Walter Rauschenbusch, like many Americans, became aware of the troubles in cities. Walter Rauschenbusch was a Protestant clergyman that sought to apply the lessons of Christianity to slums and factories.

Wartime Inflation

Wartime inflation reduced wage gains, leading to thousands of strikes nationwide.

Washington Gladden

Washington Gladen, like many Americans, became aware of the troubles in cities. Washington Gladden was a Protestant clergyman that sought to apply the lessons of Christianity to slums an factories.

Washington Irving

Washington Irving was the first American to win international recognition as a literary figure.

Washington's Election as the First President

Washington's election is the only unanimous election by the Electoral College in history. His character symbolized American struggles- but he was also a good fit. He had no angle to obtain by becoming the president, his graceful character merely persuaded his peers. When put into place, he moved to work, electing a cabinet to advise him. The three immediate cabinet members were: Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson, Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton, and Secretary of War Henry Knox.

John Adams

Washington's vice president, and America's second president in 1797 after beating Anti-Federalist Thomas Jefferson. He was a Federalist.

The Gilded Age: Growing Western Cities

Western cities began to grow as failed farmers, failed miners, and easterners sought fortune in cities. By 1880, the area from the Rockies to the Pacific Coast was the most urbanized region in America.

Groups that would like to see the removal of Indians

Westerners and Southerners both had a vested interest in the extermination or removal of Indians. Westerners, of course, would be rewarded with new ex-Native territories to expand into. Meanwhile, Southerners would be able to capitalize on rich, farm-able land, that Natives were now gone from.

"Saturday Night Massacre" (October 20, 1973)

What is now known as the "Saturday Night Massacre" occurred when Nixon fired Archibald Cox, the Watergate Scandal prosecutor who subpoenaed some tapes from the Watergate hotel. The Attorney General as well as the Deputy Attorney General resigned because they didn't want to fire Cox.

Bleeding Kansas (1855-1861)

When Kansas was initially introduced as a potential territory between 1855 and 1861, pro-slavers and anti-slavers poured into it, hoping to turn it into their respective type of state. Kansas became known as "Bleeding Kansas" because of how much blood was spilled between the pseudo civil war occurring between the two sides (pro and anti slavers).

President Eisenhower: Political Perspective on People

When dealing with people, President Eisenhower was liberal.

The Tariff of 1816

When enacted in 1816, it was the first Congressional protective tariff for the protection of American companies. The tariff placed a 20-25% tax on the value of dutiable imports. The tax increased over time, causing the issue of lack of competition in certain industries.

Spanish American Armistice (1898) American Demands

When the Spanish and Americans met in 1898 to discuss the terms of the end of the war, McKinley secured Guam and Puerto Rico, but was met with a problem with the Philippines: he didn't want to give the island back to the Spanish, but he also didn't want to leave the island in a state of disarray.

Divison of Whig Votes in the Election of 1852: Background Info

Whig votes were divided between Northern Whigs and Southern Whigs, who held differences on a few key subjects.

1852 Election Results

Whigs are massively divided over the issue of slavery, so the Democrats largely win the Election of 1852 through their candidate, Franklin Pierce. Northern Whigs don't support the slave act, while Southern Whigs do.

Effect of Growth of White Collar (non manual labor) Job in the 1950s on Women

White collar jobs in the 1950s gave women more opportunities to get jobs. Many clerical and service jobs created in the 1950s and after were filled by women - thus solidifying women into a dual role as both a worker and homemaker - later causing some individuals to question family life and traditional definitions of gender roles.

White Flight

White flight was the trend wherein whites leave urban cities as the minority population increases.

American Citizen: Abstract perspectives on blacks

White southerners tended to like blacks as individuals, but not the race. On the other hand, white northerners professed to like the race, but disliked the individuals.

The Gilded Age: Effect of Droughts

Widespread droughts and poor soil forced many to abandon their farms and towns.

William Faulkner: Literary Renaissance

William Faulkner led a southern literary Renaissance

William Graham Sumner

William Graham Sumner wrote "The Absurd Effort to Make the World Over" in 1883 under which he berated conservatives and promoted social Darwinists: William Graham Sumner argued that the industrial revolution was a form of social "evolution", and therefore, any intervention in the process of "evolution" was misguided.

William H. Seward

William H. Seward was a New York Senator that was opposed to slavery, so he rejected Clay's proposals. William H. Seward argued that God's "moral law" ruled over the Constitution.

William H. Taft

William H. Taft was the leader of the 1899 Philippine Commission and was different in that while many American soldiers disliked Filipinos, he genuinely liked them.

William J. Bryan

William J. Bryan was the Democratic presidential candidate for the election of 1900, and Bryan used his influence on Democratic senator's to get McKinley's Christianization Treaty approved in 1899, arguing that the sooner the treaty was passed, the sooner the Filipinos would gain their independence.

William James

William James, a white American psychologist and philosopher, made a large positive impact in psychology through his numerous writings.

"Cross of Gold" Speech (1896)

William Jennings Bryan held a speech now known as the "Cross of Gold" Speech in 1896, where he promoted bimetallism (using both gold AND silver to trade) and famously stated, "you will not crucify mankind upon a cross of gold." He also supported the unlimited coinage of silver, as a platform for his beliefs.

William Lloyd Garrison

William Lloyd Garrison was a part of a group called radical abolitionists: he wrote a militantly anti-slavery newspaper called "The Liberator" and publicly burned a copy of the Constitution.

William McKinley: Duty Determines Destiny

William McKinley once said, "Duty Determines Destiny." McKinley believed he had a "duty" to seek imperialism (perhaps due to Manifest Destiny.)

William McKinley

William McKinley was the Republican Candidate and the electoral winner of the Presidential Race of 1896. Once he controlled the GOP, the GOP became increasingly anti-silver and xenophobic.

The Gilded Age: William McKinley vs William Jennings Bryan

William McKinley, the Republican candidate for the election of 1896, won the election. Many of William McKinley's votes came from the debt-stricken South and the trans-Mississippi West, where businesses and wage earners in the East voted for their jobs and had no reason to favor inflation - the heart of Bryan's campaign.

The 2nd Great Awakening: William Miller and the "Millerites"

William Miller and his "Millerites" believed in Arminianism, which was the belief in double predestination, or the belief that God had decided even prior to the Creation or Adam, which particular human beings would be created and saved, and which would be created and damned.

William Pitt

William Pitt was the British PM after George Grenville, and he held inverse ideals from George Grenville. He was also known as the "Great Commoner", Pitt drew strength from the common people, who liked him. His focuses were expelling the French from the New World, gaining loyalty from settlers by stimulating the North American economy, and gaining loyalty from the Native Americans with promised fix territorial boundaries.

William Randolph Hearst

William Randolph Hearst built up a chain of newspapers, beginning with the San Francisco Examiner in 1887.

Wilson's Methods of Propagandizing the War

Wilson persuaded the American Population to support the war by claiming that the war would be Americans fighting for "a war to end war" and "to make the world safe for democracy."

Wilson's Fourteen Points Address: Fifth Point

Wilson's fifth point was an adjustment of colonial claims in the interests of both native peoples and colonizers - a point which appealed to anti-imperialists

Wilson's Fourteen Points Address: First Point

Wilson's first point was to abolish secret treaties, which pleased liberals worldwide.

Wilson's Fourteen Points Address: Fourteenth Point

Wilson's fourteenth and largest point foreshadowed the League of Nations, an international organization that Wilson dreamed would provide a system of collective security.

Wilson's Fourteen Points Address: Fourth Point

Wilson's fourth point was the reduction of armament burdens, which appealed to taxpayers.

Wilson's Fourteen Points Address: Second Point

Wilson's second point was to declare the freedom of the seas, which appealed Germans, as well as Americans who distrusted British sea power.

Wilson's Fourteen Points Address: Third point

Wilson's third point was to complete a removal of economic barriers among countries comforted Germans, who feared postwar vengeance.

Mohammed Reza Pahlevi's Overthrowal (1979): Results

With Ayatollah Khomeini coming to power, Iran sotpped epxorting oil, because Iranian fundamentalists were opposed to Western customs. With OPEC also raising oil prices, another oil crisis was caused.

President Nixon's Expansion of Federal Government Control over Business

With President Nixon's creation of the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), the Occupational Health and Safety Administration (OHSA), and the Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC), the Federal Government gained more control over businesses.

The Gilded Age: Corporate Scale of Industry

With an increasingly large amount of employees in each factory, this created an "impersonalized" workforce and work culture. People no longer knew each other by their names, since there were far too many employees - they merely knew each other by their "employee numbers."

Great Migration of 1917 - 1950: Black imigration

With blacks being freed from their slave shackles, a significant amount of former slaves moved to northern cities. That way, they could escape Jim Crow laws. Some moving towards the west, including Kansas. The introduction of an unexpected surplus of African migratory raised racial tension in the North and West.

Strikes in the Industrial Society

With low wages booming in industrial factories, strikes became commonplace. The middle-class public started to get annoyed by these strikes.

Industrial City Developments: Trash Issue

With people moving into industrial cities because of electricity, indoor plumbing, and telephones, trash became a big issue. Throwaway bottles, boxes, bags, and cans were commonly littered across the streets.

Bombing of Hiroshima (August 1945)

With the Japanese refusal to surrender, an atomic bomb was dropped on Hiroshima on August 6th, 1945, killing about 180,000 people.

Montgomery Bus Boycott (1955-1956): Effects

With the Montgomery black populous boycotting buses, people began to recognize their social, economic, and traditional issues. Black populations began to be seen as a block of influential voters rather than a subhuman race.

Congressional Power: Overruling presidential vetos

With the advent of the ability to overrule presidential vetos, Congress began developing into the dominant role of controlling the government, whereas prior a President that utilized vetos often may have held power.

Innovative Colleges After the Civil War

With the close of the Civil War, and rights being given out, female and black colleges were opening up.

Transcontinental Railroads and Cattle

With the completion of the Transcontinental Railroads, cattle (fresh meat) could now be transported from, for example, the East, to Texas.

Post World War 2: Population Mobility Effect on the Sunbelt

With the extra population mobility granted by a good economy, people moved to the sunbelt in search of jobs, better climate, and lower taxes. The economic property of the sunbelt states was largely due to the fact that these states received significantly more federal money than the North.

The 2nd Great Awakening: The "old" religions

With the growth of Protestant Evangelical Preaching, some religions faded out, such as Presbyterianism, Congregationalists, Episcopalians, etc. These denominations emphasized doctrine, acceptance, and are intellectual in nature.

Lecompton Constitution: Douglas' Intervention

With the help of Stephen A. Douglas, a compromise was found that would allow voters to vote on the actual document, rather than a specific policy. Abolitionists repealed the Constitution, and Kansas would remain a territory until 1861, when the Southern states seceded from the Union.

Industrialization: Forces of Change - Immigration

With the increasingly huge labor pool given by immigration, many immigrants farm.

Emancipation Proclamation: Northern-Southern Ideological Gap

With the issuance of the Emancipation Proclamation, Lincoln essentially closed the gap for Compromise. The war was now one that had a component of abolition.

Emancipation Proclamation (1862-1863)

With the pseudo-Union victory at the Battle of Antietam, Republican President Abraham Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which stated that all slaves in the Confederate states would be free as of January 1st, 1863. The goal of the Emancipation Proclamation was to injure the Confederacy, lessen morale, and heighten its dread. On the side of the Union, the north now had a much stronger moral cause- it had to preserve the Union and free the slaves.

The Compromise of 1850

Within the Compromise of 1850, California was admitted as a free state, but the states of New Mexico and Utah were open to popular sovereignty. Additionally, slave trade was outlawed in the District of Columbia, but a stricter fugitive-slave law was enacted. As a result of the Compromise of 1850, the Senate became unbalanced in favor of the North, as it allowed New Mexico/Utah to be free.

Impact of the Industrial Revolution on Women

Women were most affected by the new industrial age - women found jobs as inventions arose, such as the typewriter and the telephone switchboard - both inventions that gave women new economic and social opportunities.

Women in the early reform era

Women were seen and treated as second class citizens. Democratization didn't apply to women in what was the "Age of the Common Man".

The Nature of Worker Unions

Worker unions utilized a group-first mentality in that there was a "safety" in numbers. Worker Unions also borrowed heavily from European Socialism and sought to share the wealth and success of corporations.

The Techniques of Worker Unions

Worker unions utilized boycotts, work slowdowns, collective bargaining, arbitration, strikes, and closed shop techniques in order to "force" corporations into compromising on what the worker unions want to compromise on.

Pet Banks

Pet Banks, as known in the Jacksonian era, were banks that were politically supportive of the Jacksonian regime.

Phyllis Schlafly

Phyllis Schlafly basically contradicted everything the 2nd wave of Feminism fought for. Phyllis Schlafly was a conservative activist-- she supported a campaign called "Stop ERA" and believed that the passing of the ERA would ruin the traditional family.

Puritanism: "Pilgrims"

Pilgrims were Puritan Separatists that wanted to break away from the Anglican Church. When attempting to establish a colony, the Pilgrims wanted to get to Virginia, but they got lost and landed at Plymouth. Before they even got to Plymouth, the Mayflower Compact was signed.

Containment Doctrine (1947)

Pioneered by George F. Kennan, the Containment Doctrine stated that the USSR was relentlessly expansionary and that the USSR could be contained by being firm and vigilant. Truman embraced the Containment Doctrine in 1947 when he passed the Truman Doctrine, which gave financial support to Greece to resist Communist Pressures.

Kentucky Bluegrass

Pioneers soon found cane that grew as high as fifteen feet, a seemingly insurmountable feat to pass. However, they learned that once burned, it led to the creation of "Kentucky Bluegrass", grass that was perfect for livestock to graze and live in. As a result of this discovery, thousands more Americans flocked to the West.

The Importance of Plastic

Plastic was used for many things, especially during World War 2. Some houses were even made out of plastic, dubbed "prefabs."

Plutocracy

Plutocracy is a form of government under which the government is controlled by the wealthy.

Popular Sovereignty

Popular Sovereignty was a type of government in which the people of a territory decided on the status of slavery within the territory. Politicians favored Popular Sovereignty because it was a compromise between Abolitionists and slaveholders.

SCOTUS: Newfound Support for New Deal Programs

Possibly due to public pressure, SCOTUS began supporting New Deal legislation, including Justice Owen J. Roberts, a previous conservative.

Early Environmentalists: Ecological Science

Post WW2, some argued that the earlier methodology of conserving the trees neglected the complex biology of the life that might be inside of it. This debate also sparked preservationist sentiment: families were now flocking to the likes of natural trails, slopes, and waterways. Membership in environmentalist clubs such as the Sierra Club and the Audubon Society soared.

Feminist discontent post-Civil War

Post-Civil War feminists were angered. The 13th amendment abolished slavery, the 14th amendment required states to follow certain abolitionist guidelines before being allowed into the Union, and the 15th amendment specifically guaranteed black adult males to vote. Meanwhile, women were granted no rights.

President Carter: Israel-Egypt Peace Talks

President Carter mediated peace talks between Israel and Egypt.

President Carter's Pledge to the Panama Canal

President Carter pledged to return the Panama Canal to Panama by the year 2000, as well as resume full diplomatic relations with China in 1979.

President FDR's Goals: Job Creation

President FDR created jobs with federal money in an effort to jump start the economy.

Fireside Chats

President FDR gave "fireside chats" over the radio, in which he soothed the public's concern over banks.

London Economic Conference (1933): FDR's Opposition

President FDR opposed the London Economic Conference because he didn't want any interference with his own plans to fix the American economy.

Japanese Invasion of China (1937): FDR's Reaction

President FDR refused to call the Japanese invasion of China a "war", so the neutrality legislation didn't take effect. If he called it a war, he would have cut off munition sales to the Chinese. A consequence of not calling it a war, though, was that the Japanese could still buy war supplies from the United States.

President FDR: Good Neighbor Policy

President FDR started the Good Neighbor Policy, in which America wouldn't intervene or interfere with Latin American countries. As such, all marines left Haiti in 1934, and America released some control over Cuba and Panama.

The Departure from the Gold Standard

President FDR took the nation off the Gold standard by having the Treasury buy gold from citizens. From this point on, only transactions in paper money were accepted.

President Ford's Popularity

President Ford's popularity sank when he issued a full pardon of Nixon, which set off accusations of a "buddy deal"

President Harry S. Truman: Education

President Harry S Truman was the first President in several years to not have a college degree. Truman was known as the "average man's average man."

President Hoover: Desire for Better Latin-American Relations

President Hoover sought to improve relations with Latin America, and to do so, he withdrew from Haiti and Nicaragua.

President Hoover: Groundwork for Roosevelt's "Good Neighbor" Policy

President Hoover's actions (such as withdrawing from Haiti and Nicaragua) laid the groundwork for future President Roosevelt's "Good Neighbor" policy.

"New Frontier" Plans

President John F. Kennedy pushed his "New Frontier" plans, which tried to fix unemployment, inflation, and sought to keep wages high for workers. The "New Frontier" plans inspired patriotism.

President Johnson: Election of 1968

President Johnson declared that he wouldn't be a candidate for the Election of 1968.

President Lyndon B. Johnson: Offending "hawks" and "doves"

President Johnson didn't want to continue fighting in the Vietnamese war, which offended the "hawks." However, he didn't want to end the war, either, which offended the "doves."

Dismissal of Edwin M. Stanton (1868)

President Johnson dismissed Stanton a year after the Tenure of Office Act passed, in 1868. Afterwards, the House of Representatives voted to impeach Johnson for "high crimes and misdemeanors," as he had violated the earlier Tenure of Offices Act.

President Johnson: "Great Society" Program

President Johnson started a war on poverty, and dubbed his programs the "Great Society" program. His programs were a set of New Deal-ish economic and welfare measures in an attempt to reduce poverty and racial discrimination.

Tonkin Gulf Resolution (1964): President Johnson's Influence

President Johnson used the August 2nd and August 4th attacks of two U.S. ships, calling them "unprovoked," in order to get Congress to pass the Tonkin Gulf Resolution. The Tonkin Gulf Resolution would allow the President to use unrestricted force (at his discretion) in Southeast Asia.

Laos' Independence (1954): Kennedy's Response

President Kennedy avoided sending troops to Laos, and peace was ultimately achieved at the Geneva conference in 1962.

Civil Rights Act of 1964: President Johnson's influence

President Lyndon B. Johnson played a part in convincing Congress to pass the civil Rights Act of 1964.

Philippine Commission (1899)

President McKinley appointed the Philippine Commission in 1899 to set up a Filipino government. The Philippine Commission ended up being lead by William H. Taft, who genuinely liked the Filipinos, unlike American soldiers.

President McKinley's Plan: "Benevolent Assimilation"

President McKinley's plan of "benevolent assimilation," of the Filipinos was very slow since it involved improving roads, sanitation, and public health. President McKinley's plan developed economic ties and set up a school system with English as the 2nd language - a system that was hated by the Filipinos, who preferred liberty over assimilation.

President Nasser: Desire for Western and Soviet Funds

President Nasser, Egypt's President, wanted funds from the West and Soviets in order to dam the Nile River.

Soviet Union-China Disagreements over Marxism: Nixon & Kissinger's Exploitation

President Nixon and his National Security Adviser Dr. Henry A. Kissinger used the Soviet-Chinese tension to play one country against the other. Nixon & Kissinger's goal was to pressure North Vietnam into peace.

President Nixon: Expertise in Foreign Affairs

President Nixon brought knowledge and expertise in foreign affairs to the presidency.

Supplemental Security Income (SSI)

President Nixon created the Supplemental Security Income (SSI), which gave benefits to the poor aged, blind, and disabled.

President Nixon: Perspective on the Vietnamese War

President Nixon didn't want to end the Vietnamese War, but he didn't want American soldiers to continue losing their lives either. So, he established "Vietnamization," withdrawing 540,000 American troops and replacing it with resources such as weapons, money, and training, so that the South Koreans could gradually take over the war.

President Nixon: Expansion of Great Society Programs

President Nixon expanded the Great Society programs by increasing funding for Medicare, Medicaid, and Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC)

American Attack on Cambodia (1970): Withdrawal of Troops

President Nixon withdrew troops from Cambodia in 1970, causing bitterness within the Congressional war "hawks" and "doves"

President Reagan: Major Goal for the Government

President Reagan's major goal for the government was to reduce the size of the government by shrinking the Federal budget and cutting taxes.

President Reagan's Strategy for Dealing with the Soviet Union

President Reagan's strategy for dealing with the Soviet Union was to initiate a new arms race and outspend the Soviets. President Reagan expected that the American economy could better support an expensive arms race than the Soviet Union's Economy

Truman's "Point Four" Program

President Truman supported a plan to lend American money to underdeveloped countries in order to help them develop before they succumbed to Communism

Missionary Diplomacy

President Woodrow Wilson favored missionary diplomacy, which is a methodology under which individuals lead by example. Furthermore, it's laced with signs of Christianity and Democracy.

Presidents Harding and Coolidge: Tariff problem

Presidents Harding and Coolidge were prone to increasing tariffs more than decreasing them, which presented a problem - Europeans needed to sell goods to the U.S. to get money to pay back their war debts. Europeans responded by also increasing tariffs.

Fall of Saigon (1975): American Involvement

Prior to the Fall of Saigon, hundreds of American helicopters evacuated pro-American Vietnamese as well as Americans from the city.

Industrialization: Forces of Change - National Economy

Prior to the Industrial Revolution, the biggest regional farmer was almost the regional kingpin. But now, with the invention of the railroad, these regional sects started going out of existence.

Leading up to the Nullification Crisis of 1832

Prior to the Nullification Crisis of 1832 (which declared certain tariffs null in South Carolina, a slave state), Virginia had already defeated legislation that called for emancipation several times, with other states following suit. Southerners argued that slavery was supported by the bible, and that it was good because it introduced blacks to the concept of slavery.

The state of Natural Literature: Prior to Mid 1800s

Prior to the mid 1800s, most American literature was imported from Britain.

Civilian Council of National Defense

Prior to the war, President Wilson created the Civilian Council of National Defense, with the goal of studying the issues of economic mobilization. He further increased the size of the army and created a shipbuilding program.

Increasing Productivity Due to World War 2: Effects

Productivity was the key to prosperity for America. Increased productivity was caused by improved technology and the rising educational level of the workforce.

Progressive Reform: The 17th Amendment in 1913

Progressive reformers convinced Congress to pass the 17th Amendment in 1913 - the 17th Amendment established the direct election of U.S. senators.

Progressive "Referendum" and "Recall"

Progressive supported the "referendum" and "recall" so that voters could directly vote on laws to remove corrupt elected officials.

Progressive "Initiative"

Progressives supported the "initiative" so that voters could directly proposed legislation.

Progressivism: Political ideology

Progressives wanted to regain the power that had shifted from the hands of the people to those of the "interests" (big business, etc.)

Woodrow Wilson

Prohibitionists tied themselves into the Progressives of the early 1900s and especially the evangelical Woodrow Wilson.

Policy of Boldness (1954)

Proposed by Secretary of State John Foster Dulles, the Policy of Boldness was a policy through which super-bombers would be built and equipped with nuclear bombs in order to allow the U.S. to threaten countries like the USSR and China with nuclear weapons.

The Divorce Plan: Background Information

Proposed by Van Buren in response to the Financial Panic of 1837, the Divorce Plan offered to separate the banks from the government, an ideal which can be seen in Jacksonian ideology. Van Buren's motivation for this plan was his belief that some of the Panic was fueled by the injection of funds into private banks, such as Pet Banks, where federal funds were lost when the bank collapsed. Van Buren wanted to move funds into the cities, where it would be safer and more tied to the government. After heated debate, the Independent Treasury Bill was passed in 1840.

"The Small-State Plan"

Proposed by the smaller New Jersey in counter to Virginia's "Large-State Plan", it argued that the makeup of Congress should be equal regardless of population size, just like it currently was under the Articles of confederation.

The Know-Nothing Party

Propping up at the end of the Mexican-American War, members of the Know-Nothing Party wanted to extend the period of naturalization, undercut immigrant voting strengths, and keep foreign aliens in their place. A fundamental ideal of the Know-Nothing party was xenophobia.

"Proprietorship" colonies

Proprietorship colonies were colonies in which land was given by the king to an individual or a group of people.

The Gilded Age: Public Schooling

Public schooling generally excluded millions of already-adults, and crowded cities generally provided better educational facilities than the old one-room rural schoolhouses.

"On the Origin of the Species" by Charles Darwin (1859)

Published in 1859 by Charles Darwin, "On the Origin of the Species" stated that humans had slowly evolved from lower forms of life.

"Progress and Poverty"

Published in 1879 and authored by Henry George, within "Progress and Poverty" was Henry George's idea that profits should have a 100% tax, since the increase in land value should be enough for the company.

Progress and Poverty

Published in 1879 and authored by Henry George, within "Progress and Poverty" was Henry George's idea that profits should have a 100% tax, since the increase in land value should be enough for the company.

Lincoln Steffens' "The Shame of the Cities" (1902)

Published in 1902, a New York reporter by the name of Lincoln Steffens wrote a book titled "The Shame of the Cities", which unmasked the corrupt alliance between big business and the municipal government.

John Spargo's "The Bitter Cry of the Children" (1906)

Published in 1906, John Spargo's "The Bitter Cry of the Children" depicted the abuses of child labor.

Ray Stannard's "Following the Color Line" (1908)

Published in 1908, Ray Stannard's "Following the Color Line" depicted the suppression of America's blacks.

Betty Friedan: "The Feminine Mystique" (1963)

Published in 1963, Betty Friedan's "The Feminine Mystique" helped launch the modern women's movement. The book discussed the widespread unhappiness of women who were housewives.

Puritanism: Beliefs

Puritans believed in the concept of predestination, or that it's already decided whether or not you will go to Heaven or Hell.

Ralph Waldo Emerson's "The American Scholar"

Ralph Waldo Emerson's book "The American Scholar" was an intellectual declaration of independence. In The American Scholar, he challenged Americans to create their own art and culture, rather than just copy Europe.

Ralph Waldo Emerson

Ralph Waldo Emerson, a transcendentalist poet and philosopher, urged Americans to forget European traditions and focus more on emphasizing American interests and ideals.

Republicanism and Radical Whigs

Ramping up to the revolution, Americans got behind Republicanism and political thought from a group called the "Radical Whigs." The Whigs were against the threat that a powerful monarch had on liberty.

Henry James

Realist author Henry James wrote about the confrontation of innocent Americans with Europeans. His novels frequently displayed women as central characters. Henry James was a master of psychological realism.

Mark Twain

Realist author Mark Twain was a journalist, humorist, satirist, and opponent of social injustice.

William Dean Howells

Realist author William Dean Howells was the editor-in-chief of the Atlantic Monthly, where he wrote about ordinary people and contemporary social themes. He is known as the "father of American realism."

Red-Lining

Red-Lining was the segregation of neighborhoods by race, as some believed that their neighborhoods should remain one race.

Yalta Conference "Commitments"

Regarding Germany's future, leaders started the "dismemberment committee" to study the procedure. The Yalta Conference also led to the agreement to form a new UN, including the US and USSR.

Bret Harte

Regionalist author Bret Harte was an author of the West, writing stories of the California gold-rush era.

Kate Chopin

Regionalist author and feminist Kate Chopin wrote about adultery, suicide, and women's ambitions in "The Awakening" in 1899.

The era of Andrew Jackson (1820-1840) [religious]

Religious revivals and even new religions, like Mormonism, flourished.

New England Colonies: Religious Dissent

Religious toleration was not practiced in the New England Colonies. As a result, people that spoke out were very often quickly dealt with, two such individuals named Roger Williams and Anne Hutchinson being the examples. As a result of Williams' discretions, Williams was banished from the Massachusetts Bay Colony, and he later founded the Providence, Rhode Island colony.

Joseph Hooker

Replacing General A.E. Burnside, he worked as Lincoln's wingman as Lincoln commanded the Army of the Potomac. Hooker was later replaced by General George G. Meade after Hooker was badly injured during a battle at Chancellorsville, Virginia in 1863. Coincidentally, Stonewall Jackson was mortally wounded at the very same battle.

Election of 1936: Republican Candidate

Republicans chose Alfred M. Landon as their Republican nominee for 1936, against the Democratic President FDR. Republicans condemned the New Deal for its radicalism, experimentation, confusion, and "frightful waste."

Southern States: Congressional Elects; Republican Response

Republicans disliked the reintroduction of Southern states because they enjoyed Congressional majority during the Civil War. With the reintroduction of Southerners, there would be a competent opposing party. Furthermore, Republicans were particularly afraid that Southerners (Democrats) would take over Congress, as they held additional power since emancipated slave votes count as 1, rather than simply 3/5ths.

The Black Codes: Political Discontent

Republicans were highly opposed to the implementation of the Black Codes.

Responsorial

Responsorial is a style of preaching in which the congregation responds to the preacher with remarks of "amen."

Richard Henry Lee

Richard Henry Lee was an American statesman from Virginia that was best known for the motion in the Second Continental Congress (1774) to declare the colonies' independence from England.

Election of 1952: Vice-President

Richard M. Nixon was chosen as the Vice President in order to satisfy the anticommunist wing of the Republican Party.

Richard Olney

Richard Olney, the contemporary Secretary of State under Grover Cleveland circa 1890, warned Britain that any war with Venezuela over the disputed land would violate the Monroe Doctrine. Britain initially ignored this, but after a time, President Grover Cleveland threatened war.

Kent State University Riots

Riots erupted at Kent State University over the sending of American troops into Cambodia. At Kent State University, the National Guard shot 4 students.

Robert Kennedy

Robert Kennedy was President John F. Kennedy's brother, and was Attorney-General of John F. Kennedy's presidential cabinet. Robert Kennedy's goal was to reform the priorities of the FBI.

Robert M. La Follette

Robert M. La Follette was a governor from Wisconsin who took control from the corporations and gave it to the people.

Robert Owen

Robert Owen was the founder of a communal society in New Harmony, Georgia in 1825 in seek of human betterment.

Roger Williams

Roger Williams questioned Puritan leadership and doctrine, particularly in the Massachusetts Bay Colony. Williams called for the complete separation of Church and State, as well as criticized the colonial treatment of Natives. After being banished due to his beliefs, he founded the colony of Providence, Rhode Island, which was the first colony to establish complete religious freedom.

Romanticism

Romanticism celebrates nature rather than civilization. Romanticism emphasizes nature, emotions, the individual, the common man, and imagination.

Royal colonies

Royal colonies were colonies that were paid for and ruled directly by the English monarchy.

Earl Warren: Retirement

SCOTUS Justice Earl Warren retired in 1969 and was replaced with Warren E. Burger.

The "Insular Cases"

SCOTUS' rulings in the Insular Cases (a series of 14 cases) declared that the Constitution didn't extend to the newly annexed countries (aka Puerto Rico and Cuba.)

Sam Houston

Sam Houston, a distinguished latecomer and the ex-Governor of Tennessee, took up residence with the Arkansas Indians who dubbed him the "Big Drunk". Subsequently, Houston took the pledge of temperance, a pledge that criticized the excessive consumption of alcohol.

Samuel Adams

Samuel Adams was an important figure who flamed the fires of discontent against the British in America.

Samuel Gompers

Samuel Gompers was the founder of the American Foundation of Labor in 1866. Not only did he want to improve the quality of life for workers, but he also founded the American Foundation of Labor in 1866 in order to advance himself politically in the eyes of the people.

San Juan Hill (July, 1898)

San Juan Hill was the setting of a bloody decisive July, 1898 battle during the Spanish-American War. Roosevelt claimed the victory there for the "Rough Riders" - although they were supported by black soldiers of the 24th and 25th infantry regiments.

Sanford Dole (Dole Family)

Sanford Dole was an American Plantation owner in Hawaii who farmed the Dole Pineapple and led a revolt against Queen Liliuokalani and was later elected as President of the Republic of Hawaii. Sanford Dole remained President until Hawaii was annexed 4 years later.

The Santa Anna Explosion

Santa Anna, a major Mexican political figure, finally decided to curb Texan disloyalty in 1835. Santa Anna wiped out all local rights and began raising an army in order to suppress the "unruly" Texans.

Rebel Victory at Saratoga in 1777

Saratoga ranks high among the decisive battles of both American and world history. The victory revived the faltering colonial cause, and made possible foreign aid from France, when in turn further helped the Americans.

Scalawags

Scalawags was a derogatory term for Southerners that were accused of plundering the treasuries of Southern states through their political influence in the radical governments during the Reconstruction era.

Jacksonian Democracy in the eyes of historian Arthur M. Schlesinger

Schlesigner changed the debate entirely. He believed that rather than it simply being a case of disagreement between sectional values, he believed that the Jacksonian era was a class conflict between the poorer farmers and laborers and the elite merchants and businessmen.

Secondary Schools in the 20th century

Secondary schools formed more slowly - from 1900 to 1996 the percentage of teenagers who graduated from high school increase from 6 percent to 85 percent.

Jacksonian Policy on Indians

Seeking to expand on American westward expansion, Jackson asked in his Indian Removal Act of 1830 (closer to forced, but "asked") Natives that were east of the Mississippi to make the move to the west of the Mississippi, so that Americans can move westward without Native resistance. In the end, Jacksonian policy was to force Indians to either a) join American culture, b) move western more and more until the land was uninhabitable, or c) simply fight a war against the Americans and be killed.

Senator La Follette: Leader of the Progressive Party

Senator La Follette led the liberal progressive party. Senator Follette was supported by the A F of L and farmers. The progressive party called for government ownership of railroads and relief for farmers, anti-labor injunctions, the outlaw of monopolies, and supported a Constitutional amendment to limit SCOTUS' power to invalidate laws passed by Congress.

American Chief Justice John Jay

Sent by a war-fearful Washington, he was sent to London to negotiate peace agreements between Britain and the US. Jay did the best he could with cards weakened by Hamilton's economic dependence on Britain. He hammered out what is now known as Jay's Treaty.

Victory in Japan Day (September 2nd, 1945)

September 2nd, 1945 was proclaimed as Victory in Japan Day, as it was the formal conclusion of World War 2.

Sharecropping: Background Information

Sharecropping was a term that was crowned after emancipation- blacks were forced to continue working the plantations, and in return, plantation owners would "rent" out pieces of land for higher than the land could possibly return, creating an endless paradox of debt for any slaves that took up the offer, since the contracts often stipulated that the renters must pay off all debts to the plantation owner before the renters stopped working the land. So, blacks were still economically dependent on whites.

Alliance for Progress (1961)

Signed by President Kennedy in 1961, the Alliance for Progress was essentially a Marshall Plan for Latin america, with the goal being to help Latin American countries close the rich-poor wealth gap. In theory, this would quiet Communist politicians.

Indian Removal Act of 1830

Signed into law by Andrew Jackson, the Indian Removal Act of 1830 forced more than 100,000 Indians living east of the Mississippi to reservations that were west of the Mississippi. It gave the President the right to grant Western Mississippian territory to Indians that were willing to leave their homeland. Regardless, Indian land West of the Mississippi River, it argued, still belonged to the Americans. Many Indians died on the trek to the Western reservations, also known as the Trail of Tears. Initially, the Act was supposed to be a voluntary effort on the Indian side, however tribe chieftains were pressured to make the move.

Silver Certificates

Silver Certificates were designed to get money into circulation,and they were first issued in 1878 in denominations ranging from $1 to $1000.`

American Trade Embargoes on Japan: Results

Since Axis Japan relied on America for trade to fund its war efforts, Japan was impacted when Washington decided to embargo them. Washington offered to lift the embargo if Japan stopped the war with China, but they refused, so the embargo persisted.

Election of 1928: Republican Nominee

Since Coolidge decided not to run, Republicans chose Herbert Hoover as their nominee for the Election of 1928.

Yalta Conference: The Rewards for the Soviet Union

Since Stalin agreed to attack Japan after the collapse of Germany, the Soviet union was given the Southern half of Sakhalin Islands (which was lost in the Russo-Japanese War in 1905), as well as Japan's Kurile Islands. The USSR also was given control over Chinese Manchurian railroads in addition to special privileges in the two key seaports of that area, Dairen and Port Arthur. All of these rewards gave Stalin control over vital Chinese industrial centers.

The Gilded Age: "One Crop Economy"

Since Western farmers grew single crops, such as wheat or corn, they existed in a one-crop economy, like Southern cotton farmers. Farmers' livelihoods depended on the price of their single product, which was unpredictable and out of their control.

The Gilded Age: Working Conditions

Since corporations and factories were free to do whatever they want, worker safety and health was generally awful. Furthermore, this type of government regulation resulted in a platform for legal child labor.

USSR-US: Communism vs Capitalism

Since every country wanted to promote its own form of government, the Soviet Union and the United States provoked each other into a tense, 40 year standoff known as the Cold War.

The Gilded Age: Wage Decrease

Since new immigrants and transfers were arriving to the new world on the daily, manufacturers gave jobs to those who would work the least. This resulted in increasingly decreasing wages.

The Gilded Age: Laissez-Faire

Since the Gilded Age featured Laissez-Faire, which means the government doesn't interfere with corporations and the economy, worker protections were nonexistent and corporations were easily given their way.

The Pendleton Act of 1883: Political Effects

Since the Pendleton Act of 1883 removed the spoils system from its place, politicians could no longer rely on that system for their campaign money. Now, Politicians had to seek support from big-business leaders.

U.S. Demand for Repayment of WW1 Debt: Results

Since the U.S. wanted its money from Britain and France, Britain and France demanded money from Germany. Thus came the Dawes Plan of 1924, which set up reparations.

Causes of World War 1

Some broad causes of WW1 were industrialization, imperialism, colonialism, nationalism, and global competition.

"Company Towns"

Some companies owned the town that they manufactured in, and artificially increased the prices of basic living expenses in order for the company to make more money through grocery stores, banks, etc.

President Reagan: Military Expenditures

Some economists speculate that the Recession of 1981-1982 ended during the mid 1980s because of Reagan's insane military spending. He gave $2 Trillion to the Pentagon in the 1980s, which led to an unbalanced Federal budget, and substantially increased the national debt.

Forms of Imperialism

Some forms of imperialism would be economic and military aid, the establishment of a colonial network, and the annexation of territories (Hawaii, for example.)

FDR's New Deal Programs: Presidential Authority

Some of President FDR's New Deal programs gave the President unprecedented powers, including the ability of the President to create legislation.

Muckrakers: Most Promising Strategies for Reform

Some of the most effective attacks of the muckrakers were directed at social issues.

The Black Codes: Content

Some versions of The Black Codes sought to restore the pre-emancipation system of race relations, forbidding blacks to serve on a jury or to vote. The Black Codes placed additional pressure on emancipated individuals who were already struggling against mistreatment and poverty.

The Formation of the Republican Party (1854): Southern Dissent

Southerners hated the Republican party because it heavily challenged their ideals on slavery.

The Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854: Southern Response

Southerners, however, aren't going to approve of any railroad route through the area Douglas wants, because it's above the line of (36,30), which was the area allocated to free states. In order to fix this, Douglas offers up the Kansas-Nebraska Act, and it would set up two territories: Kansas and Nebraska. The issue of slavery in these areas would be decided by popular sovereignty.

Impact of the French and Indian War on Spain

Spain lost some land (and gained some in return) after their loss in the war.

1896 Congressional Recognition of Cuba: America's demands of Spain

Spain was forced to agree with the Americans' 2 basic demands for Cuba: and end to the reconstruction camps, and an armistice with the Cuban rebels.

St. Augustine, 1565

Spain was the earliest to colonize North America, beginning in Florida, with the establishment of St. Augustine in 1565.

Mexico: Background Information

Spaniards wanted to populate this mostly underpopulated land in order to create a colony, however, Mexico won its independence from Spain in 1821. Mexico, seeking to populate its land, gave much of its territory to Stephen Austin, in return for the transport of 300 American families that were of the established Roman Catholic faith, and would be "Mexicanized", stipulations which were largely ignored.

The "New York Nation"

Started in 1865 by Edwin L. Godkin, the New York Nation was one of the most influential magazines. The New York Nation pushed for civil-service reform, honesty in government, and a moderate tariff.

Black involvement in political office: Background Information

Starting in 1868, with the advent of new rights and privileges (but not yet voting which came in 1869 through the 15th amendment), blacks began holding major offices in the government.

Stephen A. Douglas' Kansas-Nebraska Act (1854)

Stephen A. Douglas' Kansas-Nebraska Act conflicted with the Missouri Compromise of 1820, which decreed that the area of the proposed Nebraska state would hold qualities of a free state since it was above the 36 30 line. Although it was likely Nebraska would be a free state, it was not 100% possible due to the ruling factor being popular sovereignty. Consequently, Douglas had no choice but to propose to repeal the Missouri Compromise of 1820. Contemporary president Franklin Pierce supported the Kansas-Nebraska act.

The Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854: Background Information

Stephen Douglas, a Northern Democrat from the State of Illinois, wants to secure a railroad route through his home state of Illinois out to the West. He also wants to encourage Western settlement. Southerners, however, aren't going to approve of any railroad route through this area, because it's above the line of (36,30), which was the area allocated to free states. In order to fix this, Douglas offers up the Kansas-Nebraska Act, and it would set up two territories: Kansas and Nebraska. The issue of slavery in these areas would be decided by popular sovereignty. The Act causes a political firestorm, because it essentially repeals the Missouri Act of 1820, disregarding the (36,30) line and allowing slave states to be above it.

Segregation in the 20th Century: Southerners

Still in 1950, Southerners held discontent towards blacks. Every day, blacks had to deal with an array of social racism, and buildings were still separated, one for "whites" and one for "blacks".

Stokely Carmichael: General Policy

Stokely Carmichael followed the policy of Black Power, which emphasized racial pride and the creation of black political and cultural parties.

Stokely Carmichael

Stokely Carmichael was the head of the SNCC who preached "overtaking white Americans" and preached "black power" - aka, pride in heritage and history. Carmichael wanted to do more than just integrate blacks into society- he wanted to put them into higher office, both politically and on the employment front.

Hawaii: Sugar Imports

Sugar imports from Hawaii became less profitable due to the McKinley Tariff of 1890.

Federalists

Supported a strong central government, advocated the ratification of the new constitution; included Alexander Hamilton; had a large hold of Rhode Island. Federalist advocates promoted industry and commerce. Federalists believed that the creation of a strong central government would advocate men to put aside selfishness in favor of the common good.

Federal Highway Act of 1956

Supported by President Eisenhower and passed in 1956, the Federal Highway Act created thousands of miles of federally funded highways.

"Supply-Side Economics"

Supported by Reagan, "Supply-Side" economics was the ideology that the reduction of taxes would enable businesses to produce more goods, thus lowering prices, increasing consumer spending, and creating more jobs. Reagan believed that supply-side economics would stimulate new investment, boost productivity, promote dramatic economic growth, and reduce the federal deficit.

"Fair Deal" Program (1949)

Supported by Truman in 1949, the "Fair Deal" program called for improved housing, full employment, a higher minimum wage, better farm price supports, new TVA's, and an extension of Social Security

Groups that tried to protect Indians

Surprisingly, New Englanders were actually the ones that had to jump to Indian defense.

William H Taft: Dollar Diplomacy

Taft looked into inveting into up-and-coming "Banana Republics" in order to develop positive relations both diplomatically and economically with other nations.

Philadelphia Plan of 1969

Tailored by President Nixon, the Philadelphia Plan of 1969 required construction-traded unions to establish quotas for hiring black employees, which changed the definition of "affirmative action" to include preferable treatment on GROUPS, not INDIVIDUALS.

1918: New York v Sanger

Taking place in 1918 and won by Margaret Sanger, New York v Sanger would allow doctors to advise their married patients about birth control for health purposes.

Election of 1960: Television

Television played a key role in the Election of 1960 because Kennedy's personal appeal attracted many votes for him.

Tenant Farmers

Tenant Farmers were farmers that rented the land that they farmed rather than owned.

Thaddeus Stevens: Political Views

Thaddeus Stevens had a radical program of drastic economic reforms and extensive protection of political rights. He worked towards equality for Southern blacks. However, none of his radical policies were ever enacted.

The "Pittsburgh Plus" Pricing System

The "Pittsburgh Plus" pricing system was a form of economic discrimination against the South in the steel industry. Deposits of iron and coal ore were discovered in Birmingham, Alabama, which should have helped Southern steel manufacturers, but Northern steel companies meddled with the process and put pressure on the railroads to increase their shipping rates. As such, the economic advantage of the new Southern deposits was essentially removed.

Post World War 2: The "Sunbelt"

The "Sunbelt" was a 15-state area stretching along the Southern portion of the U.S. from Virginia to California. The population in the "Sunbelt" grew nearly twice as fast as the Northeast (the "Frostbelt.")

New England Colonies: The Massachusetts Bay Colony - Town Hall Meeting

The "Town Hall Meeting" became an important part of direct democracy in colonial America because all church going males could participate and voice their concerns.

The 2nd Great Awakening: Experiential Quality

The "experiential quality" of the 2nd Great Awakening appealed to the working class, who were seemingly growing apart from traditional faith.

The Gilded Age: The "Taming" of Indians

The "taming" of Indians was accelerated by the railroad, white men's diseases, and alcohol.

The 100th Meridian

The 100th Meridian was an imaginary line running from the Dakotas to Texas that separated the wet East from the dry West.

Interstate Commerce Act (1887)

The 1887 Interstate Commerce Act established the Interstate Commerce Commission and compelled railroads to publish standard rates and outlaw rebates. Railroads quickly became adept at using the Interstate Commerce Act of 1887 to achieve their own means. Regardless, the Act was pivotal for giving the government means to regulate big business.

The Dingley Tariff Bill (1897)

The 1897 Dingley Tariff Bill instituted high tariff rates to generate revenue to cover the annual Treasury deficits - Republicans claimed credit for bringing prosperity to the nation following the panic of 1893

18th Amendment (1920)

The 18th amendment set an early standard for legislating morality, as the 18th amendment banned the sale, manufacture, export, import, or transportation of alcohol.

Anti-Imperialist League of 1901

The 1901 Anti-Imperialist League was a league that was created in order to denounce the imperial ideology. The Anti-Imperialist League of 1901 fought against McKinley's expansionist moves when he decided to Christianize the Philippines.

Installment Plan

The 1920s also saw the establishment of the installment plan, which allowed families to pay for debt or products over a period of time, rather than all at once.

Values during the 1920s

The 1920s saw major emphasis on consumption (rather than production), personality (rather than character), abundance (rather than scarcity), science (rather than religion), looking to the future (instead of the past), mass culture (instead of local culture), and image (instead of substance.

Creation of the Veteran's Bureau (1921)

The 1921 Creation of the Veteran's Bureau by Congress was meant to support the operation of hospitals and vocational rehabilitation for disabled veterans.

Results of the 1921 and 1924 Immigration Acts

The 1921 and 1924 Immigration Acts kills American immigration - it gives the idea that immigrants are scary, and that America was hesitant for change.

The Gilded Age: Xenophobia

The 1933 immigration total of around 23,000 was the lowest immigration total since 1831, representing xenophobia during the gilded age.

The National Labor Relations Act (1935)

The 1935 National Labor Relations Act forced standardized contractual obligations for every employee on an employer basis - two employees with the same job for an employer can't have different contracts from each other.

FDR-SCOTUS Relations: Consequences of Public's Criticism

The 1937 FDR-SCOTUS controversy costed FDR a lot of political capital. Because of this, few New Deal programs were passed after 1937.

John Maynard Keynes

The 1937 economic downturn led President FDR to embrace the recommendations of British economist John Maynard Keynes.

Eisenhower Doctrine (1957)

The 1957 Eisenhower Doctrine was a pledge of U.S. military and economic aid to Middle Eastern nations that were threatened by Communist aggression.

1960s: "Sexual Revolution"

The 1960s also witnessed a "sexual revolution," with the introduction of the birth control pill making unwanted pregnancies easy to avoid.

Fair Housing Act of 1968

The 1968 Fair Housing Act eliminated "redlining" and discriminatory sale/rental agreements.

19th Amendment (1920)

The 19th amendment was set in stone after the National Women's Party (NWP) put huge pressure on the 1918 Senate candidates to be "pro-Suffrage." Feminists like Lucy Burns and Alice Paul went so far as to hold hunger strikes in addition to protests and marches.

The 2nd Great Awakening: Fundamentalism

The 2nd Great Awakening emphasized the most basic scripture and "rules" to appeal to a population swayed more and more by class rivalry and regional loyalty.

The 2nd Great Awakening: Revivalism

The 2nd Great Awakening featured a more emotional and human-scaled response to the seemingly fast-paced life of the 19th century.

The 2nd Great Awakening: Background Information

The 2nd Great Awakening ran from 1800 to about 1850. It was far less intellectual than the First "Great Awakening". Evangelical Protestant Preaching was far reaching, and mass baptisms occurred near rivers and streams

The 2nd Great Awakening: Causes

The 2nd Great Awakening was the result of Americans believing that the American Revolution was incomplete, and that the effort to create a complete Democracy was unfinished. Some feared that technology, industry, and materialism were replacing traditional values and faith. Americans were tied to the self-made values popularized by Andrew Jackson.

The American Federation of Labor's (AF of L) Membership Increase

The American Federation of Labor supported the war and because of this, membership had more than doubled by the end of the war.

The American Foundation of Labor (1886): Goals

The American Foundation of Labor sought for better wages, hours, and working conditions - to accomplish this, The American Federation of Labor used the "walkout" and the "boycott" protest methodology.

The American Foundation of Labor (1886): Employee Ideology

The American Foundation of Labor supported the idea of closed shop, in which an employee could only hire union employees and all of the employees had to be in a union.

The American Foundation of Labor (1886)

The American Foundation of Labor was founded in 1886 and was led by Samuel Gompers.

Manhattan Project

The American Manhattan Project developed the Atomic bomb. During development, Germany was the intended target

The American Party; "Know-Nothing Party"

The American Party, also known as the "Know-Nothing Party", was formed by Southern Whig Protestants & Know-Nothings that were alarmed due to the increased number of German and Irish immigrants. Their electoral candidate was former president Millard Fillmore.

Origins of the Common School

The American School System originated in the 1830s and 1840s

Anaconda Plan

The Anaconda Plan was proposed by Commander-in-Chief Winfield Scott. The Anaconda Plan offered to fight a war of attrition; block the ports of the South, and cut the South in two by taking the Mississippi river.

The Anglo-American Convention of 1818

The Anglo-American Convention of 1818 allowed the Americans to share the Newfoundland fisheries with the Canadians and provided for a 10 year joint occupation of the Oregon Country without a surrender of the rights/claims of either America or Britain.

Anti-Ballistic Missile (AMB) Treaty: Effect on Cold War

The Anti-Ballistic Missile (AMB) Treaty limited the U.S. and the Soviet Union to two clusters of defensive missiles.

The Anti-Masonic Party

The Anti-Masonic Party, a third political party that entered the electoral race in 1832, hated the Masonic Order, a "secret" Order that seemed, to the Party, to be completely comprised of the wealthy privileged elite. Despite Jackson's belief in egalitarianism (all people are equal) and his faith in the common man, Jackson still identified as a Mason. As a result, the Anti-Masonic Party was also seen as the Anti-Jacksonian Party. The Anti-Masonic Party gained a lot of its support from evangelical Protestant groups. Meanwhile, the Jacksonian Democrats disliked government interference in social and economic life, which seemed to be a main trend for the Anti-Masonic Party. Regardless, Jackson was re-elected in 1832 anyways.

The Apollo Project

The Apollo Project was a space mission that Kennedy proposed in order to stimulate the American economy. In the Apollo Project, a man would reach the moon.

The Area Between British Guiana and Venezuela: Conflict

The Area between British Guiana and Venezuela had been disputed for over 50 years, after gold was found in the area.

Berlin Airlift (1948-1949)

The Berlin Airlift was a joint effort on the parts of America and Britain to fly food and supplies into West Berlin after the Soviets blocked off all ground routes to the city.

The Bessemer Process

The Bessemer Process simplified the steel production process and reduced the price of steel. The Bessemer Process involved blowing cold air on red-hot iron in order to ignite the carbon and eliminate impurities.

The Black Codes: Background Information

The Black Codes were state and local restrictions on voting and civil liberties - the first such code was seen in Mississippi in November of 1865.

Capper-Volstead Act

The Capper-Volstead Act exempted farmers' marketing cooperatives from anti-trust prosecution. The Capper-Volstead Act was an attempt to help farmers.

The Charter of the Bank of the United States

The Charter for the Bank of United States expired in 1836. In order to ensure the failure of the Bank, 3 years prior, Jackson proposed to stop federal deposits into the bank, and gradually withdrew federal money. The death of the Bank of the United States left a financial vacuum, where Federal money was placed in banks that are now known as "Pet Banks".

English Colonies: The Chesapeake Colonies

The Chesapeake Colonies, referring to the Virginian and Maryland colonies, were where the British succeeded. One Chesapeake colony was Jamestown.

The Civil Rights Act of 1866

The Civil Rights Act of 1866 granted black citizens equal rights to contract, sue and be sued, marry, travel, as well as own property.

Civil Rights Act of 1871

The Civil Rights Act of 1871 set up federal supervision of election in order to guarantee African-American rights.

The Civil Rights Act of 1875

The Civil Rights Act of 1875 granted all persons (particularly black citizens) "full and equal enjoyment" of public accommodations, meaning no segregation of hotels, transportation (ie. being forced to sit at the back of the bus), or theaters.

The Civil Rights Act of 1957

The Civil Rights Act of 1957 was the first piece of legislation towards equality in civil rights, particularly in voting. The Civil Rights Act of 1957 was proposed by contemporary President Dwight Eisenhower.

The Civil Rights Act of 1964

The Civil Rights Act of 1964 outlawed racial, religious, and sex discrimination against employees by employers, and it gave the Federal portion of the U.S. the ability to enforce all laws regarding to civil rights, including the desegregation of schools.

The Civil Rights Bill of 1866

The Civil Rights Bill of 1866 gave blacks the privilege of American citizenship- it struck against the Black Codes by its very existence.

Coinage Act of 1873

The Coinage Act of 1783 ended the minting of silver dollars and returned America to the gold standard.

The Cold War: Communist Containment

The Cold War was a struggle to contain Soviet Communism. It wasn't a war - but it wasn't a peace either.

The Colored Farmers' National Alliance (1880s)

The Colored Farmers' National Alliance (1880s), which followed the Farmers' Alliance, was a variant that sought to attract black farmers by virtue of being open to accepting them.

Columbia Convention

The Columbia Convention was a convention called by South Carolina in 1832 in response to the lack of work being done to resolve Southern issues with the Tariff of 1832. Delegates of the Columbia Convention called for the tariff to be void in South Carolina, and threatened to pull the state out of the Union if the Federal Government made an attempt to collect on the Tariffs, stating that they would reciprocate any federal military attempts to collect.

The Committee on Public Information

The Committee on Public Information was originally created to rally public support of the war. The Committee on Public Information was lead by George Creel, whose job was to sell America on the war and to sell the world on Wilsonian War Goals.

Confederate Disadvantages in the Civil War: Slaves

The Confederacy had 4 million slaves, basically people that couldn't participate in the war. Well, they could, but the Confederates didn't want to acknowledge that the blacks could be a good force in the war.

Congressional Act of 1882

The Congressional Act of 1882 decreed that immigrants that were criminals or convicts must move back to their homeland. The Congressional Act of 1882 was the first restrictive law against immigrants.

Congressional Act of 1885

The Congressional Act of 1885 banned the importation of foreign workers under contract - most imported foreign workers were paid substandard wages. Literacy tests took place later, in 1917.

The Congressional Debate of 1850

The Congressional Debate of 1850 was called in order to address the admission of California into the Union as well as Southern threats to secede. The "Immortal Trio", Henry Clay, John Calhoun, and Daniel Webster spoke at the debate.

Southern States: Congressional Elects; Background Info

The Congressional Elects of Southern states were often former Confederate generals and colonels- this fact infuriated Republicans who didn't want to embrace their Confederate enemies in Congress.

Election of 1860: John Bell

The Constitutional Union Party's presidential candidate, John Bell, was for slavery now and forever.

Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC): Creation

The Consumer Product Safety Comission (CPSC) was created by President Nixon.

The Control of Commerce

The Control of Commerce was an issue that NEEDED to be touched on, so much so that the Convention of 1787 was eventually called by Alexander Hamilton.

Declaratory Act of 1766

The Declaratory Act of 1766 reaffirmed Parliament's right to bind the colonies in all cases whatsoever.

The Election of 1884: Democratic Candidate

The Democratic Candidate for the Election of 1884 was Grover Cleveland, who was a very honest and admirable man. The Democrats won the Election of 1884 through Grover Cleveland.

Election of 1896: Democratic Candidate

The Democratic Candidate for the Election of 1896 was William Jennings Bryan. William Jennings Bryan supported inflation through the unlimited coinage of silver, a good policy if you wish to gain the support of the populists

Encomienda System: Background Info & Economic Motive

The Encomienda System was a Spanish policy in which Spanish colonists received land with Natives living on it. The Encomienda System was an early form of Native slave labor, where they were used to mine silver or to farm sugar.

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA): Creation

The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) was created by President Nixon.

Esch-Cummins Transportation Act of 1920

The Esch-Cummins Transportation Act of 1920 returned the railroads to private management after the government took control during WW1. The ICC was pledged to guarantee their profitability.

The Espionage Act of 1917

The Espionage Act of 1917 worked to prevent public support of American enemies during wartime. The Espionage Act of 1917 prosecuted Socialist Eugene V. Debs and Industrial Union Leader William D. Haywood.

Federal Emergency Relief Administration (FERA)

The Federal Emergency Relief Administration (FERA) was created by the Federal Emergency Relief Act, Congress' first major attempt at dealing with massive American unemployment. The Federal Emergency Relief Administration gave states direct relief payments or money for wages on work projects.

The Gilded Age: The Role of "Community Bosses" Pertaining to Immigrants

The Federal Government did little to help immigrates assimilate into American society - community "bosses" took care of immigrants by providing jobs, houses, schools, parks, and hospitals. In return, immigrants would vote for the "boss" that favored them.

Post World War 2: Federal Housing Administration (FHA)

The Federal Housing Administration made home-loan guarantees to many white Americans that moved from the city to the newly created suburbs. These loans made it more economical to own a home in the suburbs rather than rent an apartment in the city.

Post World War 2: Federal Housing Administration (FHA) - Bias Against Blacks

The Federal Housing Administration often refused blacks home mortgages for private home purchases, thus limiting black mobility out of the inner cities - which emphasized the higher possibility for mobility out of cities for other races.

Foraker Act of 1900

The Foraker Act of 1900 gave Puerto Ricans a limited degree of Popular government. Puerto Ricans were granted U.S. Citizenship in 1917.

World War 2: Four Big Powers

The Four Big Powers were France, Britain, America, and the USSR.

Free Soil Party formed in 1848

The Free Soil Party wanted no slavery in the new land to the West, so that the land could be free to white male settlers. They weren't against Southern Slavery, just slavery in the new land under the Guadalupe-Hidalgo treaty.

The Free Soil Party

The Free Soil Party was a party created by antislavery men of the North that didn't trust Cass or Taylor, the 1848 electoral candidates. Members of the Free Soil Party ("Free Soilers") supported federal aid for internal improvements, and they further argued that allowing slavery would result in the renouncing of wage labor, and therefore the renouncing of the possibility for an American worker to own property.

Free Soil Party formed in 1848: Southern Issues

The Free Soil Party was considered an issue for Southern citizens. They believed that restricting the expansion of slavery was a violation of their Constitutional rights.

Free Speech Movement: Historical Significance

The Free Speech Movement was a reflection toward the 1960s negative attitude toward authority.

Free Speech Movement: Protest

The Free Speech Movement was one of the first organized protests against established authority, taking place at Berkeley in 1964. It was led by Mario Savio, who condemned the impersonal university "machine."

Le Grand Derangement ("The Great Displacement") (1755)

The French Canadians that were expelled from Acadia (Nova Scotia) by the British. They fled to French held Louisiana.

Impact of the French and Indian War on England

The French and Indian war used up a lot of England's money. This caused them to require to raise taxes from the colonies, much to the colonies' dismay. These taxes, overall, led to the American Revolution.

French frustration with Jay's Treaty

The French considered Jay's Treaty a flagrant defiance of the Anglo-American Peace Treaty of 1778. French frustration over Jay's Treaty in 1794 led to the French capturing American ships. To negotiate, President John Adams sent John Marshall, a future chief Justice.

The Fugitive Slave Act of 1850

The Fugitive Slave Act of 1850 resulted in sectional tension in the 1850s. The Fugitive Slave Act of 1850 turned the North into a hunting grounds for runaway slaves. Northerners that assisted runaway slaves could now be tried against the law, and slaves couldn't testify in court, they would be denied trial.

The Fugitive-Slave Law of 1850 ("The Bloodhound Bill")

The Fugitive-Slave Law of 1850, also known as "The Bloodhound Bill", stated that fleeing slaves could not testify on their own behalf, and that they would be denied a trial jury. Furthermore, Northerners that assisted runaway slaves would face jailtime. The Fugitive-Slave Law of 1850 was the only real gain of the Compromises by the South. Some historians argue that the Compromise of 1850 strengthened Northern desire to preserve the Union.

Gag Resolution

The Gag Resolution was a strict law passed by pro-Southern congressman in 1836 in order to curb any debate about slavery (particularly emancipation) whatsoever.

Gilded Age (1870-1915): The Negative Characteristics

The Gilded Age relied heavily on child labor. The Gilded Age also saw a high level of poverty due to the influx of the poor and unsafe working conditions. Furthermore, there were extremes of wealth and opportunity, as well as economic prejudice.

Northern Resistance to Slavery and the Fugitive Slave Act: Vigilance Committees

The Goal of Northern Vigilance Committees was to assist and protect fugitive slaves from slave catchers.

The Gold Standard Act of 1900

The Gold Standard Act of 1900 allowed for paper currency to be redeemed for gold.

The Effect of the Great Depression on the World

The Great Depression worsened the economic state in Europe, which was already reeling from World War 1.

The Great Rapprochement

The Great Rapprochement began after Britain recognized that they were already fighting numerous wars and that they probably couldn't sustain another with the U.S. The Great Rapprochement, aka the diplomatic reconciliation between the US and Britain, became a cornerstone of both nations' foreign policies.

Greenback Labor Party

The Greenback Labor Party sought to improve the working conditions of laborers and to return to the gold standard.

The Hatch Act of 1887

The Hatch Act of 1887 was an extension of the prior Morrill Act of 1862, and the Hatch Act of 1887 extended the Morrill Act and provided federal funds for the establishment of agricultural experiment stations in connection with the land-grant colleges.

Hay-Bunau Varilla Treaty (1903)

The Hay-Bunau Varilla Treaty was established by John Hay, and the Hay-Bunau Varilla Treaty of 1903 was an agreement between the US and the revolutionary Panamanian government that would allow the US to build a canal.

Home Owners' Loan Corporation (HOLC)

The Home Owners' Loan Corporation (HOLC) assisted many households that had trouble paying their mortgages.

The Homestead Act of 1862

The Homestead Act of 1862 allowed a settler to acquire as much as 160 acres of land by living on it for 5 years and paying a nominal fee of 30$. Instead of the land being sold for money, the land was now being given away for public benefit. Unfortunately, much of the land was horrible and didn't offer much precipitation - and many had to give their land back to the government.

The Homestead Act (1863): Timber land

The Homestead Act of 1863 also made it so that one could claim a quarter-section (160 acres) of "timber culture", which required that you have 10 acres of tree.

Hundred Days Congress/Emergency Congress (March - June 1933)

The Hundred Days Congress, also called the Emergency Congress, passed a series of laws to help improve the state of the country, such as the TVA.

Immigration Act of 1903

The Immigration Act of 1903 was an extensive codification of existing immigration law - in specific, the Immigration Act of 1903 added more to the list of inadmissible immigrants, restricted immigration of individuals with certain political tendencies (i.e. anarchists,) and extended the range for potential deportation for an immigrant to 3 years.

Immigration Act of February 5th, 1917

The Immigration Act of February 5th, 1917 excluded immigrants for mental health and other reasons, and the Immigration Act of 1917 also restricted the immigration of Asian persons, creating the "barred zone," and considerably broadened the classes of aliens deportable from the U.S.

Industrialization: Forces of Change - Inventions

The Industrial Revolution had a huge effect on farm labor with the invention of the mechanical tractor, chemical fertilizer, and railroads.

The Industrial Workers of the World (IWW)

The Industrial Workers of the World (IWW) had some of the worst working conditions in the country.

Interstate Commerce Commission (1887)

The Interstate Commerce Commission was established in 1887 by the Interstate Commerce Act. The Interstate Commerce Commission compelled railroads to standardize rates and outlaw rebates.

Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC)

The Interstate Commerce Commission was the first Federal regulatory board, meant to supervise railroad regulation.

The Atlantic Coast & Northeast Natives Prior to Columbus

The Iroquois, the Natives inhabiting the Atlantic Coast and the Northeast, lived in a mix of agricultural & hunter-gatherer society. The Iroquois were one of the first to establish permanent villages.

The Judicial Branch

The Judicial branch contained the Supreme courts and other courts, which served to shape how laws would be interpreted and whether or not laws were constituational.

Kansas-Nebraska Act: Affect on the Democratic Party

The Kansas-Nebraska Act was seen as a "blunder" on the part of Democrats, therefore, it damaged the party.

The Keating-Own Act of 1916

The Keating-Owen Act of 1916 made it illegal to sell or ship goods made by child labor across state lines - the purpose of the Keating-Owen Act was to curb child labor.

The Kitchen Cabinet

The Kitchen Cabinet, a collection of newspaper editors and writers that were occasionally invited to the White House by Jackson in order to figure out exactly what was going on "out there" in the nation. Public thought and ideals shaped Jacksonian decisions.

The Knights of Labor

The Knights of Labor took over after the National Labor Union died out in 1877. The Knights of Labor was led by Terence V. Powderly, initially beginning as a secret society that sought to include all workers while simultaneously campaigning for economic and social reform, including codes for safety and health, a far-fetched ideology at the time.

The Ku Klux Klan Act of 1871

The Ku Klux Klan Act was Congress' attempt to protect black citizens against illegal intimidation (such as violence from the KKK group) in cases where the state wouldn't or couldn't provide protection.

Ku Klux Klan ("Invisible Empire of the South")

The Ku Klux Klan was founded by disgruntled white Southerners in Tennessee in 1866. The disgruntled white Southerners were angered by the success of black legislators-- to succeed, the group utilized intimidation.

La Follette Seaman's Act of 1915

The La Follette Seaman's Act of 1915 improved working conditions for sailors, but economically hurt the American shipping industry because they now had a hard time competing with foreigners, who didn't have to treat their sailors well.

Great Basin & Great Plains Natives Prior to Columbus

The Lakota Sioux, the Natives inhabiting the Great Basin and the Great Plains, lived in an area that had a lack of natural resources. This lack led to the growth of a nomadic lifestyle and the importance of hunting buffalo.

The Navigation Laws

The Law required all goods flowing to and from the colony to be transported in British ships, aiming to hurt Dutch shippers. Until 1763, the Navigation Laws imposed no intolerable burden due to the loose enforcement of them. John Hancock, for example, made his fortune by smuggling goods.

Lecompton Constitution

The Lecompton Constitution was a bill passed by Kansas' pro-slavery government in which citizens couldn't vote to deny the Constitution, but could only vote as to whether or not the Constitution would pass with or without slavery.

The Legislative Branch

The Legislative branch makes laws and contains the senate (the House, Congress).

The Library of Congress (1897)

The Library of Congress opened in 1897 with the help of the invention of the Linotype in 1885.

The Maine Law of 1851

The Maine Law of 1851 banned the manufacture and sale of liquor in Maine, the first law of which may have played a role in the complete ban of the sale of all alcohol in the US in 1918 after the passing of the 18th amendment.

March on Washington (1963)

The March on Washington was an impressively large black civil rights rally numbering in at over 200,000. The March on Washington was also the staging place of MLK Jr's "I have a Dream" speech.

The Mayflower Compact

The Mayflower Compact was signed prior to Pilgrim arrival in Plymouth. The Mayflower Compact was an agreement that established a basic government based upon majority rule. The Mayflower Compact established the basis of self government.

McKinley Tariff of 1890

The McKinley Tariff of 1890 made Hawaiian sugar imports less profitable. As a result, American planters decided that the best way to overcome the tariff would be to annex Hawaii.

McNary-Haugen Bill (1925)

The McNary-Haugen Bill if 1925 sought to help farmers by keeping agricultural prices high, by allowing the government to purchase crop surpluses and sell them internationally. Coolidge vetoed the bill, because it would cost the government money.

Merchant Marine Act of 1920

The Merchant Marine Act of 1920 authorized the government to sell its wartime fleet of 1500 vessels at extremely low prices.

The Missouri Compromise (1820)

The Missouri Compromise admitted Missouri as a slave state and Maine as a free state. It also established a line (36, 30) that would serve to separate slave and free states.

Montgomery Bus Boycott (1955-1956)

The Montgomery Bus Boycott was a boycott in which blacks boycotted public transportation, particularly buses, in order to protest segregation in them, such as having to sit at the back of the bus.

The Morrill Act of 1862

The Morrill Act of 1862 granted public lands to the states in order to support education. This way, the state would not have to purchase private property in order to build schools. As a result of the Morrill Act of 1862, "Land-grant colleges" formed.

Muscle Shoals Bill

The Muscle Shoals Bill was designed to dam the Tennessee River and sell government-produced electricity in competition with citizens in private companies. Hoover vetoed this bill because he saw it as "socialistic."

National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA): Creation

The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) was created by President Eisenhower in response to the successful Soviet launches of Sputnik I and II.

National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA)

The National American Woman Suffrage Association, the larger majority of the suffrage movement, supported the war because it meant women would have more independence. The National American Woman Suffrage Association was far less radical that the NWP, which was led by Alice Paul.

National Endowments for the Arts and Humanities: Goal

The National Endowment of the Arts and Humanities was designed to raise the level of American cultural life.

National Grange of the Patrons of Husbandry [also known as the Grange] (1687)

The National Grange of the Patrons of Husbandry, Led by Oliver H. Kelley, sought to enhance the lives of isolated farmers through social, educational, and fraternal struggles. They also sought to improve the collectie trouble of farmers.

National Recovery Administration (NRA)

The National Recovery Administration (NRA) was a cornerstone agency for the New Deal. The National Recovery Administration was designed to bring industries together and create a set of "fair" business practices (to both workers and businesses). As a result, hours were reduced so more people could be hired, a minimum wage was established, and workers were given the right to organize.

The Election of 1828: Mudslinging

The National Republican Party started rumors noting Andrew Jackson (Democratic-Republican) as a home wrecker and murderer. In return, Democratic-Republicans spread the rumor that Quincy Adams was a pimp, and a frivolous spender.

National Security Council Memorandum Number 68 (NSC-68): Effect on American Foreign Policy

The National Security Council Memorandum Number 68 (NSC-68) was a key document in the Cold War because it marked a major step in the militarization of American foreign policy.

The National War Labor Board

The National War Labor Board attempted to fix labor disputes before the disputes hurt the war effort.

National Woman's Party (NWP)

The National Woman's Party, led by Alice Paul, protested World War 2. Alice was a radical supporter of woman's rights, and heavily pushed for support. The National Woman's Party was more radical than NAWSA.

Neutrality Acts of 1935, 1936, and 1937

The Neutrality Acts of 1935, 1936, and 1937 were Congress' attempts at keeping America out of war. The acts stated that certain restrictions would automatically go into effect when the President proclaimed the existence of a foreign war. In regards to countries involved in a war, regardless of being the victim or the aggressor, no American could legally sail on one of their ships, sell or transport munitions to them, or give them loans. America actually helped provoke the aggressors by not helping its Democratic friends, since it didn't deter them.

New Deal Legislation: Progressive Characteristics

The New Deal Legislation embraced progressive ideas such as unemployment insurance, old-age insurance, minimum-wage regulations, conservation and development of natural resources, and restrictions on child labor.

The Effect of the New Deal Programs on the Depression

The New Deal programs didn't end the depression, they merely provided temporary relief to citizens. Many economists eventually argued that not enough deficit spending was used. Despite the New Deal program's efforts, production still outpaced spending. The unemployment issue wasn't solved until World War 2.

New England Emigrant Aid Company

The New England Emigrant Aid Company, a group of abolitionists, took advantage of popular sovereignty paid people to move to Kansas and rouse support for the abolitionist cause. They didn't send any to Nebraska because it was so far North that nobody thought there was any likelihood that slavery would pass.

New England Colonies: The Massachusetts Bay Colony - Mixed Economy

The New England colonies were both agricultural and commercial. The weather was much cooler around the New England Colonies, so they didn't rely on cash crops.

The Gilded Age: The New Immigration's (1880-1890's) effect on Catholic Schools

The New Immigration in the 1880s and 1890's brought new strength to private Catholic schools, which started becoming a major part of the nation's educational structure.

Niagara Movement (1905)

The Niagara Movement in 1905 was when a group of blacks (including DuBois) got together and discussed the achievement of political rights such as the unrestricted right to voting, the ending of segregation, and achieving equality in economic opportunity.

Nixon Doctrine

The Nixon Doctrine mandated that the United States would honor its existing defense commitments. However, in the future, Asians and other countries would have to fight their own wars without the support of a large number of American troops.

Occupational Health and Safety Administration (OHSA): Creation

The Occupational Health and Safety Administration (OHSA) was created by President Nixon.

The Original FBI

The Original FBI was anti-Communist, anti-Socialist, and anti-terrorist.

The Painting "The Jolly Flatboatmen"

The Painting "The Jolly Flatboatmen" reflects the youthfulness and excitement in the American 1820s.

Panama Canal (1914)

The Panama Canal, finished in 1914, was meant to establish a faster route from the Atlantic to the Pacific and vice versa - rather than perhaps having to go all the way around South America. The canal cost $400,000,000 to build and was originally rejected by Colombians, but after the Panamanian Revolution, it was allowed.

The Panic of 1819

The Panic of 1819 was the first financial panic since Washington took office. The main cause was over-speculation, or high pricing, of frontier territories. The Bank of the United States was hated by farmers, because it foreclosed on many farms.

The Panic of 1893

The Panic of 1893 strengthened the Populists' stance that farmers and laborers were eing oppressed by the economic and political systems.

The Patriot Act

The Patriot Act gave the government more power to investigate and monitor citizens.

The Pendleton Act of 1883

The Pendleton Act of 1883 made mandatory campaign contributions from federal employees illegal, in order to get rid of the spoils system. The Pendleton Act of 1883 also established the Civil Service Commission to make appointments to federal jobs based on merit, rather than campaign contributions.

Pentagon Papers

The Pentagon Papers were a leaked, top-secret Pentagon study that documented the deceptions of the previous Presidential administrations in regards to the Vietnam War.

The People's Party (the Populists)

The People's Party (Populists) grew out of the Farmers' Alliance. Populists called for the nationalization of railroads, telephones, and telegraph, as well as institution a graduated income tax and creating a new federal subtreasury - in which harvested crops were stored until crop prices rose. Furthermore, Populists also wanted free and unlimited coinage of silver.

The Platt Amendment

The Platt Amendment was a Constitution that the US forced Cubans to write in 1901. Cubans hated the Platt Amendment because it was written to benefit Americans - the Constitution decreed that the US might intervene with troops in Cuba to restore order and provide mutual protection. Furthermore, it also declared that Cubans sell or lease needed coaling or naval stations to the US.

"Fourth Party System" 1896-1932

The Political Era from 1896 to 1932 was called the "Fourth Party System." This time period was characterized by low voter turnout, weakening of party organizations, and the fading of issues like civil-service reform. New political issues, like industrial regulation and the welfare of labor, came to rise.

Progressivism Overall

The Progressive movement began at the beginning of the 20th Century. The progressive movement sought to use the government to improve human welfare, and progressivists fought monopolies, corruption, inefficiency, and social justice.

Progressivism: Goals

The Progressive movement sought 2 primary goals - the first of which was to use state power to control trusts, and the other of which was to improve the common person's conditions of life and labor.

New England Colonies: The Plymouth Colony - The Protestant Reformation

The Protestant Reformation sparked dramatic changes in Europe and led to the rise of Puritanism in Europe, including England. Newfound Puritans now wanted to purify the Church, and these Puritans were harassed by the Monarchy.

The Public Contracts Act of 1936 (the Walsh Healey Act)

The Public Contracts Act of 1936, also known as the Walsh-Healey Act, established labor standards such as minimum wage, overtime pay, child and convict labor provisions, as well as safety standards on all federal labor contracts.

Public Works Administration (PWA)

The Public Works Administration was intended to provide long-term economic recovery. Headed by Harold L. Ickes, the Public Works Administration spent over $4 billion on thousands of projects, including public buildings, highways, and dams.

The Pueblo Revolt: Post-Revolt Results

The Pueblo Revolt of 1680 was a sign that Native people strove to maintain their political and cultural autonomy. When the Spaniards return in 1692, they realize that they need to recognize certain aspects of Native culture.

Southwest Natives Prior to Columbus

The Pueblo, Southwest natives, lived in arid land and relied on irrigation to grow maize & other agricultural products

Philadelphia Quakers 1775 Antislavery Society

The Quaker Antislavery Society was the first established society to challenge the trade of "black ivory," also known as slaves.

The Quartering Act of 1765

The Quartering Act required some colonies to provide food and quarters for British troops.

Quota Law of May 19th, 1921

The Quota Law of May 19th, 1921 was the first quantitative immigration law, and the Quota Law of May 19th, 1921 limited the number of aliens of any nationality entering the US to 3 percent of the foreign-born persons of that nationality who lived in the U.S. in 1910. Approximately 350,000 such aliens were permitted to enter each year as immigrants. It was revised under the Johnson Act in 1924.

The Reconstruction Act of 1867

The Reconstruction Act of 1876 allowed former slaves to participate in the political arena. So, African Americans sat in constitutional conventions, and assisted in the drafting of state Constitutions.

Woman's Suffrage Movement

The Reform era of 1800-1860 featured the Woman's Suffrage Movement, in which women pushed for the right to vote.

The Rendezvous system

The Rendezvous system was a system in which traders would transport themselves from St. Louis to a Rocky Mountain Valley, where they would set camp in wait of fur traders and Indians that would come to trade beaver pelts for Eastern manufactured goods.

The Election of 1884: Republican Candidate

The Republican Candidate for the Election of 1884 was James G. Blaine.

Election of 1896: Republican Candidate

The Republican Candidate for the Election of 1896 was William McKinley. He relied heavily on Marcus Alonzo Hanna, his campaign manager, to gain traction. Hanna felt that the government's job was to aid business and promote the "trickle down effect". During this era, Republicans believed in the Gold Standard.

The Election of 1880: Republican Candidate

The Republican Candidate for the electoral race of 1880 was James A. Garfield, member of the Half-Breed faction, and his VP was Chester A. Arthur, member of the Stalwart faction.

Election of 1940: Republican Platform

The Republican Platform for 1940 was the opposition of FDR's "dictatorship" and the inefficiencies of the New Del.

Schenck vs United States (1919)

The SCOTUS decision in Schenck vs United States (1919) declared that freedom of speech could be revoked if it meant that the safety of national security was in danger.

The Senate and the House of Representatives: Johnson's Judge and Jury

The Senate served as the court of which to try Johnson under impeachment charges, while the House of Representatives served as the case prosecutor.

Smith Act of 1940

The Smith Act of 1940 was the first peacetime anti-sedition law since 1798, and was meant to protect America for the duration of the Cold War.

The Three-Fifths Compromise

The South, clearly benefitting from this, said yes. The North argued that since slaves were not exactly citizens, they might as well argue that horses have voting rights. As a compromise between total representation and no representation at all, it was decided that a slave counted as "3/5ths of a person." In the end, most states wanted to shut off the African slave trade. South Carolina and Georgia however, required them for their agrarian society. In a compromise, the convention allowed the trade to continue until 1807, when Congress could outlaw it upon command, which they did.

The Tariff of 1828

The Tariff of 1828, also known as the "Black Tariff", "Tariff of Abominations", and "Yankee Tariff", it increased the tariff on manufactured goods. The South, being heavy consumers of manufactured goods and being a little provider of it, was outraged. Later, the Tariff of 1828 was used as a scapegoat by the South in an attempt to explain their economic struggle. The Tariff was proposed by Jackson and his supporters, who expected the bill to fail and thus hoped it would cause issues for John Quincy Adams, who also supported the bill. Unexpectedly to Jacksonites, the bill passed.

The Teller Amendment (1898)

The Teller Amendment of 1898 was adopted once President McKinley called for an American war with Spain. The Teller Amendment said that when the United States had beaten the Spanish, the Cubans would be free.

Tet Offensive (1968): Results

The Tet Offensive resulted in a military defeat for the Viet Cong, but it also resulted in the American public's demand for an immediate end to the war.

Tonkin Gulf Incident (1964)

The Tonkin Gulf Incident occurred when it was thought that the USS Maddox was attacked by 5 North Vietnamese gunboats in international waters. The USS Maddox only received one single machine gun hole. It was later found that the boats involved were actually all American, and they shot at each other.

Tonkin Gulf Resolution (1964): Content

The Tonkin Gulf Resolution would allow President Lyndon B. Johnson an unrestricted amount of force in dealing with Southeast Asia.

Trail of Tears

The Trail of Tears established its name due to the large number of Indians that died attempting to traverse it. The Indians had no choice, as they were made to abide by the Indian Removal Act of 1830.

The Trickle Down Effect

The Trickle Down Effect is an economic theory that laborers do well if the business does well.

The Twelfth Congress

The Twelfth Congress met in 1811. The Congressional "war hawks" wanted to go to war with the British, as well as eliminate the Natives as a threat to American pioneers.

Stock Market Crash (1929)

The U.S. stock market crashed in October 1929, partially triggered by the British who raised their interest rates in an effort to bring back capital lured abroad by American investments. The British needed more money, and were unable to trade with the U.S. due to high tariffs. On "Black Tuesday", aka October 29th, 1929, millions of stock were sold in a panic. Two months after the crash, stockholders had lost $40 billion.

US Termination of Lend Lease Act in 1945: Effect on Relations with Russia

The US terminated the USSR's much needed Lend-Lease Act in 1945 and also ignored Moscow's plea for a $6 billion reconstruction loan despite approving a similar $3.75 billion loan to Britain. As a result, the USSR wanted war reparations from Germany.

USSR: Desire to Create a Sphere of Influence

The USSR sought to guarantee its own security by creating a "sphere of influence" around it, aka a surrounding set of friendly countries.

Post World War 2: Soviet Attempts to get the Big Four out of Berlin

The USSR wanted Berlin to itself, so in 1948, the Soviet Union attempted to starve the allies out by blockading all rail and highway access points to the city. However, the blockade was lifted in 1949, after America had flown in many supplies.

USSR's Sphere of Influence: Contradiction with FDR's Point of View

The USSR's Sphere of Influence contradicted President FDR's Wilsonian dream of an "open world," which was decolonized, demilitarized, and democratized.

The Underground Railroad

The Underground Railroad was a network of anti-slavery homes that passed slaves from the slaves states to Canada, where they wouldn't have to worry about the issue of slavery.

Confederate Disadvantages in the Civil War: Anaconda Plan

The Union had a good plan in order to sectionalize the South and cut it up into pieces. With the Anaconda plan, it would break certain pieces of the South apart from each other, so they couldn't communicate or assist each other.

United Nations Conference (1945): Branches

The United Nations Conference included the Security Council, which was dominated by the Big Five Powers: U.S., Britain, USSR, France, and China - all of which had the right to veto.: The other branch of the Council was the General Assembly, which would be controlled by the smaller nations. Baruch's plan fell apart, as neither the United States nor the Soviet Union wanted to give up their nuclear weapons.

Post World War 2: Veterans Administration (VA)

The Veterans Administration made a home-loan guarantees to many white Americans that moved from the city to the newly created suburbs. These loans made it more economical to own a home in the suburbs rather than rent an apartment in the city.

Vietnamese War: Cost on America

The Vietnamese War was estimated to cost America $188 billion, with 56,000 dead and 300,000 wounded Americans. America had lost face in the eyes of foreigners, lost its own self-esteem, lost confidence in its military power, and lost much of its economic strength that had made possible its global leadership after World War 2.

Vietnamese War: End (1975)

The Vietnamese war ended in 1975, when the North Vietnamese invaded South Vietnam, and South Vietnam quickly fell.

Virginia: House of Burgesses

The Virginian House of Burgesses established in 1619 was a form of early representative government. Unfortunately, it was highly biased, and the House of Burgesses was dominated by plantation elite.

Voter Education : Goals

The Voter Education Project sought to register the South's historically disfranchised blacks.

Voting Rights Act of 1965

The Voting Rights Act, enacted in 1965, was a huge step for black civil freedom - the Voting Rights Act ended poll taxes, literacy tests, state interference, and other variables that would stop blacks and other unrepresented populations from voting.

Whigs

The Whigs were Conservatives that held progressive ideals, such as support for government programs, reform, as well as public schooling. The Whigs called for internal improvement, like canals, railroads, and telegraph lines. The Whigs claimed that they were the true symbols of the "common man", and that the Democratic Party was merely a corrupt sham. The Whigs later absorbed the Anti-Masonic Party, much to Democratic chagrin that may have lost them much-needed support. Anyways, the Whigs failed to win the election of 1836, as they refused to unite under one candidate.

The Wilmot Proviso (1846)

The Wilmot Proviso was created after a dispute over whether or not the new Mexican territory would join as a slave state or a free state. The Wilmot Proviso stated that any state conceived from the new territories would be free. It passed twice in the House, but failed to ever be passed in the Senate.

The Women's Christian Temperance Union

The Women's Christian Temperance Union was a strongly anti-alcoholic feminist group.

Zimmerman Note

The Zimmerman Note was a document that secretly proposed a Mexican-German alliance against the U.S.

Admiral Cervera: Destruction of his Fleet (1898)

The advancing American army caused Admiral Cervera's fleet to retreat from the Santiago harbor. Admiral Cervera's fleet was entirely destroyed in July of 1898.

The Clash of Federalists and Antifederalists: Antifederalists

The anti federalists, who vehemently opposed the stronger central government that would be seen in the Constitution, obviously disagreed with the aforementioned conventions to declare a Constitution without unanimous agreement. Anti federalists were mostly states' rights devotees, back country dwellers, and one-horse farmers, debtors, and "paper-moneyites." In general, the poorest classes. Some prominent anti federalists were Samuel Adams, Patrick Henry, and Richard Henry Lee.

The "Whig View of History"

The assumption that the Revolution was just another chapter in the unfolding story of human liberty - an important way station on a divinely ordained pathway toward moral perfection in human affairs.

The Invention of the Automobile circa 1920s

The automobile redefined America, especially once they became affordable. Development of secondary industries ramped up - repairs, infrastructure, road building, etc - and some used automobiles as a way to escape the older well-knit family life where the children have very little privacy.

The Financial Panic of 1837

The basic cause of the Financial Panic of 1837 was the over speculation of who banks could trust to pay back loans and, inversely, who banks couldn't trust to pay back loans. This over speculation, compounded with Jackson's Specie Circular and the death of the Bank of the United States, as well as the failure of wheat crops, played a major role in the Financial Panic of 1837. Additionally, the 1836 failure of two major British banks caused financial tremors that forced British investors to start collecting on their loans. The Financial Panic of 1837 was the beginning of a 4 year recession starting in 1837 and ending in 1841.

The Beginning of the 1920s: General Overview

The beginning of the 1920s had Americans with some of the best quality of life in the contemporary world - electricity, running water, washers, etc, became commonplace. People took out loans to invest in the booming markets.

Benefits of public education

The benefits of public education became more pronounced. It would serve to instill Republican values, as well as general values such as hard work and discipline, and would serve to Americanize immigrants.

Collapse of Nationalist China: Effect on Democratic Countries

The collapse of Nationalist China was a depressing loss for America and its allies in the Cold war, as it meant that 1/4th of the world's population now fell to Communism.

English Colonies: Roanoke

The colony of Roanoke, established in 1857 under Sir Walter Raleigh, was one of England's first attempts at colonization, and it was a major failure. After establishment, Sir Walter Raleigh left, and once he returned, the settlement was deserted with no indication as to what happened or where the settlers went. Roanoke became known as the Lost Colony.

Conservative Triumph after Constitutional Ratification

The conservative minority had, after Constitutional ratification, triumphed twice. Only about 1/4ths of adult white males had taken part in the voting of delegates, mostly propertied and categorically wealthier people-- a sect of the population that favored the conservatives.

End of 1937-1938 Recession

The demand for war goods helped end the recession of 1937-1938, ending the decade-long unemployment crisis.

The Exodus of British Loyalists from the States circa 1780

The exodus of British Loyalists in 1780 removed conservative ballast from the states. With conservatives no longer being a primary political party, it left a hole open for Patriot elites and egalitarian (equal rights for all) ideals.

The Gilded Age: Agricultural Unprotected World Market

The farmers during the Gilded Age sold their produce in an unprotected world market, but they had to buy their manufactured equipment in a tariff-protected home market.

The Clash of Federalists and Antifederalists: Federalists

The federalists, who obviously supported a stronger central government, pushed for the aforementioned conventions to declare a Constitution without unanimous agreement. Federalists had power and influence on their side, with figures such as George Washington and Benjamin Franklin backing them. Overall, the federalists were wealthier, more organized, and more educated than the anti federalists.

The Union's Military Plan: 5th Component

The fifth component of the Union's military plan was to capture the Confederate capital at Richmond, Virginia.

Chinese History in America: First Stages

The first Chinese arrived in Spanish America in 1565. However, those were an extremely small minority.

Hawaii: Religious Missionaries

The first New England missionaries reached Hawaii in 1820.

Early Environmentalists: Government Recognition

The first celebration of Earth day, on April 22nd, 1970, marked the political maturation of early environmentalism. 1970 also saw the creation of the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), followed by the Endangered Species Act, and other legislation designed to regulate human-nature relations.

The 14th Amendment: First Component

The first component of the 14th amendment gave civil rights, including citizenship, to freedmen.

The Union's Military Plan: 1st Component

The first component of the Union's military plan was to slowly suffocate the South by blockading its coasts- thus limiting imports and exports, as well as foreign resources.

The Sugar Act of 1764

The first law ever passed by the Parliament to raise tax revenue in the colonies for the crown.

Abigail Adams Chides

The first sign of revolution for women - Chides voiced herself in a letter to her husband, and showed a limited application of concepts relevant to liberty and equality.

The Clash of Federalists and Antifederalists: General Information

The framing fathers, foreseeing the issue of unanimous ratification, stipulated that when nine states issued their approval in specially elected conventions, the Constitution would become the law of the land.

Whig response to the Financial Panic of 1837

The general Whig response to the Financial Panic of 1837 was to expand bank credit, impose higher tariffs, and allow subsidies for internal improvements. Van Buren, however, shackled by traditional Jacksonian policy that gave him no right to be meddling in economic affairs, did nothing with the Whigs' suggestions. Instead, he proposed the Divorce Plan.

24th Amendment(1964): Goal

The goal of the 24th Amendment was to expand the minority ability to vote. By getting rid of this economic roadblock (poll tax), more minorities had the ability to vote.

New England Colonies: The Massachusetts Bay Colony - Goals

The goal of the Puritan Massachusetts Bay Colony was to build a holy society that would serve as a model for the rest of the world.

The Black Codes: Goals

The goals of The Black Codes were to ensure a stable and subservient labor force.

William Henry Harrison

The governor of the Indiana territory, he defeated the Shawnee at the Battle of Tippecanoe. He doubled as a general.

The Creation of the Freedmen's Bureau (1865): Success

The greatest success of the Freedmen's Bureau was teaching blacks to read.

The Greatest Weakness of Organized Labor in the Industrial Era

The greatest weakness of organized labor in the industrial era was that the concept of organized labor was only accepted by a small minority of working people.

Utopian Ideals: Guiding Principles

The guiding principles of Utopian ideaology was the perfectibility of mankind's soul, hard work, and the "lost" causes of reform within the existing Democratic framework.

James A. Garfield: Political Assassination Implications

The implications of James A. Garfields' assassination was that when Vice-President Chester A. Arthur came into office, he would replace Republican Half-Breed employees with his own Stalwart employees.

Effect of Military Spending on America: Technology

The increased military budget helped start high technology industries such as aerospace, plastics, and electronics. Low cost petroleum from the Middle East further caused America to significantly increase its energy consumption.

The Invention of the Radio Circa 1920s

The invention of the radio connected America socially and created a demand for electricity. It also created a reflection of wealth (or lack thereof) that would make families self-aware of their fiscal status.

James Monroe

The last Federalist president, he served from 1816-1824 and issued notable things such as the Monroe doctrine, which decreed that Europe was no longer allowed to create North American colonies, but that any current colonies were allowed to continue their business. Monroe was a Democratic Republican.

The Middle Colonies: Economic tendencies

The middle colonies are economically "breadbasket", producing food (particularly wheat and corn), but they also engage in trade and some other things.

The Middle Colonies: Breadbasket Colonies

The middle colonies, also called the "Breadbasket colonies", farmed a lot of the food that the colonies would end up eating

Congress' Reconstruction Act: Moderate Republican Goals

The moderate Republican goal was to create Southern voters that would vote their states back into the Union, thus freeing Federal powers from having to directly spend resources to guarantee protection of black rights.

"Phony War"

The months after the fall of Poland was known as the "Phony War" because although France and Britain declared war on Germany, they hadn't became militarily involved

Nationalism in the early 1800s

The most impressive byproduct of the War of 1812 was American Nationalism. Both the Army and the Navy were expanded, and the Bank of the United States was revived. The presiding President was James Madison.

Lee's Resolution (July 2, 1776)

The motion that the colonies are free and independent from England. Finally passed in 1776, it was the formal declaration of independence from the American colonies.

Motivation for the European Push into the New World

The motives can be summed up under 3 "G's" - Gold, Glory, and God. Europeans desired new sources of wealth through trade with Asia, power and status, and also wanted to convert the Native population to Christianity.

The National Prohibition Party

The name is self-explanatory. Some favorite songs of the National Prohibition Party Members would be, "I'll Marry No Man if he Moves".

National Security Council Memorandum Number 68 (NSC-68)

The national Security Council Memorandum Number 68 was a document created by the National Security Council that outlined America's national security strategy - it called for quadrupling military spending and using the Containment policy in regards to the Soviet Union.

Election of 1948: Progressive Party

The new Progressive Party nominated Henry A. Wallace.

Plessy v. Ferguson (1896): New Doctrine

The new doctrine after Plessy v. Ferguson in 1896 was "separate but equal" - because forcing integration and abandoning the prior infrastructure that focused solely on serving a certain race would be an unnecessary burden on that infrastructure (ie. railroads, hotels, hospitals, and schools.)

Chinese History in America: Second Stages

The next major time that the Chinese arrived in North America was at the height of the Californian gold rush in 1848- it signaled a crumbling of the wealthy Chinese government, as people were now flocking to foreign countries in order to gain wealth.

Election of 1924: Nominees

The nominees for the Election of 1924 were John W. Davis (Democrat), Calvin Coolidge (Republican), and La Follette (Progressive)

The Non-intercourse Act of 1809

The non-intercourse act of 1809 lifted all embargoes on American shipping except for those bound for British or French ports. In essence, it was a repeal of the Embargo Act of 1807, leaving embargoes only with the British and the French. The bill failed because Jefferson didn't fully recognize how dependent on British and French trade the American economy actually was. Jefferson, after the failure, finally realized that the industry of manufacture is necessary to Americas independence, as well as its comfort.

Civic Virtue

The notion that democracy depended on the unselfish commitment of each citizen to the public good. It was a central ideal for Republicans.

Bacon's Rebellion (1676): Results on labor forces

The occurrence of Bacon's Rebellion led to the transition to African Chattel (property) Slave Labor. Under modern analysis, Bacon's Rebellion demonstrates colonial societal tension between social classes (poor vs wealthy) and regions (backcountry vs east).

The Constitutional Union Party: Platform

The platform of the Constitutional Union party was conservative Whigs that sought to avoid secession over the issue of slavery.

Population Boom in America (1789-1800)

The population of the nation was growing at an immense rate, about double per 25 years, but 90% of the population was still rural.

The Purpose of Social Security

The purpose of social security was to provide support for urbanized Americans who couldn't support themselves with a farm. In the past, Americans could sustain themselves by growing food on their farm. Now, they relied solely on their job. Without their job, they couldn't eat.

The Creation of the Freedmen's Bureau (1865): Purpose

The purpose of the Freedmen's bureau was to take care of freedmen (particularly black slaves), since they often had no skills, property, money, or knowledge as to how the free world worked.

The Chinese Exclusion Act (1882): Reasoning

The reason that the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 was passed because of American (white) fear that a significant Chinese population would end up undermining Whites.

Results of the Volstead Act

The resulting effects of the Volstead Act had a reverse impact: crime soared and government taxation dropped dramatically.

Animism

The resulting social evolution from the disappearance of the Bering Strait can be seen in Animism. Aminism was the Native belief that non-human things (plants, animals) possess a spiritual essence.

The Union's Military Plan: 2nd Component

The second component of the Union's military plan was to liberate the slaves, thus allowing a large Southern population to rise up against their captors. By virtue of freeing the slaves, the Union additionally wanted to undermine the economic foundation of the South.

The Union's Military Plan: 6th Component

The sixth component of the Union's military plan was simple - try to engage the enemy everywhere and grind them into submission. Here, the Union's attempt to use their size-advantage over the Confederacy is most visible.

The Gilded Age: Speed of Harvesting Crops

The speed of harvesting crops exponentially increased with the invention of the twine binder and the combine. Some argued that farms were becoming "outdoor grain factories" due to the increasing mechanization of the process.

Sputnik I & Sputnik II: Political Consequences of their Launch

The successful launches of the two satellites gave credibility to Soviet claims that superior industrial production is achieved through Communism.

The "Spoils System"

The system of rewarding political supporters and campaign contributors with government jobs, as seen when Jackson became President, became known as the "Spoils System".

Archibald Cox: Tapes

The tapes that Archibald Cox subpoenaed ended up revealing talk about the Watergate Scandal. As such, Nixon refused to give the tapes to Congress, and had to be forced by the SCOTUS in July of 1974 to pass the tapes along.

The 14th Amendment: Third component

The third component of the 14th amendment denied former federal Confederates from office, since they once must have sworn to support the Constitution of the United States. Having seceded, they clearly violated their pledge.

The Union's Military Plan: 3rd Component

The third component of the Union's military plan was to cut the Confederacy in half by seizing the Mississippi river. In theory, once seized, the two halves could no longer work in unison.

Jackson's use of the veto

The veto becomes an enormously important characteristic of Jackson's presidency, because he manipulates public opinion in order to figure out what the public approval and disapproval of certain bills would be. This was so that he didn't garner any disapproval from his supporters.

Election of 1924: Victor

The victor of the Election of 1924 was Republican nominee Calvin Coolidge.

Symbolic meaning of Sumner-Butler Clash

The violence that occurred after Sumner's provoking speech gave reality to just how passionate Northerners and Southerners were on the topic of slavery.

The Wealthy's Motto: "Survival of the Fittest"

The wealthy individuals of industrial America used the concept of "survival of the fittest" in order to explain why they were financially successful and why poor people were financially unsuccessful.

Social Classes Post-Revolution

The whole economic and social atmosphere was unhealthy. A newly rich class of profiteers was noisily conspicuous, whereas many once-wealthy people were left destitute. The revolutionary war left a bad sense for taxes and law in Americans.

Bacon's Rebellion (1676): Background Information

There was a growing frustration in Virginia with a lack of land, and the governor of the Virginian colony, Governor Berkeley, didn't allow land hungry settlers to move too far out west. Furthermore, there was a frustration over the lack of political power, as the House of Burgesses was dominated by the plantation elite. Finally, the indentured servants and colonists in Jamestown wanted the government to do something about Native attacks, and the government did nothing.

Different types of colonies

There were a few different types of colonies. For example, there was the Joint Stock Company (also referred to as Corporate colonies), where stockholders invest in a company and share the potential profits/losses of the colony (ie. the Virginia colony), there was Proprietorship, where land was given by the King to an individual or group, and finally there was the Royal colony, where the colony was paid for and directly ruled by the Monarchy.

Thomas MacDonough

Thomas MacDonough was an American naval officer who forced the invading British army near Plattsburgh to retreat in 1814. He saved upper New York from British conquest.

Thurgood Marshall

Thurgood Marshall, the only black Justice during the time of University of California vs Bakke in 1978, warned that the denial of racial preferences might erase the progress gained by the civil rights movement.

President Hoover: Convincing Congress to fund "Public Works"

To battle the Depression, President Hoover convinced Congress to allocate $2.25 billion for useful public works, such as the Hoover Dam.

President Carter's Attempt to get America off Foreign Oil

To reduce America's costly dependence on foreign oil, Carter called for legislation to improve energy conservation - which didn't receive much support.

Virginia: Colonial life

Tobacco provided a "cash crop" to the Virginian colony and led to the rise of plantation systems due to the necessity of a cheap labor supply. In the early years, indentured servants (people that worked for a period of time in exchange for passage to the colony) worked as the labor force.

Barter

Trading goods and services for other goods and services without using money

The Transcendentalist Movement: Associated Traits

Traits associated with the Transcendentalist Movement are: self-reliance, self-culture, and self-discipline.

The Constitution in the eye of Twentieth Century Historians

Twentieth Century Historians began believing that the original Constitution was an instrument constructed by elite conservatives to wrest political power away from the common people. For some historians, the Constitution was part of the Revolutionary struggle between the lower classes (small farmers, laborers) and the upper classes (merchants, manufacturers).

Political parties prior to the Election of 1824

Two parties had risen to the top: National Republicans ("Republicans") and Democratic-Republicans ("Democrats", "Jeffersonians"). John Quincy Adams and Henry Clay were the higher figures of the National Republicans, while Andrew Jackson was the individual of choice for the Democratic-Republicans.

John C. Fremont: Electoral Platform

Unfortunately, Fremont reintroduced anti-Catholicism as well as a multitude of things that the Republican party had earlier redacted.

Southern dissent over Fugitive-Slave Laws

Unhappy with the contemporary Fugitive-Slave laws, around 1850 Southerners began demanding stricter policies, as the original fugitive-slave law passed in 1793 by Congress was very weak.

General A.E. Burnside

Union General A.E. Burnside was the wing-man of President Abraham Lincoln after he replaced McClellan as commander of the Army of the Potomac. General A.E. Burnside was replaced by Joseph Hooker after A.E. Burnside suffered a massive defeat at Fredericksburg, Virginia at the end of 1862.

Unitarianism

Unitarianism is a spinoff from the less extreme Puritanism of the past. In this version, humans have free will and the possibility of salvation by virtue of good works. This religion challenged traditional Calvinists views, where everyone is predestined to go to Heaven or Hell.

General Colonization: Exploits of the Spanish, French, Portuguese, and Dutch

Unlike English Colonists, the Spanish, French, and Dutch are going to attempt to exploit new world resources as well as form more complex relationships with the Natives. Spain and Portugal would form colonies that used Native and African slave labor in agriculture and mining.

Another Chesapeake Colony: Maryland - Background Information

Unlike Virginia, which began as a Joint Stock Company charter, Maryland was under the proprietorship of Lord Baltimore after being given the land by the monarchy.

"Boss" Tweed

"Boss" Tweed was the head of Tammany Hall, which was NYC's most powerful Democratic political machine in 1868. Between 1868 and 1869, "Boss" Tweed lead the "Tweed Reign", which was a group of corrupt Politicians that were defrauding the city. For example, they constructed the NY courthouse, which costed $3 million, but taxpayers paid $13 million.

The battle hymn "Dixie"

"Dixie", a battle hymn, was the battle hymn of the Confederates and was written in 1859.

"General" Jacob S. Coxey

"General" Jacob S. Coxey led a protest in Washington in 1894, where he demanded that the government start a public works program.

Jayhawks

"Jayhawk" was the term for those that followed John Brown into Pottawatomie Creek and helped him massacre pro-slavery individuals during Bleeding Kansas.

Post World War 2: White Flight

"White Flight", the scare of racial mixing within neighborhoods, left post-world war 2 inner cities poverty stricken because whites moved to the suburbs. Meanwhile, migrating Southern blacks moed into the abandoned inner cities.

"The Verdict of the People"

-Almost every person in it is a male -Shows a characteristic in Jacksonian Democracy in which they serve alcohol

Key values of 1920s Modernism

1920s Modernism was the "rebellion" against the earlier Victorian super-conservative era. For example, women were now showing a lot of skin, whereas in the Victorian era, even wrists and ankles were looked down upon. Furthermore, women were being a lot ore "open", dances were more free-flowing and joyful, whereas Victorian dancing was more formal and "planned."

Providence, Rhode Island

A colony established by Roger Williams after he was banished from the Massachusetts Bay Colony, it was the first colony to embrace complete religious freedom.

Protectorate vs Commonwealth

A commonwealth is an alliance of states, while a protectorate is typically one autonomous territory.

President FDR's Appointment of Justices

A series of deaths and resignation of justices allowed President FDR to appoint 9 justices.

Divided America

America was being increasingly divided between Republicans and Federalists. Regardless, after the 1800s, the federalist party died out.

Andrew Johnson: Background Information

Andrew Johnson was a Southerner, and he was the Vice President at the time of Abraham Lincoln's assassination in 1865.

President FDR: Withdrawal from Asia

Circa 1930s, continuing the U.S.'s isolationist policies, President Roosevelt withdrew from Asia.

The American Legion (1919)

Created in 1919 by Colonel Theodore Roosevelt, Jr, the American Legion was a support/social group for veterans. In 1924, the American Legion convinced Congress to pass the adjusted Compensation Act, which gave former soldiers a sum of money dependent on their years of service.

Eli Whitney

Eli Whitney was the inventor of the cotton gin in 1794.

Fascism

Fascism is an extremely authoritarian and nationalistic type of government.

Hessians

German soldiers employed by the British

Linotype (1885)

Invented in 1885, the Linotype drastically increased the production of newspapers and other types of paper distribution.

Lillian Wald

Lillian Wald established the Henry Street Settlement in 1893.

The Compromise of 1850: Abraham Lincoln's Response

Lincoln, like many Northern Whigs, realizes that slavery is becoming a huge issue. However, he wasn't like normal Whigs who were neutral not outwardly anti-slave.

Mercantilism

Mercantilism was the primary economic ideal that fueled colonization. Mercantilism is the theory that colonies exist purely to enrich the Mother country in the form of cheap raw materials and/or gold and silver.

Effect of Military Spending on America: Background Information

Military spending helped sustain economic growth.

Another Chesapeake Colony: Maryland - Economic tendencies

Much like Virginia, tobacco plantations were also a huge thing in Maryland. However, unlike Virginians, Maryland colonists were also there for religious reasons.

Muckrakers

Muckrakers were reform-minded journalists who wrote magazine articles that exposed corruption and scandal - particularly about trusts and politicians. The term "Muckrakers" was coined by President Roosevelt.

New Orleans

New Orleans was an area where free blacks often settled.

New Zion

New Zion, a Mormon city founded by (Joseph Smith's replacement) Brigham Young and his Mormon followers in Utah, was very cooperative and prosperous. Their settlements increased by birthrate and immigrants from abroad (Missionary).

Automation Replacing Jobs in the Industrial Revolution

New machines and industrial inventions displaced employees and put some out of work, but overall, more jobs were created than destroyed.

Ngo Dinh Diem

Ngo Dinh Diem was the leader of the pro-Western southern Vietnamese government after it was divided up due to the battle of Bien Dien Phu in 1954.

Nikita Khrushchev

Nikita Khrushchev was Stalin's replacement after his death. Khrushchev turned down Eisenhower's attempt to make peace at the Geneva Summit Conference in 1955.

Southern Colonies; North Carolina

North Carolina is different from South Carolina in that it was mainly composed of small-time Tobacco farmers and therefore relied less on slavery.

Divison of Whig votes: Northern Whigs

Northern Whigs hated the Whig Party's platform (support of the Fugitive-Slave Law), but accepted its candidate, Winfield Scott.

The Gilded Age: Anti-Immigrant Fervor

Not all Americans were happy with immigrants- often times, Americans saw immigration as contemporary Americans being slowly overshadowed by the exponentially increasing immigrant population.

Havana Conference of 1940

Occurring in 1940, the Havana Conference was a conference at which the United States agreed to protect Latin America from German aggression, which was an extension of the Monroe Doctrine.

U.S' Declaration of War (December 8th, 1941)

On December 8th, 1941, one day after the attack on Pearl Harbor, the U.S. declared war on Japan.

Other Monopolistic Trusts in Industrial America

Other trusts came about in America, such as the sugar trust, the tobacco trust, the leather trust, and the harvester trust.

Bering Strait

Over 10,000 years prior to Columbus' arrival, people came to the Americas via the Bering Strait.

Main causes of the Great Depression: Credit

Over-expansion of credit also contributed to the Great Depression.

Justice Owen J. Roberts

Owen J. Roberts began supporting New Deal legislation, even though he was seen as a conservative.

The Gilded Age: Piecemeal Wages

Paid out during the Gilded Age, piecemeal wages were wages that were decided by hourly productivity - how much you earned was dependent on how much you produced.

Urban Stress on Marriage

Paradoxically, the urbanized cities were emotionally isolating places. Urban families had to go at it alone, without access to friend or family.

Housing Act of 1949

Passed by Congress in 1949 as part of the "Fair Deal" programs, the Housing Act of 1949 created public housing.

Tydings-McDuffie Act (1934)

Passed in 1934, the Tydings-McDuffie Act provided independence to the Philippines by 1946, because the U.S. didn't want to have to support the Philippines if Japan attacked it.

Civil Rights Act of 1964

Passed in 1964, the Civil Rights Act of 1964 gave the Federal government more power to enforce school-desegregation orders and to prohibit racial discrimination in public accommodations and employment.

Clean Air Act of 1970

Passed in 1970, the Clean Air Act aimed at protecting and preserving the environment.

Wilson's Fourteen Points Address to Congress

President Wilson's Fourteen Points Address stated that America was fighting for a moral cause and that America called for a post-war Europe. The Address gave Wilson a role as the moral leadership of the Allies.

Evangelical Preaching: Role in the reform era

Primarily Protestant Evangelical Preaching, it united some of the population socially and religiously.

Election of 1924: Democrats

Prior to the election of 1924, Democrats were very regimented. They eventually chose John W. Davis.

Force Acts of 1870 and 1871 (the Enforcement Acts of 1870)

Reactionary bills by Congress, the Force Acts of 1870 and 1871 enabled the President to send Federal troops to stop the atrocities and murders the Klan had committed. However, the Force Acts came too late, as the Klan had already succeeded in intimidating a large chunk of blacks.

Reagan's Cabinet: Political Makeup

Reagan assembled a Conservative Cabinet when he took office.

"Reaganomics"

Reaganomics was the belief that "supply-side economics" (reduction of taxes) would stimulate new investment, boost productivity, promote dramatic economic growth, and reduce the federal deficit.

Rebates/Drawbacks

Rebates and drawbacks, competitive practices that were meant to make companies competitive with each other, were declared unlawful.

The Formation of the Republican Party (1854): Political Platform

Republicans believed that the idea of slavery was immoral. As such, the Republican Party included Whigs, Democrats, Free-Soilers, Know-Nothings and other Kansas-Nebraska Act foes.

Opposition to Social Security

Republicans opposed Social Security.

"Preventive Intervention"

Roosevelt feared that the Latin American debt to European countries would allow for future European involvement in Latin America, so he created a policy called "Preventive Intervention", spawning the Roosevelt Corollary, which declared that the U.S. could pay off the Latin American countries' debts to keep European nations out of Latin America.

The Purchase of Alaska: Russia's willingness to sell

Russia sold Alaska to the US because it felt it was over expanded in North America-- its borders were drawn too wide. Additionally, Russia had an underlying desire to strengthen America as a barrier against its contemporary enemy, Britain.

Ruth Benedict

Ruth Benedict was a leading female scientist that made strides in the field of anthropology.

Secretary of State Hull: Tariff Pact Negotiation

Secretary of State Hull succeeded in negotiating pacts with 21 countries by the end of 1939 to mutually decrease tariffs. These agreements dramatically increased U.S. foreign trade.

Poorer Western American Districts

Seeking to embolden themselves, poorer western American districts pushed for the capitals of states to be moved westward. Being successful, it made American conservatives uneasy.

Opponents to FDR's Policies: Senator Huey P. Long

Senator Huey P. Long was an opponent to FDR's policies. Senator Long publicized his "Share Our Wealth" program, in which every family in the United States would receive $5,000.

Utopian Communities

Several Utopian communities were established in the early 1800s, but all of them eventually failed.

Catherine Van Cortlandt

She wrote a letter to her husband about rebel troops that were quartered in her home, stating that, "They were the most disorderly of species." This sense of superiority was common with loyalists.

Senator Charles Sumner

Shortly after Bleeding Kansas began in 1856, Senator Charles Sumner (a strict abolitionist) gave a provoking speech that condemned pro-slavery men. During his speech, Senator Charles Sumner additionally insulted South Carolinian Senator Andrew Butler.

Admiral Cervera: Background Information

Shortly after the outbreak of the war, the Spanish government sent a fleet of warships to Cuba, led by Admiral Cervera. Admiral Cervera was blockaded in the Santiago harbor in Cuba by American ships.

Warsaw Pact (1955)

Signed by Eastern European countries and the USSR in 1955, the Warsaw Pact was a Communist military union to counteract NATO.

Helsinki Accords (1975)

Signed by President Ford in 1975, the Helsinki Accords recognized Soviet boundaries and helped to ease tensions between the two nations.

Social Darwinism

Social Darwinism was the belief that the industrial age was a form of "natural selection", aka Darwinism, and that it shouldn't be messed with.

Sojourner Truth (1797-1883)

Sojourner Truth was a free black woman that fought for black emancipation as well as women's rights. Sojourner Truth wrote "Ain't I a Woman" at a women's rights convention in Akron, Ohio. "Ain't I a Woman" was a speech that encapsulated its audience.

Grange Laws

Some "Grangers" (members of the National Grange of the Patrons of Husbandry) entered politics and created Grange Laws, which were laws that tried to force the public control of private business for the general welfare. Grangers started disappearing once courts reversed their laws.

Bunker Hill

Some 3,000 British soldiers advanced in a frontal assault against roughly 1,500 continentals strongly entrenched at the top of the hill - it was a slaughter until the Americans had to withdraw due to lack of gunpowder.

"New Frontier" Plans: Political Response

Southern Democrats and Republicans despised the President's "New Frontier" plans.

Election of 1948: Southern Democrats

Southern Democrats decided not to nominate Truman because he supported civil rights for blacks, so they instead nominated Governor J. Strom Thurmond.

Division of Whig Votes: Southern Whigs

Southern Whigs hated the candidate (Winfield Scott) because they distrusted his support for the Fugitive-Slave Law, but inversely to the Northern Whigs, the Southern Whigs supported the Whig Party platform, which was support of the Fugitive-Slave law.

Speakeasies

Speakeasies were secret clubs that (likely) used to be bars are saloons, and are now "underground" businesses that sell (then illegal) alcohol. Speakeasies got the name because of the need to whisper or "speak easy" about the existence of them. Prior to getting access inside, one must know the secret password or handshake.

Spiro Agnew

Spiro Agnew was the then-Vice Presidential candidate, but he had to resign after it was found that he had been taking bribes.

Thaddeus Stevens

Thaddeus Stevens was the leader of Radical Republicans in Congress.

Election of 1856: Know-Nothing Presidential nominee

The "American Party" (the Know-Nothing Party) elect Millard Fillmore as their Presidential candidate.

"Black Belt"

The "Black Belt" was an area under which slaves were most concentrated; the territory stretched from South Carolina and Georgia into Alabama, Mississippi, and Louisiana.

"Bretton Woods" System of International Currency

The "Bretton Woods" System of International Currency was a system of international currency stabilization, which was the agreement that each country would tie its monetary exchange rate to gold.

"Gentleman's Agreement" 1907

The "Gentleman's Agreement" of 1907 limited Japanese immigration into America, for the same reason as the Chinese-Exclusion Act of 1882 - Americans (whites) feared that a significant Japanese population would end up undermining Whites.

The "Gentlemen's Agreement"

The "Gentlemen's Agreement" was established after Roosevelt stepped in post-San Francisco segregation and persuaded Californians to repeal the segregation. Afterwards, the Japanese agreed to stop the flow of immigrant to the US - a deal known as the "Gentlemen's Agreement."

The Republican Party: The "Half-Breed" Faction

The "Half-Bleed" Faction was a faction of the Republican party that paid lip service to government reform while still battling for patronage and reforms.

The "Intolerable Acts" of 1774

The "Intolerable Acts" of 1774 were Acts that were meant to punish the people of Massachusetts for the Boston Tea Party. They limited the rights of colonial citizens, placed restrictions on town meetings, and stipulated that British officers accused of killing citizens would be tried in a British court, where, assumedly, they would be acquitted.

"Phony War": The End

The "Phony War" ended when Germany took over Denmark, Norway, the Netherlands, and Belgium. France fell later, in June 1940.

"Rough Riders"

The "Rough Riders," was a regiment of American volunteers commanded by Colonel Leonard Wood and organized by Theodore Roosevelt

The Republican Party: The "Stalwart" Faction

The "Stalwart" Faction was a faction of the Republican party that opposed all attempts at civil-service reform.

The 14th Amendment: Background Information

The 14th Amendment was originally passed by Congress in 1866 out of fear that Southerners may some day attempt to repeal the Civil Rights Bill of 1866. All Republicans agreed that a state should not be readmitted into the Union unless it ratifies the 14th Amendment.

The Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854: Political Results

The 1854 Kansas-Nebraska Act causes a political firestorm, because it essentially repeals the Missouri Act of 1820, disregarding the (36,30) line and allowing slave states to be above it. Northerners opposed the Kansas-Nebraska Act in huge numbers. For starters, the Whig party falls apart, and the Republican Party is formed. The reason why such a storm developed was because the Act opened up another route for slavery to expand in an area that it was previously closed off.

Grover Cleveland: Government-People Relationship

The 1884 Democratic President, Grover Cleveland, believed that the people should support the government, but the government didn't have to support the people.

Sherman Silver Act (1890)

The 1890 Sherman Silver Act doubled the purchases of Bland-Allison and specified that the money be in the form of paper bills that were redeemable in gold.

1898 SP-AM War: Cause

The 1898 SP-AM War began after an odd explosion occurred and sunk the USS Maine in 1898.

Spanish Civil War of 1936-1939: Abraham Lincoln Brigade

The Abraham Lincoln Brigade was a small group of American volunteers that fought for the Loyalists.

The Judiciary Act of 1801

The Act was one of the last laws passed by the expiring federal congress. It created sixteen new federal judgeships and other judicial offices. Packing these anti-Jeffersonian ideals all in one act was seen as a brazen attempt by the Federalists to lock themselves into a branch, so as to stop themselves from fading away. It was quickly repealed by the Democratic-Republican congress and the judges were booted out. One Federalist Judge, Chief Justice John Marshall, was not booted. He shaped the American legal tradition more than any other person.

Agricultural Adjustment Act (AAA): Goals

The Agricultural Adjustment Act attempted to reduce crop surpluses, which led to higher crop prices.

Agricultural Adjustment Act (AAA): "Parity Prices"

The Agricultural Adjustment Act established standard "Parity Prices" for basic commodities. The agency also paid farmers to not farm (thus reducing their crop harvest.)

America First Committee

The America First Committee was an isolationist Committee that was dedicated to arguing that America should concentrate all of its efforts in defending its own shores, and not interfere with European affairs. This Committee was the polar opposite of the Committee to Defend America by Aiding the Allies.

The American Foundation of Labor (1886): Union Makeup

The American Federation of Labor was an association of self-governing unions, each of which kept its own independence.

The Associated Press (1840s)

The Associated Press, founded in the 1840s and still a big media company today, was gaining strength and wealth, particularly around the 1900s.

The Bank War: Main details

The Bank War, erupting in 1832, was when Daniel Webster and Henry Clay presented a bill that offered the renewal of the charter of the Bank of the United States. Clay had political motives: he wanted to make it a factor in the electoral race of 1832. If Jackson vetoed the bill, Clay figured, Jackson would alienate the financial and commercial east that supported the Bank. If Jackson signed off on the bill, Clay believed that he would alienate his main supporters, the West and the South. Clay, not realizing that the wealthy were now in the minority, could do nothing but stand by while Jackson vetoed the bill and claimed the Bank to be unconstitutional.

The Battle of Little Bighorn

The Battle of Little Bighorn was a rare Indian victory in the plains wars.

Bland-Allison Act (1878)

The Bland-Allison Act was passed in 1878, and the Bland-Allison Act mandated that the government converts a specified amount of silver into legal tender - silver certificates.

1773 British East India Company Tea Trade

The British East India Company was allowed a monopoly which allowed them to sell tea on the cheap, causing Americans to believe they were being tricked somehow.

George Canning

The British Foreign Secretary in the time period of the 1820s. He asked the American minister in London if the US would band together with England in a joint declaration renouncing any interest in acquiring Latin American territory.

Treaty of Paris (1783)

The British formally recognized American independence, and granted territory rights that reached far.

English military power vs French military power

The British held naval superiority, while the French held land superiority.

Civil Works Administration (CWA)

The Civil Works Administration (CWA), a branch of the Federal Emergency Relief Administration (FERA), was designed to provide temporary jobs during the winter emergency. Thousands of the unemployed were employed at leaf-raking or other manual labor jobs.

Committee to Defend America by Aiding the Allies

The Committee to Defend America by Aiding the allies was a non-isolationist Committee that was dedicated to supporting Britain fight against Germany. This Committee was the polar opposite of the America First Committee

The Compromise of 1850

The Compromise of 1850 admitted California as a free state with no explicit prohibition of slavery in the rest of the Mexican territory. Furthermore, Texas gave up its claims to lands that were disputed with New Mexico, and were granted $10 million to recuperate their losses. Popular Sovereignty was established in Mexican Cession lands.

Confederate Disadvantages in the Civil War: Agricultural Economy

The Confederates had an agricultural economy, but it was mostly in cash crops, not food. Obviously, you can't eat cotton or tobacco, so the Confederacy has a food problem.

The Election of 1880: Democratic Candidate

The Democratic Candidate for the electoral race of 1880 was the civil war hero, Winfield Scott.

Election of 1956: Democratic Nominee

The Democratic Presidential Nominee for the Election of 1956 was Adlai Stevenson.

Election of 1976: Democratic Candidate

The Democratic Presidential nominee was Jimmy Carter.

The Election of 1896: Last Call for Farmers

The Election of 1896 was the last election in which a candidate tried to win the election by pandering to the farmer class. Urban areas became more important, so future elections focused on the urban vote.

Electric Light Bulb (1879)

The Electric Light Bulb was invented by Thomas Alva Edison in 1879.

The Fair Labor Standards Act of 1935

The Fair Labor Standards Act of 1935 set a minimum wage of around 25 cents an hour, which is around 20$ in modern currency. The Fair Labor Standards Act of 1935 came about as a result of Roosevelt's New Deal, and went into effect in 1938.

Federal Style of Art

The Federal Style of Art emphasized symmetry, balance, and restraint often through the usage of columns, domes, and pediments.

Utopian Ideals: Mormonism

The Mormons are an example of a Religious communal effort, they moved away from traditional society because of how hostile society was towards them.

The defeat of the Powhatan Confederacy in 1646

The Powhatan Confederacy was defeated in 1646 due to a multitude of reasons: disease, disorganization, and the disposability of Natives in the minds of the English.

Republican Formation: Alias

The Republican Party was additionally known as the "Grand Old Party."

Election of 1956: Republican Nominee

The Republican Presidential Nominee for the Election of 1956 was Dwight D. Eisenhower.

Election of 1976: Republican Candidate

The Republican Presidential nominee was Gerald Ford

Congressional Criticism of President Hoover

The Republican majority Congress proved hostile during the two critical years of Hoover's reign. Some insurgent Republicans combined with opposition Democrats to harass Hoover.

The Financial State of the New Nation (1789-1800)

The Revolutionary war ended with a bad regard for a strong central government like was seen in the English monarch, George III. As a result, the revenue of the nation was bad, and public debt climbed. Nevertheless, Americans continued to pave the way for a successful republic.

The Gilded Age: Roman Catholicism and Jews

The Roman Catholic and Jewish faiths were gaining enormous strength as immigrant believers flowed into America.

Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine (1904)

The Roosevelt Corollary followed the Platt Amendment, and the Roosevelt Corollary gave the U.S. the right to "intervene" in the Western hemisphere given any "instability" whatsoever.

The Russo-American treaty of 1824

The Russo-American treaty of 1824 was a treaty in which the Russians agreed to retreat from the New World further north into Alaska.

Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905)

The Russo-Japanese war was a war between the Russians and the Japanese over Manchuria, Korea, etc. It began in 1904, but neither side could really gain a significant advantage, so it continued until the Treaty of Portsmouth in 1905.

The "Rust Belt"

The Rustbelt was an industiral region of the Ohio Valley that was hit particularly hard as a result of the loss of federal funds and people in favor of the Sunbelt States.

The Second Great Awakening: Effects on Slavery

The Second Great Awakening roused Quakers and other abolitionists to protest against slavery.

The Sedition Act of 1918

The Sedition Act of 1918 made it illegal to speak out against the government.

The Sedition Act (1918)

The Sedition Act, reinforced by the Schenck decision, declared that if you say something that may be a threat to America or its peoples, you can be prosecuted - it's not covered by free speech.

Spanish Civil War of 1936-1939

The Spanish Civil War of 1936-1939 started when Spanish rebels, led by Fascist General Francisco Franco, rose against the left-wing Republican government in Madrid. The war was a "dress rehearsal" for World War 2 because it involved many of the same countries.

The Speaker of the House

The Speaker of the House is the leader of the majority party in the House of Representatives.

Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT)

The Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT) froze the numbers of long-range nuclear missiles for 5 years.

Suez Crisis: Causes

The Suez Crisis began when the U.S. withdrew its offer for monetary aid, causing Egyptian President Nasser to nationalize the French and British owned Suez Canal - resulting in the French and British attacking Egypt in 1956.

Suez Crisis: End

The Suez Crisis ended once the French and British were forced to pull out after being threated with an oil embargo by the U.S.

Tallmadge Amendment (1819)

The Tallmadge Amendment was an amendment that was proposed and passed by the House but rejected by Congress. The Tallmadge Amendment, if passed, would have prohibited the further introduction of slaves into Missouri and would have mandated the emancipation of slaves' offspring born after Missouri was admitted into the Union. Southerners became increasingly defensive over the institution of slavery.

US and Latin American General Overview

The US "intervened" over 20 times in South American affairs.

U.S. Actions to Stay Out of the Spanish Civil War of 1936-1939

The United States wanted to stay out of the Spanish Civil War of 1936-1939, so Congress amended the neutrality legislation to apply an arms embargo to both the Loyalists and rebels.

US Withdrawal from Cuba

The United States, honoring the earlier 1898 Teller Amendment (which stated that they would withdraw from Cuba as soon as the Spanish had been defeated), withdrew from Cuba in 1902. Prior to this, however, the US forced Cubans to write their own Constitution of 1901, aka the Platt Amendment.

1970s: Inflation

The Vietnam War and the Great Society Programs also contributed to inflation and the decrease of growth in the American economy during the 1970s.

Wannsee Conference

The Wannsee Conference was a Conference held by the Germans in 1942 concerning the plan to murder European Jews.

The War Department's 1918 Decree

The War Department's 1918 Decree discouraged workers from striking, because it threatened to draft any unemployed male.

War Industries Board

The War Industries Board, headed by Bernard Baruch in 1918, never held much control - the War Industries Board never had much control, but it did set a precedent for how the Federal government would handle the economy in times of crises.

The War of 1812

The War of 1812 ran from 1812 to about December of 1814. Called for by then-president James Madison, he asked Congress to declare war against Britain. The Democratic-Republicans, in support of the Congressional war-hawks, felt that the country had to assert American rights to the world. Their goal was to invade Canada, the Native Indian stronghold, because that's where they were being armed by the British. Federalists, being loyal to Britain, of course were opposed. The war was seen as a defeat by the Americans due to the Burning of Washington in 1814. It was a sign for the divided states to get their acts together.

Watergate: Consequences

The Watergate Scandal led to harsh criticism of Nixon's administration, as well as questioning into what other immoral acts the administration had committed, such as Spiro Agnew, who then had to resign because he had been found to have been taking bribes.

Watergate: Background Information

The Watergate scandal occurred when 5 men from CREEP (the Republican Committee for the Re-Election of the President) were found to be bugging Democrats' rooms at the Watergate Hotel.

The Weathermen

The Weathermen were an underground terrorists group created by the Students for a Democratic Society towards the end of the 1960s.

The Divorce Plan: Whig Analysis

The Whigs condemned the Divorce Plan, primarily because if the Divorce Plan was passed, their desire for the revival of the Bank of the United States would never be met.

Wilson Gorman Tariff (1894)

The Wilson Gorman Tariff was the first federal law that regulated income tax - you had to pay a certain income tax if your salary was over 4,000$.

Recession of 1981-1982: Causes

The anti-inflationary policies that caused the Recession of 1981-1982 had actually been created by the Federal Reserve Board in 1979, during Carter's Presidency

The Gilded Age: The Emergence of the Circus

The circus emerged in the 1880s. Baseball also emerged as a national pastime, and a professional league was created in the 1870s.

Club movement

The club movement was where women set up clubs and proposed potential solutions for societal problems. Two examples of this were the Women's Trade Union League and the National Consumers League.

Transition from Farmers to Wage Earners in the Industrial Revolution

The earlier American nation of farmers and independent producers was becoming a nation of wage earners - by the beginning of the 1900s, the vast majority of the nation's population earned wages, rather than bartering goods.

Southern monopolistic tendencies

The economic structure of the South became increasingly monopolistic: cotton was by far the cash crop, making the economy unstable as cotton prices wavered, and southern farmers got themselves into debt through the over speculation of land and slaves.

"Bretton Woods" System of International Currency: End

The end of the "Bretton Woods" System of International Currency came when President Nixon imposed a 90-day Wage Freeze and unlinked the dollar from the gold standard, which devalued the dollar.

The Ending of the Gilded Age: Underwood Tariff

The ending of the Gilded Age allowed for the Underwood Tariff to be passed, which lowered most tariffs from 40% to 25%, a vast improvement over Taft's Payne-Aldrich Tariff of 1909

Values Prior to the 1920s

The era prior to the 1920's drew major emphasis on production, character, scarcity, religion, the idealization of the past, local culture, and substance.

The Executive Branch

The executive branch was to carry out laws. The president, the vice president, and the president's cabinet were also part of the executive branch.

Virginia: African laborers

The first African laborers were brought into Virginia in 1619.

Anglo-Powhatan Wars: The First War

The first Anglo-Powhatan war ends in 1614 with the marriage of Pocahontas and John Rolfe. However, peace is temporary, and another war begins with the Massacre of 1622.

The "Five Civilized Tribes"

The five civilized tribes, or the five more "well-rounded" or "well-built" tribes, were the Cherokees, Choctaws, Creeks, Chickasaws, and Seminoles. These five tribes all made efforts to assimilate themselves into white culture, because Jackson was hungry to allow more American Western expansion, with or without Native consent.

Progressivism: Social Justice Makeup

The forefront of the fight for social justice was primarily composed of socialists and feminists.

The American Foundation of Labor (1886) Union of Auto Workers

The founding of the American Foundation of Labor's Union of Auto Workers was an innovative event, because most foreign automobile manufacturers didn't participate in Unions. The Union of Auto Workers drastically increased the quality of life for auto workers.

The 14th Amendment: Fourth Component

The fourth component of the 14th amendment was that ex-Confederates were forced to pay the pensions of both their veterans as well as the Union's veterans.

The Union's Military Plan: 4th Component

The fourth component of the Union's military plan was to dismember the Confederacy by forcing their way through Georgia and the Carolinas.

FDR-SCOTUS Relations: Public's Criticism

The public criticized FDR for trying to tamper with SCOTUS - it was seen as an affront on the system of checks and balances.

Tenure of Office Act (1867): Purpose

The purpose of the Tenure of Office Act was to keep the Secretary of War, Edwin M. Stanton (a Republican spy) in office.

Alliance for Progress (1961): Results

The results of the 1961 Alliance for Progress was disappointing, as America's money didn't fix the perpetuating social issues.

Camp David Peace Accords (1978): Results

The results of the 1978 Camp David Peace Accords was that Israel agreed to withdraw from territory it had gained in the 1967 war as long as Egypt respected Israel's territories.

Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA, 1933): Results

The results of the Tennessee Valley Authority (1933) and the resulting jobs turned a poverty-stricken area into one of the most flourishing regions in the U.S.

The Gilded Age: The Emergence of the Middle Class

The rise of the Union and Labor movement led to the emergence of the middle class - with better living, working, and economic conditions, people could now go on vacation, have free time for themselves, and have extra spending money.

The 14th Amendment: Second Component

The second component of the 14th amendment reduced the representation of a state in Congress and in the Electoral college if the state didn't give blacks the right to vote.

Steamboat invented in 1807

The steamboat supported the development of a market economy.

Soviet Union-China Disagreements over Marxism

The two great Communist powers, the Soviet Union and China, disagreed over their interpretations of Marxism.

1960s: The Three P's

The upheaveals of the 1960s could be attributed to the 3 P's: the Population bulge, Protest against racism and the Vietnam war, and the apparent permanence of Prosperity.

Theodore Dwight Weld's Book "American Slavery As It Is" (1839)

Theodore Dwight Weld's Book "American Slavery As It Is", published in 1839, spoke against slavery.

Tecumseh & Tenskwatawa

These individuals were Shawnee brothers that allied with the British and unified many Indian tribes in a last-ditch effort against the settlers.

Quality of British soldiers

They often had to perform under second-rate generals with scarce, rancid, and wormy food. Furthermore, punishment was extremely inhumane, going as far as 800 lashes for striking an officer.

American Merchants

They sold their goods to the British, who could offer gold in trade, and sold their goods at a 50-200% markup to the Americans with their paper currency. They didn't care as much for the revolution as for personal gain.

Sons and Daughters of Liberty

They were male and female groups made to push for colonial independence in 1765. The sons, for example, enforced non importation agreements which were meant to hurt British tax. Meanwhile, the daughters influenced a decision in the Continental Congress to boycott all British goods.

Thomas Alva Edison

Thomas Alva Edison invented the electric light bulb in 1879

Thomas E. Dewey

Thomas E. Dewey was the Republican presidential nominee for the Election of 1948.

Thomas Hutchinson

Thomas Hutchinson was a Massachussetts governor that had his home destroyed by the resulting consequences of the Stamp Act. He believed the Tea Tax was unjust, but he even more believed that the colonists shouldn't refute the law.

White-Black Violence over Jobs

Thousands of blacks moved to the North in search of war-industry employment. Deadly disputes between whites and blacks broke out.

The "Crop-Lien" System

Through the "Crop-Lien" system, farmers, particularly blacks, were stuck into a sharecropping-powered system of perpetual debt and forced continuation of labor.

Thurgood Marshall

Thurgood Marshall was a black lawyer that wrung the ruling from SCOTUS that separated schooling for whites and blacks was a sign of inequality.

Joint declaration

Two parties, states, countries, nations, etc both agreeing to declare a certain policy, bill, ideal, etc. For our purposes, the first Joint Declaration is between America and Britain, renouncing any interest they had in acquiring Latin American territory.

Education: The Rich and Ultra-Rich

Uncharacteristically, millionaires and tycoons generously donated to the educational system.

America's Economic Status under Eisenhower's Presidency

Under Eisenhower's Presidency, America was economically prosperous.

1959 Peacetime Deficit

Under Eisenhower's reign in 1959, America saw the biggest peacetime deficit (spend more than you have) in its history.

Federal Government's Power under FDR

Under FDR, the Federal government became much more powerful.

SCOTUS' View on New Deal Programs

Unfortunately for FDR, SCOTUS was composed of many old ultraconservatives who attempted to stop many of the "Socialistic" New Deal programs.

"Wets"

Wets were pro-drinkers, therefore Anti-Prohibition.

Alexander Hamilton and his role as Secretary of the Treasury: Political Liabilities of his Policies

While Hamilton's policies established a sound credit for the government and favorable terms for trading with the Netherlands, they also encroached sharply upon states rights. Some that reluctantly signed the Constitution may have, upon seeing the federal colossus, decline to sign.

Spanish-American Military Differences

While Spain's military significantly outnumbered the American army, American naval ships were in much better condition than the Spanish.

The Gilded Age: The Issue of Immigrant Assimilation

While immigrants poured into America, some Americans were afraid that the new immigrants wouldn't be able to assimilate into American society and culture. Some Americans questioned whether America was a "melting pot" or a "burning ground"

Effects of Population Growth

While population growth may sometimes be seen as a positive, in this case it also brought negatives. The increased population resulted in higher levels of disease and decreased living standards.

Johnson's Prosecution: Senators that voted "not guilty."

While some Senators voted "not guilty" truly out of their belief, some senators voted "not guilty" in order to stop the Senate from setting a bad precedent of abusing the checks and balances system. Typically, Senators that didn't want to set a bad precedent also disliked the economic policies of Johnson's potential presidential replacement, Ben Wade.

Election of 1860: North vs South

While the Confederacy had a population of 9 million (including 4 million slaves), the Union was still larger. It soon had 21 states and had a population of over 20 million.

The Hydrogen Bomb: Consequences of Russian Detonation

With Russia detonating their own Hydrogen bomb just a year after the Americans did, the technological gap was clearly closing, and the nuclear arms race entered a dangerously competitive cycle.

Dred Scott v Sanford: Northern & Southern response

With SCOTUS ruling in favor of pro-slave Southerners, Southerners were of course delighted, while Northerners and supporters of popular sovereignty were infuriated.

Kansas-Nebraska Act: Affect on other Compromises

Within the Kansas-Nebraska Act, the Missouri Compromise of 1820 was repealed, and northerners began to reject the Compromise of 1850.

London Economic Conference (1933): Results of Lack of U.S. Support

Without support of the U.S, the London Economic Conference fell apart. The collapse strengthened the global trend towards nationalism, while making international cooperation increasingly difficult.

The Gilded Age: Women in the 1800s

Women became more independent in the urban environment, moving away from the social pressures to become a housewife.

Women in the late 1800s

Women became more independent in the urban environment, moving away from the social pressures to become a housewife.

1st Wave of Feminism

Women during the 1st wave of feminism focused more on the legal barriers of female rights, primarily suffrage, which was considered resolved with the passing of the 19th amendment.

2nd Wave of Feminism

Women during the 2nd wave of feminism, beginning around the 1960s, campaigned for complete equal rights with men. So, for example, in workplaces.

3 Key issues for women in the 1920s

Women focused on the issue of birth control, equal pay, and prohibition.

Cult of Domesticity

Women were attached to the hip of one man at every point in her life; her dad, her husband, her eldest son.

Yellow Journalism

Yellow Journalism was the practice of writing up sensationalist headlines in order to gain viewership despite not having content that is worthy of the headline.

"Dries"

Dries were anti-drinkers, therefore pro-Prohibition.

Why European Immigrants moved to America

European Immigrants flocked to America because they already felt that Europe was "full." Little did they know, they were flocking to a pot that was filling up at an exponential rate. A couple other reasons were to escape the aristocratic caste and State Church, as well as the opportunity to improve one's life. Transoceanic steamboats, a rather new invention, also decreased ocean travel time.

The effects of the Monroe Doctrine on European powers

European powers were offended. In part, they were offended because of America's weak military strength. At the time, Monroe was concerned more with the security of America, warning the Old Powers to stay away. The Monroe Doctrine thrived off of American nationalism.

Evangelical Preaching: Background Information

Evangelical Preaching was the literal interpretation of the Bible in order to both support faith for religion as well as gain more believers.

Free Soil Movement

Following the Mexican-American war, the issue of slavery in the territories becomes the key issue of sectional tension.

Antoine Cadillac

Founded Detroit (the City of Straits) in 1701.

NAACP (1909)

Founded in 1909 and still around today, the NAACP was founded by DuBois following the Niagara Movement.

Mattachine Society (1951)

Founded in 1951, the Mattachine Society was an advocate for gay rights.

The Gilded Age: Admission of new States

From 1889-1890, the Republican Congress, seeking more Republican congressional and electoral votes, admitted six more states as well as Utah in 1896 after the Mormon Church formally banned polygamy in 1890.

Fur Trapping

Fur Trapping was a large industry in the West, basing itself on a system known as the "rendezvous" system in order to bring in money.

Harriet Beecher Stowe

Harriet Beecher Stowe published "Uncle Tom's Cabin" in 1852 in a vain attempt to show Northerners the cruel realities of slavery. "Uncle Tom's Cabin" helped rile up support for the civil war.

Stephen Austin

He established the deal in which Mexico would grant a large amount of their territory to him in return for what some would think is the rather trivial investment of 300 American families to populate the area.

Malcolm X: Death

In 1965, Malcolm X was shot and killed by a rival Nation of Islam.

George Grenville

He was the British Prime Minister that pushed for the enforcement of Navigation laws.

Henry Clay's Banking Policies: Banking System

Henry Clay's first economic principle was a strong banking system (to provide credit) under the rechartering of the Bank of the United States

Hiram W. Johnson

Hiram W. Johnson was a governor from California that helped break the Southern Pacific Railroad from Californian politics in 1910.

Hoovervilles

Hoovervilles was a nickname for tin-and-paper shantytowns.

English vs Spanish

It wasn't until England defeated the Spanish Armada in 1588 that England was in a position to challenge the other countries and start branching out in the form of colonialism.

James Buchanan Duke

James Buchanan Duke was the founder of the American Tobacco Company in 1890.

The Immortal Trio: John Calhoun

John Calhoun, a Southerner that was also known as the "Great Nullifier", proposed that the North return runaway slaves, to give the South its rights as a minority, and restore political balance. Calhoun's grand plan was for America to have two presidents: one from the South, and one from the North, each equipped with one veto.

John F. Kennedy: Catholicism

John F. Kennedy's Catholicism irritated Protestant Americans in the southern American Bible Belt.

Dust Bowl (1933)

Late in 1933, the Dust Bowl struck many states in the Mississippi Great Plains. The Dust Bowl was caused by drought, wind, and over-farming of the land.

Black Family Structure during Slavery

Luckily, despite all the hardships of slavery, slaves still managed to maintain a family life.

The Anti-Slavery Society

Members of the Anti-Slavery Society attempted to speak out against the slavery of other people.

National Consumers League

One example of the products of the club movement.

Pearl Buck

Pearl Buck was a leading female writer that wrote about Chinese peasant society. Pearl Buck also won a Nobel Prize in Literature in 1938.

Black Panther: Emergence

Racially-motivated violence led to and increased militant confrontations.

Settlement Houses

Settlement houses were houses that were normally located in poor, urban areas where middle-class people would live and take care of the local community by providing services such as healthcare and daycare. Oddly enough, settlement houses became centers of women's activism and social reform.

Washington "Disarmament" Conference (1921-1922)

Several world powers met at the Washington "Disarmament" Conference in 1921-1922 to discuss the disarmament of their respective navies. The American delegation was led by Secretary of State Charles Evan Hughes. The Conference led to the Five-Power Naval Treaty of 1922, which limited the construction of certain types of large naval ships and applied ratio limits to the number of ships a country could build.

Paris Peace Accords (1973)

Signed in 1973, the Paris Peace Accords put an end to the American involvement in the Vietnamese War.

Inspiration for Women Reformers

Some women reformers were inspired by the Second Great Awakening. Others demanded rights for women, some were involved in the temperance movement, and some were involved in the Abolitionist movement.

Emphasis of gender differences in the 19th century

The market economy of the 19th century was separating men and women into distinct economic roles: women were the "keepers of society's conscience" and men were "strong".

Theodore Dwight Weld

Theodore Dwight Weld, an abolitionist that spoke out against slavery, wrote the pamphlet "American Slavery As It Is" (1839), and attended Lane Theological Seminary (a school meant to educate student Ministers.)

Theodore Roosevelt: Perspective on Trusts

Theodore Roosevelt was critical of trusts, making "unreasonable" combinations in trade illegal under the Sherman Act in 1890.

Theodore Roosevelt

Theodore Roosevelt was the 26th US President, most well known for the Roosevelt Corollary, his trust busting, and the Panama Canal.

Dartmouth College vs Woodward (3)

There was a contract between King George III and Dartmouth college that made Dartmouth College property of the British. In 1819, the state of New Hampshire passed changes in legislation that would allow them to annex Dartmouth College. The main issue was this: Is the contract still valid if it's older than the new founded nation that it resides in? Chief Justice John Marshall declared the contract to be Constitutional. His decision thereby protected corporations from domination by state governments.