APUSH Exam AMSCO Review Part 1

Orders of Connecticut (1639)

It established a representative government consisting of a legislature elected by popular vote and a governor chosen by that legislature.

Boss and Machine Politics

Successful party bosses knew how to manage the competing social, ethnic, and economic groups in the city.

Fugitive Slave Law

The law's chief purpose was to track down runaway (fugitive) slaves who had escaped to a Northern state, capture them, and return them to their Southern owners. The law placed fugitive slave cases under the exclusive jurisdiction of the federal government and authorized special U.S. commissioners to issue warrants to arrest fugitives. Captured persons who claimed to be a free African American and not a runaway slave were denied the right of trial by jury. Citizens who attempted to hide a runaway or obstruct enforcement of the law were subject to heavy penalties.

Connecticut

The royal charter for Connecticut granted it a limited degree of self-government, including election of the governor.

Federalists: Economic Policy

aid business; create a national bank; support high tariffs

Mary Cassatt-

also spent much of her life in France where she learned the techniques of impressionism, especially in her use of pastel colors.

John Cabot,

an Italian sea captain who sailed under contract to England's King Henry VII. Cabot explored the coast of Newfoundland in 1497.

Conservationists

believed in scientific management and regulated use of natural resources,

Cooperatives

businesses owned and run by the farmers to save the costs charged by middlemen.

Northern newcomers-

carpetbaggers." Southern whites who supported the Republican governments were usually former Whigs who were interested in economic development for their state and peace between the sections.

Talented entrepreneurs emerged

during this era who were able to build and manage vast industrial and commercial enterprises.

The Forest Reserve Act of 1891

is a law that allowed the President of the United States to set aside forest reserves from the land in the public domain.

constitutional disputes

over the nature of the federal Union and states' rights;

anarchist

person who seeks to overturn the established government; advocate of abolishing authority

executive branch

president was head of the exhaustive branch

Henry Knox

secretary of war,

conservatives,

stressed the need for law and order,

Coin's Financial School

taught millions of discontented Americans that their troubles were caused by a conspiracy of rich bankers, and that prosperity would return if the government coined silver in unlimited quantities.

Mercantilism

looked upon trade, colonies, and the accumulation of wealth as the basis for a country's military and political strength. looked upon trade, colonies, and the accumulation of wealth as the basis for a country's military and political strength. s. Colonies existed for one purpose only: to enrich the parent country.

South Carolina

the southern economy was based on trading furs and providing food for the West Indies. By the middle of the 18th century, South Carolina's large rice-growing plantations worked by enslaved Africans resembled the economy and culture of the West Indies.

Sojourner Truth

was a slave who escaped in 1827. As a Black abolitionist and a woman, she often met prejudice from anti-feminist White abolitionists who also expected free Black people to be quiet members of the movement.

The Sixteenth Amendment

-ratified by the states in 1913, authorized the U.S government to collect an income tax. (This reform was originally proposed by the Populists in their 1892 platform.) Progressives heartily approved the new tax because, at first, it applied only to the very wealthy.

Democratic-Republicans view of the Constitution

-interpret strictly -powers are explicitly stated -weak central government

legislative powers

-to an elected two-house legislature

Forest Reserve Act of 1891

-to set aside 150 million acres of federal land as a national reserve that could not be sold to private interests.

Democratic-Republicans economic policy

-favor agriculture -oppose national bank -oppose tariffs -states regulate INTRA state commerce (dual federalism)

Naturalization Act

which increased from 5 to 14 the years required for immigrants to qualify for U.S. citizenship.

moderates,

who were chiefly concerned with economic gains for the white middle class, and

Spoils System and Rotation of Officeholders

" Both the spoils system and the rotation of officeholders affirmed the democratic ideal that one man was as good as another and that ordinary Americans were capable of holding any government office. These beliefs also helped build a strong two-party system.

First Amendment-

"Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press, or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances."

Seventh Amendment

"In suits of common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no fact tried by a jury shall be otherwise re-examined in any Court of the United States, then according to the rules of the common law."

Third Amendment

"No Soldier shall, in time of peace be quartered in any house, without the consent of the Owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner prescribed by law."

In addition to urbanization, other factors also promoted the growth of leisure-time activities

(1) a gradual reduction in the hours people worked, (2) improved transportation, (3) promotional billboards and advertising, and ( 4) the decline of restrictive Puritan and Victorian values that discouraged "wasting" time on play.

Five factors prompted Americans who could afford to move to the suburbs:

(1) abundant land available at low cost, (2) inexpensive transportation by rail, (3) low-cost construction methods such as the wooden, balloon-frame house, (4) ethnic and racial prejudice, and (5) an American fondness for grass, privacy, and detached individual houses.

Fort Sumter crisis he

(1) called for 75,000 volunteers to put down the "insurrection" in the Confederacy, (2) authorized spending for a war (3) suspended the privilege of the writ of habeas corpus

Motivating their decision to leave the South were (AA's)

(1) deteriorating race relations, (2) destruction of their cotton crops by the boll weevil, and (3) job opportunities in northern factories that opened up when white workers were drafted in World War I.

Mark Twain

(the pen name for Samuel L. Clemens) became the first great realist author. His classic work, The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (1884), revealed the greed, violence, and racism in American society.

The Pendleton Act of 1881-

1 set up the Civil Service Commission and created a system by which applicants for classified federal jobs would be selected on the basis of their scores on a competitive examination. The law also prohibited civil servants from making political contributions. At first, the law applied to only 10 percent of federal employees, but in later decades, the system was expanded until most federal jobs were classified (that is, taken out of the hands of politicians).

The Latino Southwest

1. After the Mexican War ended in 1848, the Spanish-speaking landowners in California and the Southwest were guaranteed their property rights and granted citizenship. 2. Hispanic culture was preserved in dominant Spanish-speaking areas, such as the New Mexico territories, the border towns, and the barrios of California. 3. Mexican Americans moved to find work, such as to the sugar beet fields and the mines of Colorado, and the building of western railroads. 4. Mexicans, like their European counterparts, were drawn by the explosive economic development of the region.

Jackson's Second Term

1. After winning reelection in 1832, Jackson moved to destroy the Bank of the United States 2. Jackson attacked the bank by withdrawing all federal funds. Aided by Secretary of the Treasury Roger Taney, he transferred the funds to various state banks, which Jackson's critics called "pet banks."

The Seven Years' War (French and Indian War)

1. However, in the fourth and final war in the series, the fighting began in the colonies and then spread to Europe. 2. Britain and France now recognized the full importance of their colonies and shipped large numbers of troops overseas to North America rather than rely on "amateur" colonial forces

Nativists

1. Many native-born Americans were alarmed by the influx of immigrants, fearing that the newcomers would take their jobs and also subvert (weaken) the culture of the Anglo majority. 2. Protestants who distrusted the Roman Catholicism practiced by the Irish and many of the Germans.

Transition to a Royal Colony

1. More than 6,000 people had settled there, but only 2,000 remained alive. 2. Further, the Virginia Company made unwise decisions that placed it heavily in debt. King James I had seen enough. He revoked the charter of the bankrupt company and took direct control of the colony. Now known as Virginia, the colony became England's first royal colony.

Use of Executive Power

1. More than any previous president, Lincoln acted in unprecedented ways, drawing upon his powers as both chief executive and commander in chief, often without the authorization or approval of Congress 2.. Congress was not in session, the president acted completely on his own authority. Lincoln later explained that he had to take strong measures without congressional approval "as indispensable to the public safety."

European Treatment of Native Americans

1. Most Europeans looked down upon Native Americans 2. Europeans used various approaches for controlling Native Americans and operating their colonies.

Military Campaigns

1. Most of the war was fought in Mexican territory by relatively small armies of Americans. Leading a force that never exceeded 1,500, General Stephen Kearney succeeded in taking Santa Fe, the New Mexico territory, and southern California 2. Zachary Taylor's force of 6,000 men drove the Mexican army from Texas, crossed the Rio Grande into northern Mexico, and won a major victory at Buena Vista (February 1847).

Slavery

1. The Continental Congress abolished the importation of enslaved people, and most states went along with the prohibition. Most northern states ended slavery, while in the South, some owners voluntarily freed their slaves. 2. In the decades following the Revolutionary War, more and more slave owners came to believe that enslaved labor was essential to their economy. As explained in later chapters, they developed a rationale for slavery that found religious and political justification for continuing to hold human beings in lifelong bondage.

Southern Thought

1. The South developed a unique culture and outlook on life. As cotton became the basis of its economy, slavery became the focus of its political thought. White southerners felt increasingly isolated and defensive about slavery, as northerners grew hostile toward it, and as Great Britain, France, and other European nations outlawed it altogether.

Several factors contributed to the rapid growth (about 4 percent a year) of the U.S. economy:

1. The country was a treasure-house 2. An abundant labor supply 3. A growing population 4. Capital was plentiful, 5. The development of labor 6. Businesses benefited from friendly government policies 7. Talented entrepreneurs emerged

Separation of Church and State

1. Most states adopted the principle of separation of church and state; in other words, they refused to give financial support to any religious group. The Anglican Church, which formerly had been closely tied to the king's government, was disestablished (lost state support) in the South. 2. Only in three New England states-New Hampshire, Connecticut, and Massachusetts-did the Congregational Church continue to receive state support in the form of a religious tax. This practice was finally discontinued in New England early in the 1830s.

Southern Position

1. Most whites viewed any attempts to restrict the expansion of slavery as a violation of their constitutional right to take and use their property as they wished. They saw the Free-Soilers-and especially the abolitionists-as intent on the ultimate destruction of slavery. 2.More moderate Southerners favored extending the Missouri Compromise line of 36° 30' westward to the Pacific Ocean and permitting territories north of that line to be nonslave.

A Divided Nation

1. Neither Congress nor the American people were united in support of the war. 2. In Congress, Pennsylvania and Vermont joined the southern and western states to provide a slight majority for the war declaration. 3. Voting against the war were most representatives from New York, New Jersey, and the rest of the states in New England.

Local Government ( New England)

1. New England established towns and villages, clustering their small homes around an open space known as a green. the dominant form of local government in New England was the town meeting, in which people of the town would regularly come together, often in a church, to vote directly on public issues.

Opposition to the War

1. New England merchants were opposed because, after the repeal of the Embargo Act, they were making sizable profits from the European war and viewed impressment as merely a minor inconvenience. 2. Federalist politicians viewed the war as a Democratic-Republican scheme to conquer Canada and Florida, with the ultimate aim of increasing Democratic-Republican voting strength. For their part, the "Quids" criticized the war because it violated the classic Democratic-Republican commitment to limited federal power and to the maintenance of peace.

The Declaration of Independence

1. The declaration drafted by Jefferson listed specific grievances against George Ill's government and also expressed the basic principles that justified revolution: "We hold these truths to be self-evident: That all men are created equal; that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable rights; that among these are Life, Liberty, and the pursuit of Happiness." 2. The congress adopted Lee's resolution calling for independence on July 2; Jefferson's work, the Declaration of Independence, was adopted on July 4, 1776.

The Presidency

1. The delegates debated over the president's term of office-some argued that the chief executive should hold office for life. The delegates limited the president's term to four years but with no limit on the number of terms. 2. They finally decided to grant the president considerable power, including the power to veto acts of Congress.

Actions of the Congress

1. The delegates voted on a series of proposed measures each were intended to change British policy without offending moderate and conservative colonists. 2. If colonial rights were not recognized then the delegates would meet again in May 1775.

Cultural Nationalism

1. The popular votes for James Monroe were cast by a younger generation of Americans whose concerns differed from those of the nation's founders 2. As fervent nationalists, they believed their young country was entering an era of unlimited prosperity. Patriotic themes infused every aspect of American society, from art to school books. Heroes of the Revolution were enshrined in the paintings by Gilbert Stuart, Charles Willson Peale, and John Trumbull. 3. The expanding public schools embraced Noah Webster's blue-backed speller, which promoted patriotism long before his famous dictionary was published. The basic ideas and ideals of nationalism and patriotism would dominate most of the 19th century.

Economic Progress

1. The growth of cities, the textual industry, and improved railroads symbolized efforts to create a "New South" in the late 19th century." 2. By 1900, the South had 400 cotton mills employing almost 100,000 white workers. Southern railroad companies rapidly converted to the standard-gauge rails used in the North and West, so the South was integrated into the national rail network.

Patriots

1. The largest number of Patriots were from the New England states and Virginia. Most of the soldiers were reluctant to travel outside their own region. They would serve in local militia units for short periods, leave to work their farms, and then return to duty. 2. General Washington never had more than 20,000 regular troops under his command at one time. His army was chronically short of supplies, poorly equipped, and rarely paid.

Rural Folkways

1. The majority of colonists rarely saw a newspaper or read any book other than the Bible. 2. Entertainment for the well-to-do consisted chiefly of card playing and horse-racing in the southern colonies, theater-going in the middle colonies, and attending religious lectures in Puritan New England.

Rhode Island

1. The new colony was unique in two respects. 2. First, it recognized the rights of American Indians and paid them for the use of their land 3. Second, Williams' government allowed Catholics, Quakers, and Jews to worship freely. Williams also founded one of the first Baptist churches in America. 4. Because this colony tolerated diverse beliefs, it served as a refuge for many.

Trade

1. The northern states wanted the central government to regulate interstate commerce and foreign trade 2. The South was afraid that export taxes would be placed on its agricultural products such as tobacco and rice

The North

1. The northern states were bound together by transportation routes and rapid economic growth based on commercial farming and industrial innovation. 2. The vast majority of northerners were still involved in agriculture. The North was the most populous section in the country as a result of both a high birth rate and increased immigration.

Fugitive Slave law

1. The passage of a strict Fugitive Slave Law persuaded many Southerners to accept the loss of California to the abolitionists and Free-Soilers 2. enforcement of the new law in the North was bitterly and sometimes forcibly resisted by antislavery Northerners. 3. Therefore, enforcement of the new law drove a wedge between the North and the South.

Residential Suburbs

1. The residential pattern in the United States contrasted with that of Europe, where wealthy people remained near the business districts of modern cities and lower-income people lived in the outlying areas. 2. By 1900, suburbs had grown up around every major U.S. city, and a single-family dwelling surrounded by an ornamental lawn soon became the American ideal of comfortable living. Thus began the world's first suburban nation.

Early Problems

1. The settlement's location in a swampy area along the James River resulted in fatal outbreaks of dysentery and malaria 2. One key source of goods was from trade with American Indians-but when conflicts erupted between settlers and the natives, trade would stop and settlers went hungry. Starvation was a persistent issue in Jamestown.

Antitrust Movement

1. The trusts came under widespread scrutiny and attack in the 1880s. Middle Class citizens feared the trusts' unchecked power, and urban elites ( old wealth) resented the increasing influence of the new rich

Education

1. The upper class valued a college education for their children. Acceptable professions for gentlemen were limited to farming, law, the ministry, and the military. 2.. For the lower classes, schooling beyond the early elementary grades was generally not available. 3. To reduce the risk of slave revolts, slaves were strictly prohibited by law from receiving any instruction in reading and writing.

Amusements

1. Theaters that presented comedies and dramas flourished in most large cities, but vaudeville with its variety of acts drew the largest audiences. 2. Also immensely popular was the Wild West show brought to urban audiences by William F. Cody ("Buffalo Bill") and headlining such personalities as Sitting Bull and the markswoman Annie Oakley.

Northeast Settlements

1. Their culture combined hunting and farming. However, their farming techniques exhausted the soil quickly, so people had to move to fresh land frequently. 2. the Iroquois were a powerful force, battling rival American Indians as well as Europeans.

Voting

1. Those barred from voting-white women, poor white men, slaves of both sexes, and most free blacks-constituted a sizable majority of the colonial population. 2. Religious restrictions, for example, were removed in Massachusetts and other colonies. On the other hand, voters in all colonies were still required to own at least a small amount of property 3. Even so, compared with other parts of the world, the English colonies showed tendencies toward democracy and self-government that made their political system unusual for the time.

Mormons

1. To escape persecution, the Mormons under the leadership of Brigham Young migrated to the far western frontier, where they established the New Zion (as they called their religious community) on the banks of the Great Salt Lake in Utah 2. Their practice of polygamy (allowing a man to have more than one wife), however, aroused the hostility of the U.S. government.

Ethnic Neighborhoods

1. To increase their profits, landlords divided up inner-city housing into small, windowless rooms. The resulting slums and tenement apartments could cram more than 4,000 people into one city block 2. New York City passed a law in 1879 that required each bedroom to have a window. 3. However, overcrowding and filth in new tenements continued to promote the spread of deadly diseases, such as cholera, typhoid, and tuberculosis. 4. In their crowded tenement quarters, different immigrant groups created distinct ethnic neighborhoods where each group could maintain its own language, culture, church or temple, and social club. Many groups even supported their own newspapers and schools. 5. These neighborhoods (sometimes called "ghettos") often served as springboards for ambitious and hardworking immigrants and their children to achieve their version of the American dream.

Unions

1. Trade ( or craft) unions were organized in major cities as early as the 1790s and increased in number as the factory system took hold. Many skilled workers (shoemakers and weavers, for example) had to seek employment in factories because their earlier practice of working in their own shops (the crafts system) could no longer compete with lower-priced, mass-produced goods. 2. Long hours, low pay, and poor working conditions led to widespread discontent among factory workers. A prime goal of the early unions was to reduce the workday to ten hours. 3. The obstacles to union success, however, were many: (1) immigrant replacement workers, (2) state laws outlawing unions, and (3) frequent economic depressions with high unemployment.

Acts of Trade and Navigation (Rules)

1. Trade to and from the colonies could be carried only by English or colonial-built ships, which could be operated only by English or colonial crews. 2. All goods imported into the colonies, except for some perishables, had to pass through ports in England. 3. Specified or "enumerated" goods from the colonies could be exported to England only. Tobacco was the original "enumerated" good, but over the years, the list was greatly expanded.

Social Welfare

1. Urban life in the Progressive era was improved not only by political reformers but also by the efforts of settlement house workers (see Chapter 18) and other civic-minded volunteers. Jane Addams, Florence Kelley, and other leaders of the social justice movement found that they needed political support in the state legislatures for meeting the needs of immigrants and the working class. 2. Believing that criminals could learn to become effective citizens, reformers fought for such measures as a system of parole, separate reformatories for juveniles, and limits on the death penalty.

Presidential Power

1. presented himself as the representative of all the people and the protector of the common man against abuses of power by the rich and the privileged. 2. He vetoed the use of federal money to construct the Maysville Road, because it was wholly within one state, Kentucky, the home state of Jackson's rival, Henry Clay. 3. Jackson's closest advisers were a group known as his "kitchen cabinet," who did not belong to his official cabinet. Because of them, the appointed cabinet had less influence on policy than under earlier presidents.

Midwest Settlements

1. prospered with a rich food supply. Supported by hunting, fishing, and agriculture, many permanent settlements developed in the Mississippi and Ohio River valleys and elsewhere. 2. famous for the large earthen mounds it created, some as large as 300 feet long.

Increased Demand for Slaves

1. reduced migration 2. dependable workforce 3. cheap labor

German Immigration

1. settled chiefly on the rich farmlands west of Philadelphia, an area that became known as Pennsylvania Dutch country 2. obeying colonial laws, showed little interest in English politics. By 1775, people of German stock comprised 6 percent of the colonial population.

The Agricultural Northwest

1. settled relied upon the Mississippi to transport grain to southern markets via New Orleans 2. this region became closely tied to the other northern states by two factors: military campaigns by federal troops that drove American Indians from the land the building of canals and railroads that established common markets between the Great Lakes and the East Coast.

Lasting Problems (Bacon's Rebellion)

1. sharp class differences between wealthy planters and landless or poor farmers, 2. colonial resistance to royal control. 3. These problems would continue into the next century, even after the general conditions of life in the Chesapeake colonies became more stable and prosperous.

four main causes of the conflict between the North and the South:

1. slavery, 2. constitutional disputes 3. economic differences 4. political blunders

New Cities

1. small villages and towns grew into thriving cities after 1820: Buffalo, Cleveland, Detroit, and Chicago on the Great Lakes, Cincinnati on the Ohio River, and St. Louis on the Mississippi River 2. cities served as transfer points, processing farm products for shipment to the East, and distributing manufactured goods from the East to their region.

The Election of 1884

1. the Republicans nominated Blaine for president, but suspicions about Blaine's honesty were enough for the reform-minded Mugwumps to switch allegiance 2. the Democratic nominee, Grover Cleveland. Unlike most Gilded Age politicians, Cleveland was honest, frugal, conscientious, and uncompromising. He had been an honest mayor of Buffalo and incorruptible governor of New York State. 3. Cleveland's victory as the first Democrat to be elected president since Buchanan in 1856.

The United States based its claim on

1. the discovery of the Columbia River by Captain Robert Gray in 1792 2. the overland expedition to the Pacific Coast by Meriwether Lewis and William Clark in 1805, 3. the fur trading post and fort in Astoria, Oregon, established by John Jacob Astor in 1811

Employers also used all of the following tactics for defeating unions:

1. the lockout 2. yellow-dog contracts 3. calling in private guards 4. obtaining court

New Questions and Issues

1. the new states of the West had small populations relative to those of the other two sections. To enhance their limited political influence in Congress, western representatives bargained with politicians from other sections to obtain their objectives 2. Of greatest importance to the western states were: (1) "cheap money" (easy credit) from state banks rather than from the Bank of the United States, (2) low prices for land sold by the federal government, and (3) improved transportation

The negative forces driving Europeans to emigrate included

1. the poverty of displaced farm workers driven from the land by political turmoil and the mechanization of farm work, 2. overcrowding and joblessness in cities as a result of a population boom, 3. religious persecution, particularly of Jews in Eastern Europe.

The Louisiana Purchase

1. the territory's most valuable property in terms of commerce-the port of New Orleans. 2. But in 1800, the French military and political leader Napoleon Bonaparte secretly forced Spain to give the Louisiana Territory back to its former owner, France. Napoleon hoped to restore the French empire in the Americas 3. By 1803, however, Napoleon had lost interest in this plan for two reasons: he needed to concentrate French resources on fighting England and a rebellion led by Toussaint l'Ouverture against French rule on the island of Santo Domingo had resulted in heavy French losses.

Positive reasons for moving to the United States included

1. this country's reputation for political and religious freedom 2. the economic opportunities afforded by the settling of the West and the abundance of industrial jobs in U.S. cities 3. The introduction of large steamships and the relatively inexpensive one-way passage in the ships' "steerage" made it possible for millions of poor people to emigrate.

Bunker Hill

A true battle was fought outside of Boston. A british force attacked the colonists position and managed to take the jill suffering over 1,000 deaths. Americans claimed a victory of sorts having succeeded in inflicting heavy losses on the attacking British Army.

Second Amendment

A well regulated Militia, being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear Arms, shall not be infringed."

Products for the consumer that were in widespread use by the end of the century were

A. George Eastman's Kodak camera (1888), B. Lewis E. Waterman's fountain pen (1884), C. King Gillette's safety razor and blade (1895).

The Growth of Discontent, 1888-1896

Discontent over government corruption, the money issue, tariffs, railroads, and trusts was growing. In response, politicians began to take small steps to respond to public concerns, but it would take a third party (the Populists) and a major depression in 1893 to shake the Democrats and the Republicans from their lethargy.

antebellum period

During this time, a diverse mix of reformers dedicated themselves to such causes as establishing free (tax-supported) public schools, improving the treatment of the mentally ill, controlling or abolishing the sale of alcohol, winning equal rights for women, and abolishing slavery.

List of Rights-

Each state constitution began with a "bill" or "declaration" listing the basic rights and freedoms, such as a jury trial and freedom of religion, that belonged to all citizens by right and that state officials could not infringe (encroach on).

Expanding Trade

Economic motives for exploration grew out of a fierce competition among European kingdoms for increased trade with Africa, India, and China.

Open Door Policy in China

Europeans were further impressed by U.S. involvement in global politics as a result of John Hay's policies toward China.

Lewis and Clark Expedition

Even before Louisiana was purchased, Jefferson had persuaded Congress to fund a scientific exploration of the trans-Mississippi West to be led by Captain Meriwether Lewis and Lieutenant William Clark. The Louisiana Purchase greatly increased the importance of the expedition.

Judicial Impeachments

Even so, the threat of impeachment caused the judges to be more cautious and less partisan in their decisions.

Thirteenth Amendment-

Even the abolitionists gave Lincoln credit for playing an active role in the political struggle to secure enough votes in Congress to pass the 13th Amendment. By December 1865 (months after Lincoln's death), this amendment abolishing slavery was ratified by the required number of states. The language of the amendment could not be simpler or clearer: Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction.

Spanish American War Causes

Expansionists demanded that the United States take its place with the imperialist nations of Europe as a world power. Not everyone favored such a policy. Presidents Cleveland and McKinley were among many who thought military action abroad was both morally wrong and economically unsound

Transcendentalists

Followers of a belief which stressed self-reliance, self- culture, self-discipline, and that knowledge transcends instead of coming by reason. They promoted the belief of individualism and caused an array of humanitarian reforms. A philosophy pioneered by Ralph Waldo Emerson in the 1830's and 1840's, in which each person has direct communication with God and Nature, and there is no need for organized churches.

The Election of 1836

Following the two-term tradition set by his predecessors, Jackson did not seek a third term. To make sure his policies were carried out even in his retirement, Jackson persuaded the Democratic party to nominate his loyal vice president, Martin Van Buren, who was a master of practical politics.

First Battle of Bull Run

In the first major battle of the war (July 1861), 30,000 federal troops marched from Washington, D.C., to attack Confederate forces positioned near Bull Run Creek at Manassas Junction, Virginia. Just as the Union forces seemed close to victory, Confederate reinforcements under General Thomas (Stonewall) Jackson counterattacked and sent the inexperienced Union troops in disorderly and panicky flight back to Washington (together with civilian curiosity-seekers and picnickers). The battle ended the illusion of a short war and also promoted the myth that the Rebels were invincible in battle.

moderate faction

Free-Soilers who were chiefly concerned about economic opportunities for whites).

Other Results of the War

Imperialism remained a major issue in the United States even after the ratification of the Treaty of Paris. An Anti-Imperialist League, led by William Jennings Bryan, rallied opposition to further acts of expansion in the Pacific.

Russo-Japanese War

Imperialist rivalry between Russia and Japan led to war in 1904, a war Japan was winning. To end the conflict, Roosevelt arranged a diplomatic conference between the two foes at Portsmouth, New Hampshire, in 1905. Although both Japan and Russia agreed to the Treaty of Portsmouth, Japanese nationalists blamed the United States for not giving their country all that they believed they deserved from Russia.

Greenback party

In the congressional election of 1878, Greenback candidates received nearly 1 million votes, and 14 members were elected to Congress, including James B. Weaver of Iowa (a future leader of the Populist party). When the hard times of the 1870s ended, the Greenback party died out, but the goal of increasing the amount of money in circulation did not.

The "Log Cabin and Hard Cider" Campaign of 1840

In the election of 1840, the Whigs were in a strong position to defeat Van Buren and the Jacksonian Democrats.

The Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine

It meant that the United States would send gunboats to a Latin American country that was delinquent in paying its debts. U.S. sailors and marines would then occupy the country's major ports to manage the collection of customs taxes until European debts were satisfied. Over the next 20 years, U.S. presidents used the Roosevelt Corollary to justify sending U.S. forces into Haiti, Honduras, the Dominican Republic, and Nicaragua. One long-term result of such interventions was poor U.S. relations with the entire region of Latin America.

Species Circular

It required that all future purchases of federal lands be made in specie (gold and silver) rather than in paper banknotes. Soon afterward, banknotes lost their value and land sales plummeted. Right after Jackson left office, a financial crisis-the Panic of 1837-plunged the nation's economy into a depression.

Morrill Tariff of 1861

It was a high protective tariff that increased duties 5%-10%. The increases were designed to raise additional revenue and provide more protection for the prosperous manufacturers.

Populist movement

It was a political group that gained much support from farmers who turned to them to fight political unfairness. ... A Populist Party platform for the 1892 election (running for president-James Weaver, vice president-James Field.) They created ideas that would help benefit the farmers.

Ostend Manifesto (1854)

A. President Polk offer to purchase Cuba from Spain for $100 million, but Spain refused to sell the last major remnant of its once glorious empire B. Elected to the presidency in 1852, Franklin Pierce adopted pro-Southern policies and dispatched three American diplomats to Ostend, Belgium, where they secretly negotiated to buy Cuba from Spain. The Ostend Manifesto that the diplomats drew up was leaked to the press in the United States and provoked an angry reaction from antislavery members of Congress. President Pierce was forced to drop the scheme.

Farmers' Southern Alliance-

An organization that rallied behind political reforms to solve the farmers' economic problems. Colored Farmers' National Alliance. An organization for colored farmers who rallied behind political reforms to solve the farmers' economic problems.

Arguments for a Bill of Rights

Anti-Federalists argued that Americans had fought the Revolutionary War to escape a tyrannical government in Britain.

The Concentration of Wealth

By the 1890s, the richest 10 percent of the U.S. population controlled 90 percent of the nation's wealth. Industrialization created a new class of millionaires, some of whom flaunted their wealth by living in ostentatious mansions, sailing enormous yachts, and throwing lavish parties. The Vanderbilts graced the waterfront of Newport, Rhode Island, with summer homes that rivaled the villas of European royalty

Farm Problems: North, South, and West

By the end of the 1800s, farmers had become a minority within American society. While the number of U.S. farms more than doubled between 1865 and 1900, people working as farmers declined from 60 percent of the working population in 1860 to less than 37 percent in 1900. All farmers-white or black, westerner or southerner-faced similar problems.

Two-party System

Campaigns for president now had to be conducted on a national scale. To organize these campaigns, candidates needed large political parties.

Popular Campaigning-

Candidates for office directed their campaigns to the interests and prejudices of the common people. Politics also became a form of local entertainment. Campaigns of the 1830s and 1840s featured parades of floats and marching bands and large rallies in which voters were treated to free food and drink. The negative side to the new campaign techniques was that in appealing to the masses, candidates would often resort to personal attacks and ignore the issues.

Gibbons v. Ogden (1821)

Could the state of New York grant a monopoly to a steamboat company if that action conflicted with a charter authorized by Congress? In ruling that the New York monopoly was unconstitutional, Marshall established the federal government's broad control of interstate commerce.

International Darwinism

Darwin's concept of the survival of the fittest was applied not only to competition in business but also to competition among nations and races for military advantage, colonies, and spheres of influence. Therefore, to demonstrate strength in the international arena, expansionists wanted to acquire territories overseas. They saw this expansion as an extension of the idea of manifest destiny into the Caribbean, Central America, and the Pacific Ocean.

Gettysburg

Lee again took the offensive by leading an army into enemy territory: the Union states of Maryland and Pennsylvania.Lee hoped to force the Union to call for peace-or at least to gain foreign intervention on behalf of the Confederacy. On July 1, 1863, the invading Confederate army surprised Union units at Gettysburg in southern Pennsylvania. What followed was the most crucial battle of the war and the bloodiest, with more than 50,000 casualties.destroyed a key part of the Confederate army. What was left of Lee's forces retreated to Virginia, never to regain the offensive.

Aristocracy

Members of the South's small elite of wealthy planters owned at least 100 slaves and at least 1,000 acres. The planter aristocracy maintained its power by dominating the state legislatures of the South and enacting laws that favored the large landholders' economic interests.

Professional Class

Members of this business and professional middle class took their civic responsibilities seriously. Some were versed in scientific and statistical methods and the findings of the new social sciences. They belonged to the hundreds of national business and professional associations that provided platforms to address corrupt business and government practices and urban social and economic problems.

Immigrants-

More Europeans were being attracted to America by speculators offering cheap land in the Great Lakes region and in the valleys of the Ohio, Cumberland, and Mississippi rivers.

The British View

Most British were convinced that the colonists were both unable and unwilling to defend the new frontiers of the vastly expanded British empire.

African American Legislators

Most of the African Americans who held elective office in the reconstructed state governments were educated property holders who took moderate positions on most issues -Republicans in the South sent two African Americans (Blanche K. Bruce and Hiram Revels) to the Senate and more than a dozen African Americans to the House of Representatives. Revels was elected in 1870 to take the Senate seat from Mississippi once held by Jefferson Davis. Seeing African Americans and former slaves in positions of power caused bitter resentment among disfranchised ex-Confederates.

General Characteristics

Most of the population was English in origin, language, and tradition. However, both Africans and non-English immigrants brought diverse influences that would modify the culture of the majority in significant ways.

The Muckrakers

Newspaper and magazine publishers found that their middle-class readers loved to read about underhanded schemes in politics. Therefore, many publications featured in depth, investigative stories. Writers specializing in such stories were referred to as "muckrakers" by President Theodore Roosevelt.

The Zenger Case

Newspaper printers in colonial days ran the risk of being jailed for libel if any article offended the political authorities.

"Citizen" Genet

Objecting to Washington's policy, "Citizen" Edmond Genet, the French minister to the United States, broke all the normal rules of diplomacy by appealing directly to the American people to support the French cause.

Walker Expedition-

Southern adventurer William Walker had tried unsuccessfully to take Baja California from Mexico in 1853. Then, leading a force mostly of Southerners, he took over Nicaragua in 1855. Walker's regime even gained temporary recognition from the United States in 1856. However, his grandiose scheme to develop a proslavery Central American empire collapsed, when a coalition of Central American countries invaded and defeated him. Walker was executed by Honduran authorities in 1860.

Lawyers

Often viewed as talkative troublemakers, lawyers were not common in the 1600s. The most able lawyers formed a bar ( committee or board), which set rules and standards for aspiring young lawyers. Lawyers gained further respect in the 1760s and 1770s when they argued for colonial rights

Sinking of Maine

On February 15, 1898, the U.S. battleship Maine was at anchor in the harbor of Havana, Cuba, when it suddenly exploded, killing 260 Americans on board. The yellow press accused Spain of deliberately blowing up the ship, even though experts later concluded that the explosion was probably an accident.

Southern Reaction

Southern whites counterattacked by arguing that slavery was just the opposite-a positive good for slave and master alike. They argued that slavery was sanctioned by the Bible and was firmly grounded in philosophy and history. Southern authors contrasted the conditions of Northern wage workers-"wage slaves" forced to work long hours in factories and mines-with the familial bonds that could develop on plantations between slaves and masters.

White Society

Southern whites observed a rigid hierarchy among themselves. Aristocratic planters lived comfortably at the top of society while poor farmers and mountain people struggled at the bottom.

Ku Klux Klan

Southern whites organized secret societies to intimidate blacks and white reformers. founded in 1867 by an ex-Confederate general, Nathaniel Bedford Forrest. The "invisible empire" burned black-owned buildings and flogged and murdered freedmen to keep them from exercising their voting rights. To give federal authorities the power to stop Ku Klux Klan violence and to protect the civil rights of citizens in the South, Congress passed the Force Acts of 1870 and 1871.

African Americans Adjusting to Freedom

Southerners who had the greatest adjustment to make during the Reconstruction era were the freedmen and freedwomen. Having been so recently emancipated from slavery, they were faced with the challenges of securing their economic survival as well as their political rights as citizens.

Pancho Villa and the U.S. Expeditionary Force

Pancho Villa. Hoping to destabilize his opponent's government, Villa led raids across the U.S.-Mexican border and murdered several people in Texas and New Mexico. In March 1916, President Wilson ordered General John J. Pershing and an "expeditionary force" to pursue Villa into northern Mexico. They failed to capture Villa. President Carranza protested the American presence in Mexico. In January 1917, the growing possibility of U.S. entry into World War I caused Wilson to withdraw Pershing's troops.

Dividing the Americas

Spain and Portugal were the first European kingdoms to claim territories in the Americas. Their claims overlapped, leading to disputes.

De Lome Letter (1898)

Spanish diplomat's letter that was leaked to the press and printed on the front page of Hearst's Journal. Written by the Spanish minister to the United States, Dupuy de Lome, the letter was highly critical of President McKinley. Many considered it an official Spanish insult against the U.S. national honor.

Private City Versus Public City

Private enterprise shaped the development of American cities, and provided services such as streetcars and utilities for a profit. In time, increasing disease, crime, waste, water pollution, and air pollution slowly convinced reform-minded citizens and city governments of the need for municipal water purification, sewerage systems, waste disposal, street lighting, police departments, and zoning laws to regulate urban development.

Federalists (Foreign Policy)

Pro-British

Democratic-Republicans foreign policy

Pro-French

Pragmatism

Progressive thinkers adopted the new philosophy of pragmatism because it enabled them to challenge fixed notions that stood in the way of reform. For example, they rejected laissez-faire theory as impractical.

Split in the Republican Party

Progressives in the Republican party were unimpressed with Taft's achievements. In fact, they became so disenchanted with his leadership that they accused him of betraying their cause and joining the conservative wing of the party. These were their reasons: Payne-Aldrich Tariff Pinchot-Ballinger Controversy House Speaker Joe Cannon Midterm Elections

Child and Women Labor

Progressives were most outraged by the treatment of children by industry.

Margaret Fuller

Social reformer, leader in women's movement and a transcendentalist. Edited "The Dial" which was the publication of the transcendentalists. It appealed to people who wanted "perfect freedom" "progress in philosophy and theology and hope that the future will not always be as the past".a feminist (advocate of women's rights) writer and editor;

Social Change

Some changes occurred immediately before the war ended, while others evolved gradually as the ideas of the Revolution began to filter into the attitudes of the common people

The New South

South was recovering from the devastation of the Civil War

Thomas Cole and Frederick Church

emphasized the heroic beauty of American landscapes, especially in uplifting scenes along the Hudson River in NY State and the Western frontier wilderness. New York State and the western frontier wilderness. The Hudson River school, as it was called, expressed the romantic age's fascination with the natural world.

the recall,

enabled voters to remove a corrupt or unsatisfactory politician from office by majority vote before that official's term had expired

Public Land Act in 1796,

established orderly procedures for dividing and selling federal lands at reasonable prices. The process for adding new states to the Union, as set forth in the Constitution, went smoothly. In 1791 Vermont became the first new state, followed by Kentucky in 1792 and Tennessee in 1796.

North Carolina

established small, self-sufficient tobacco farms. The region had few good harbors and poor transportation; therefore, compared to South Carolina, there were fewer large plantations and less reliance on slavery. North Carolina in the 18th century earned a reputation for democratic views and autonomy from British control.

A fourth law

expanded the Quartering Act to enable British troops to be quartered in private homes. It applied to all colonies.

manifest destiny

expressed the popular belief that the United States had a divine mission to extend its power and civilization across the breadth of North America. It was driven by a number of forces: nationalism, population increase, rapid economic development, technological advances, and reform ideals. Northern critics argued vehemently that at the root of the expansionist drive was the Southern ambition to spread slavery into western lands.

Voting

extended to all white males who owned some property. The property requirement, usually for a minimal amount of land or money, was based on the assumption that property owners had a larger stake in government than did the poor and propertyless.

Commercial Agriculture

farming became more of a commercial enterprise and less a means of providing subsistence for the family. This change to cash crops was brought about by a blend of factors.

Madison's proposal-the Virginia Plan

favored the large states; it was countered by the New Jersey Plan

Whiskey Ring

federal revenue agents conspired with the liquor industry to defraud the government of millions in taxes. While Grant himself did not personally profit from the corruption, his loyalty to dishonest men around him badly tarnished his presidency.

Tariff of 1816

first protective tariff in American history, created primarily to shield New England manufacturers from the inflow of British goods after the War of 1812. ... A natural post-war depression caused by overproduction and the reduced demand for goods after the war. - New England, which had little manufacturing at the time, was the only section to oppose the higher tariffs. -Even the South and West, which had opposed tariffs in the past and would oppose them in the future, generally s

The Pure Food and Drug Act

forbade the manufacture, sale, and transportation of adulterated or mislabeled foods and drugs.

Redeemers-

The Democratic politicians who came to power in the southern states after Reconstruction, won support from two groups: the business community and the white supremacists. The latter group favored policies of separating or segregating, public facilities for blacks and whites as a means of treating African Americans as social inferiors. The redeemers often used race as a rallying cry to deflect attention away from the real concerns of tenant farmers and the working poor. They discovered that they could exert political power by playing on the racial fears of whites

Bishop Henry Turner

formed the International Migration Society in 1894 to help blacks emigrate to Africa. Many African Americans moved to Kansas and Oklahoma.

Know-Nothing Party

The Know-Nothings drew support away from the Whigs at a time when that party was reeling from its defeat in the 1852 election. Their one core issue was opposition to Catholics and immigrants who, in the 1840s and 1850s, were entering Northern cities in large numbers. Although the Know-Nothings won a few local and state elections in the mid-l 850s and helped to weaken the Whigs, they quickly lost influence, as sectional issues again became paramount

Republicans

The core of Republican strength came from men in business and from middle-class, Anglo-Saxon Protestants, many of whom supported temperance or prohibition. Republicans followed the tradition of Hamilton and the Whigs, supporting a pro-business economic program of high protective tariffs.

Political Reforms in Cities and States

The cornerstone of Progressive ideology was faith in democracy. Progressives believed that, given a chance, the majority of voters would elect honest officials instead of the corrupt ones backed by boss-dominated political machines.

Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty of 1903

granting the United States all rights over the 51-mile-long and IO-mile-wide Canal Zone as "if it were sovereign ... in perpetuity " to keep U.S. protection. Years later, Roosevelt boasted, "I took the Canal Zone and let Congress debate."

Sir William Berkeley

he royal governor of Virginia ( 1641-1652; 1660 1677), used dictatorial powers to govern on behalf of the large planters. He antagonized small farmers on Virginia's western frontier because he failed to protect them from Indian attacks.

George Westinghouse

held more than 400 patents and was responsible for developing an air brake for railroads (1869) and a transformer for producing high-voltage alternating current (1885). The latter invention made possible the lighting of cities and the operation of electric streetcars, subways, and electrically powered machinery and appliances.

Indian Reorganization Act ( 1934 )-

hich promoted the re-establishment of tribal organization and culture. Today, more than 3 million American Indians, belonging to 500 tribes, live within the United States.

Columbian Exchange,

a transfer of plants, animals, and germs from one side of the Atlantic to the other for the first time. -Europeans introduced to the Americas sugar cane, bluegrasses, pigs, and horses, as well as the wheel, iron implements, and guns -he European importation of germs and diseases, such as smallpox and measles, to which the natives had no immunity. Millions died (there was a mortality rate of more than 90 percent) -including entire tribal communities. These exchanges, biological and cultural, would permanently change the entire world.

Jack London,

a young California writer, and adventurer portrayed the conflict between nature and civilization in novels such as The Call of the Wild (1903).

Clayton-Bulwer Treaty (1850

a. Great Britain had the same ambition. To prevent each other from seizing this opportunity on its own, Great Britain and the United States agreed to the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty of 1850. It provided that neither nation would attempt to take exclusive control of any future canal route in Central America. This treaty continued in force until the end of the century

"Preservationists,-

View lands and their natural resources as being untouched and maintained in pristine form, without human consumption. Humans should have access to land, for its beauty and intrinsic values. Main Characters of Preservation. John Muir and Stephen Mather.

Bureau of Mines,

added large tracts in the Appalachians to the national forest reserves, and set aside federal oil lands (the first president to do so).

Dr. Samuel Gridley Howe

advanced the cause of the visually impaired; developed books with large raised letters that people with sight impairments could "read" with their fingers. started a school for the blind.

Margaret Sanger

advocated birth-control education, especially among the poor. Over time, the movement developed into the Planned Parenthood organization. Women made progress in securing educational equality, liberalizing marriage and divorce laws, reducing discrimination in business and the professions, and recognizing women's rights to own property.

Commercial Compromise

allowed Congress to regulate interstate and foreign commerce, including placing tariffs (taxes) on foreign imports, but it prohibited placing taxes on any exports.

Lincoln Steffens' The Shame of the Cities (1904)

also caused a sensation by describing in detail the corrupt deals that characterized big-city politics from Philadelphia to Minneapolis.

Senator James G. Blaine

also from Maine, had the potential of being a great political leader and largely succeeded in reshaping the Republicans from an antislavery party into a well-organized, business-oriented party. However, Blaine's reputation was tarnished by links with railroad scandals and other corrupt dealings.

George Washington Carver

an African American scientist at Tuskegee Institute in Alabama, promoted the growth of such crops like peanuts, sweet potatoes, and soybeans. His work played an important role in shifting southern agriculture toward a more diversified base.

the initiative

a method by which voters could compel the legislature to consider a bill

Battle of the San Jacinto River

an army under Sam Houston caught the Mexicans by surprise and captured their general, Santa Anna. Under the threat of death, the Mexican leader was forced to sign a treaty that recognized independence for Texas and granted the new republic all territory north of the Rio Grande.

The Second Great Awakening

began among educated people such as Reverend Timothy Dwight, president of Yale College in Connecticut. Dwight's campus revivals motivated a generation of young men to become evangelical preachers. In the revivals of the early 1800s, successful preachers were audience-centered and easily understood by the uneducated; they spoke about the opportunity for salvation to all. These populist movements seemed attuned to the democratization of American society.

Quakers-

believed in the equality of all men and women, nonviolence, and resistance to military service. They further believed that religious authority was found within each person's soul and not in the Bible and not in any outside source. Such views posed a radical challenge to established authority. Therefore, the Quakers of England were persecuted and jailed for their beliefs.

Civil War

between the Union and the Confederacy (1861-1865) was the most costly of all American wars in terms of the loss of human life-and also the most destructive war ever fought in the Western Hemisphere. The deaths of 750,000 people, a true national tragedy, constituted only part of the impact of the war on American society. Most important, the Civil War freed 4 million people from slavery, giving the nation what President Lincoln called a "new birth of freedom." The war also transformed American society by accelerating industrialization and modernization in the North and destroying much of the South. These changes were so fundamental and profound that some historians refer to the Civil War as the Second American Revolution.

economic differences

between the industrializing North and the agricultural South over such issues as tariffs, banking, and internal improvements;

Frederick Douglass

born a slave but escaped to the North and became a prominent black abolitionist; gifted orator, writer, and editor; published "Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass"

Virginia

by far the most populous of the original 13 states. There, the Anti-Federalists rallied behind two strong leaders, George Mason and Patrick Henry, who viewed the Constitution and a strong central government as threats to Americans' hard-won liberty. Virginia's Federalists, led by Washington, Madison, and John Marshall, managed to prevail by a close vote only after promising a bill of rights.

vertical integration

by which a company would control every stage of the industrial process, from mining the raw materials to transporting the finished product.

Jobless on the March

conservatives feared class war between capital and labor. They were especially alarmed by a march to Washington in 1894 by thousands of the unemployed led by Populist Jacob A. Coxey of Ohio. "Coxey's Army" demanded that the federal government spend $500 million on public works programs to create jobs. Coxey and other protest leaders were arrested for trespassing, and the dejected marchers returned home.

Old Northwest-

consisted of six states west of the Alleghenies that were admitted to the Union before 1860: Ohio (1803), Indiana (1816), Illinois (1818), Michigan (1837), Wisconsin (1848), and Minnesota (1858). These states came from territories formed out of land ceded to the national government in the 1780s by one of the original 13 states.

Standard Oil Trust

controlled 90 percent of the oil refinery business. The trust that Rockefeller put together consisted of the various companies that he had acquired, all managed by a board of trustees that Rockefeller and Standard Oil controlled

"Declaration of Sentiments"

declared that "all men and women are created equal" and listed women's grievances against laws and customs that discriminated against them.

Pullman Strike

a strike of workers living in George Pullman's company town near Chicago. Pullman manufactured the famous railroad sleeping cars known as Pullman cars. In 1894, he announced a general cut in wages and fired the leaders of the workers' delegation who came to bargain with him. The workers at Pullman laid down their tools and appealed for help from the American Railroad Union. The union's boycott tied up rail transportation across the country. Railroad owners supported Pullman by linking Pullman cars to mail trains.

The Second Continental Congress

delegates to the Second Continental Congress met in Philadelphia in May 1775. The congress was divided. One group of delegates, mainly from New England, thought the colonies should declare their independence. Another group, mainly from the middle colonies, hoped the conflict could be resolved by negotiating a new relationship with Great Britain.

George Whitefield-

While Edwards mostly influenced New England, George Whitefield, who came from England in 1739, spread the Great Awakening throughout the colonies, sometimes attracting audiences of 10,000 people. In barns, tents, and fields, he delivered rousing sermons that stressed that God was all-powerful and would save only those who openly professed belief in Jesus Christ. Those who did not would be damned into hell and face eternal torments. Whitefield taught that ordinary people with faith and sincerity could understand the gospels without depending on ministers to lead them.

Temperance and Prohibition

While urban Progressives recognized that saloons were often the neighborhood headquarters of political machines, they generally had little sympathy for the temperance movement. Rural reformers, on the other hand, thought they could clean up morals and politics in one stroke by abolishing liquor.

the Albany Plan of Union-

developed by Benjamin Franklin that provided for an intercolonial government and a system for recruiting troops and collecting taxes from the various colonies for their common defense. Each colony was too jealous of its own taxation powers to accept the plan, however, and it never took effect. The Albany congress was significant, however, because it set a precedent for later, more revolutionary congresses in the 1770s.

Birmingham, Alabama,

developed into one of the nation's leading steel producers.

Ohioan, Tom L. Johnson,

devoted himself to tax reform and three-cent trolley fares for the people of Cleveland. As Cleveland's mayor from 1901-1909, Johnson fought hard-but without success-for public ownership and operation of the city's public utilities and services (water, electricity, and trolleys).

Saratoga

in October 1777. British forces under General John Burgoyne had marched from Canada in an ambitious effort to link up with other forces marching from the west and south. But Burgoyne's troops were attacked at Saratoga by troops commanded by American generals Horatio Gates and Benedict Arnold. The British army was forced to surrender. News of the surprising American victory persuaded France to join in the war against Britain. France's king, Louis XVI, was an absolute monarch who had no interest in aiding a revolutionary movement.

The Triangle Shirtwaist fire (1911)

in a New York City high-rise garment factory took 146 lives, mostly women. The tragedy sparked greater women's activism and motivated states to pass laws to improve safety and working conditions in factories.

commission plan of government

in which voters elected the heads of city departments (fire, police, and sanitation), not just the mayor.

watering stock

inflating the value of a corporation's assets and profits before selling its stock to the public

Credit Mobilier affair

insiders gave stock to influential members of Congress to avoid investigation of the profits they were making-as high as 348 percent-from government subsidies for building the transcontinental railroad.

McKinley's War Message

issued an ultimatum to Spain demanding that it agree to a ceasefire in Cuba. Spain agreed to this demand, but U.S. newspapers and a majority in Congress kept clamoring for war. McKinley yielded to the public pressure in April by sending a war message to Congress

Fur traders

known as mountain men were the earliest nonnative individuals to open the Far West. In the 1820s, they held yearly rendezvous in the Rockies with American Indians to trade for animal skins. James Beckwourth, Jim Bridger, Kit Carson, and Jedediah Smith were among the hardy band of explorers and trappers who provided much of the early information about trails and frontier conditions to later settlers.

Southern conservatives

known as redeemerstook control of one state government after another. This process was completed by 1877. The redeemers had different social and economic backgrounds, but they agreed on their political program: states' rights, reduced taxes, reduced spending on social programs, and white supremacy.

The idea of "do-little" government was in tune with two other popular ideas of the time:

laissez-faire economics Social Darwinism

"the Great American Desert

lands between the Mississippi River and the Pacific Coast

The Progressive era

lasted through the Republican presidencies of Roosevelt (1901-1909) and William Howard Taft (1909-1913), and the first term of the Democrat Woodrow Wilson (1913-1917)

New Laws of 1542.-

laws ended Indian slavery, halted forced Indian labor, and began to end the encomienda system which kept the Indians in serfdom. Conservative Spaniards, eager to keep the encomienda system, responded and successfully pushed the king to repeal parts of the New Laws.

Turner's Frontier Thesis

historian Frederick Jackson Turner wrote an influential essay, "The Significance of the Frontier in American History" (1893). Turner argued that 300 years of frontier experience had shaped American culture by promoting independence and individualism. The frontier was a powerful social leveler, breaking down class distinctions and thus fostering social and political democracy. Furthermore, the challenges of frontier life caused Americans to be inventive and practical-minded-but also wasteful in their attitude toward natural resources

Middle Colonies Delegates

hoped the conflict could be resolved by negotiating a new relationship with Great Britain.

In the House, Thaddeus Stevens of Pennsylvania

hoped to revolutionize Southern society through an extended period of military rule in which African Americans would be free to exercise their civil rights, would be educated in schools operated by the federal government, and would receive lands confiscated from the planter class.

Pontiac's Rebellion

in 1763 when Chief Pontiac led a major attack against colonial settlements on the western frontier. The American Indians were angered by the growing westward movement of European settlers onto their land and by the British refusal to offer gifts as the French had done. Pontiac's alliance of American Indians in the Ohio Valley destroyed forts and settlements from New York to Virginia. Rather than relying on colonial forces to retaliate, the British sent regular British troops to put down the uprising.

The Townshend Acts-

in 1767, Parliament enacted new duties to be collected on colonial imports of tea, glass, and paper. The law required that the revenues raised be used to pay crown officials in the colonies, thus making them independent of the colonial assemblies that had previously paid their salaries. The Townshend Acts also provided for the search of private homes for smuggled goods. Another of the Townshend Acts suspended New York's assembly for that colony's defiance of the Quartering Act.

Proclamation of Neutrality (1793)

in 1793 he issued a proclamation of U.S. neutrality in the conflict. Jefferson resigned from the cabinet in disagreement with Washington's policy.

spheres of influence-

in China, meaning that they could dominate trade and investment within their sphere (a particular port or region of China) and shut out competitors

Western Settlement and the Missouri Compromise

the population west of the Appalachian Mountains had doubled. Much of the nationalistic and economic interest in the country was centered on the West, which presented both opportunities and new questions.

In Missouri

the presence of U.S. troops prevented the pro-South elements in the state from gaining control, although guerrilla forces sympathetic to the Confederacy were active throughout the war

The South

the region included 15 states, all but four of which (Delaware, Maryland, Kentucky, and Missouri) seceded and joined the Confederacy.

The enthusiasm for reform had many historic sources

the Puritan sense of mission, the Enlightenment belief in human goodness, the politics of Jacksonian democracy, and changing relationships among men and women, among social classes, and among ethnic groups. The most important source may have been religious beliefs.

The Election of 1868

the Republicans turned to a war hero, giving their presidential nomination to General Ulysses S. Grant, even though Grant had no political experience. Despite Grant's popularity in the North, he managed to win only 300,000 more popular votes than his Democratic opponent. The votes of 500,000 blacks gave the Republican ticket it's margin of victory.

Both parties had strong organizations,

the Republicans usually on the state level the Democrats in the cities.

The poverty of the majority of southerners was not caused by northern capitalists. Two other factors were chiefly responsible:

the South's late start at industrialization ) a poorly educated workforce

In re Debs (1895)

the Supreme Court approved the use of court injunctions against strikes, which gave employers a very powerful weapon to break unions. After serving a six-month jail sentence, Debs concluded that more radical solutions were needed to cure labor's problems. He turned to socialism and the American Socialist party, which he helped to found in 1900

Lochner v. New York (1905)

the Supreme Court ruled against a state law limiting workers to a ten-hour workday,

Ex Parte Milligan (1866)

the Supreme Court ruled that the government had acted improperly in Indiana where, during the war, certain civilians had been subject to a military trial. The Court declared that such procedures could be used only when regular civilian courts were unavailable.

Munn v. Illinois (1877)

the Supreme Court upheld the right of a state to regulate businesses of a public nature, such as railroads.

Political (Union)

the Union was fighting to preserve the Union. the Union had a well-established central government, and in Abraham Lincoln and in the Republican and Democratic parties it had experienced politicians with a strong popular base.

Latin America

the United States had taken a special interest in problems of the Western Hemisphere and had assumed the role of protector of Latin America from European ambitions

The West

the West referred to all the lands not along the Atlantic Coast. In the 1700s, the West meant lands on the other side of the Appalachian Mountains. By the mid-I800s, the West lay beyond the Mississippi River and reached to California and the Oregon Territory on the Pacific Coast.

Social Darwinism

the belief that Darwin's ideas of natural selection and survival of the fittest should be applied to the marketplace. the idea that certain people become powerful in society because they are innately better.

The Union Triumphs, 1863-1865

the fortunes of war were turning against the Confederates. Although General Lee started the year with another major victory at Chancellorsville, Virginia, the Confederate economy was in desperate shape, as planters and farmers lost control of their slave labor force, and an increasing number of poorly provisioned soldiers were deserting from the Confederate army.

Muller v. Oregon (1908)

the high court ruled that health of women needed special protection from long hours.

Worcester v. Georgia (1832)

the high court ruled that the laws of Georgia had no force within Cherokee territory. In this clash between a state's laws and the federal courts, Jackson sided with the states. The Court was powerless to enforce its decision without the President's support

Antinomianism

the idea that faith alone, not deeds, is necessary for salvation.

popular sovereignty

the idea that people living in a territory should decide whether that territory would prohibit slavery. ... As a result, free-soilers and pro-slavery activists flooded the state to vote on whether Kansas would enter the union as a free or a slave state.

By 1900, the United States was

the leading industrial power in the world, manufacturing more than its leading rivals, Great Britain, France, or Germany.

three separate branches

legislative powers -to an elected two-house legislature executive powers -to an elected governor, judicial powers- to a system of courts. The principle of separation of powers was intended to be a safeguard against tyranny-especially against the tyranny of a too-powerful executive.

R.H. Macy in New York and Marshall Field in Chicago

made the large department store the place to shop in urban centers,

Permanent Restrictions

mercantilist policies remained in force. In the 18th century, there were more English officials in the colonies than in any earlier era. Restrictions on colonial trade, though poorly enforced, were widely resented and resisted.

Republicans had long been divided between

moderates, radicals,

African Americans in the Progressive Era

most leaders of the Progressive movement thought only in terms of the white race. African Americans were, for the most part, ignored by Progressive presidents and governors. President Wilson, with a strong southern heritage and many of the racist attitudes of the times, acquiesced to the demands of southern Democrats and permitted the segregation of federal workers and buildings

During the post-Civil War era

most of the large-scale industrial development took place in the Northeast and Midwest, while the South and West most often supplied raw materials and consumed northern manufactured goods.

Fourier Phalanxes-

n the 1840s, the theories of the French socialist Charles Fourier attracted the interest of many Americans. In response to the problems of a fiercely competitive society, Fourier advocated that people share work and housing in communities known as Fourier Phalanxes. This movement died out quickly as Americans proved too individualistic to live communally.

William H. Seward of New York

served as secretary of state (1861-1869) under both Abraham Lincoln and Andrew Johnson. Seward was the most influential secretary of state since John Quincy Adams (who formulated the Monroe Doctrine in 1823). Seward helped prevent Great Britain and France from entering the war on the side of the Confederacy. He led the drive to annex Midway Island in the Pacific, gained rights to build a canal in Nicaragua, and purchased the vast territory of Alaska. Seward did not get all he wanted. For example, he failed to convince Congress to annex Hawaii and to purchase the Danish West Indies.

Commonwealth v. Hunt

one notable victory in 1842 when the Massachusetts Supreme Court ruled that "peaceful unions" had the right to negotiate labor contracts with employers.

By 1900,

only 3 percent of American workers belonged to unions. Management held the upper hand in labor disputes, with the government generally taking its side. However, people were beginning to recognize the need for a better balance between the demands of employers and employees to avoid the numerous strikes and violence that characterized the late 19th century.

Democratic-Republicans chief supporters

skilled workers, small farmers, plantation owners

Frederick Law Olmsted

specialized in the planning of city parks and scenic boulevards, including Central Park in New York City and the grounds of the U.S. Capitol in Washington. As the originator of landscape architecture, Olmsted not only designed parks, parkways, campuses, and suburbs but also established the basis for later urban landscaping.

Corporate colonies

such as Jamestown, were operated by joint-stock companies, at least during these colonies' early years.

Proprietary colonies

such as Maryland and Pennsylvania, were under the authority of individuals granted charters of ownership by the king.

Royal colonies

such as Virginia after 1624, were to be under the direct authority and rule of the king's government.

dietary reforms

such as eating whole wheat bread or Sylvester Graham's crackers, to promote good digestion

In the Pacific Northwest (Washington and Oregon), Native Americans

such tribes as the Chinook and Shasta developed complex communities based on abundant fish and game.

Settlement houses

taught English to immigrants, pioneered early childhood education, taught industrial arts, and established neighborhood theaters and music schools. workers were civic-minded volunteers who created the foundation for the later job of a social worker. They were also political activists who crusaded for child-labor laws, housing reform, and women's rights.

Dingley Tariff of 1897-

that increased the tariff to more than 46 percent, and, in 1900, making gold the official standard of the U.S. currency

Wabash v. Illinois (1886)

that individual states could not regulate interstate commerce. In effect, the Court's decision nullified many of the state regulations achieved by the Grangers.

Businesses benefited from friendly government policies

that protected private property, subsidized railroads with land grants and loans, supported U.S. manufacturers with protective tariffs, refrained from regulating business operations, and limited taxes on corporate profits.

Jim Crow laws

that southern states adopted beginning in the 1870s. These laws required segregated washrooms, drinking fountains, park benches, and other facilities in virtually all public places. Only the use of streets and most stores were not restricted according to a person's race.

An abundant labor supply

that was, between 1865 and 1900, supplemented yearly by the arrival of hundreds of thousands of immigrants.

The penal experiment

the Auburn system in New York, enforced rigid rules of discipline while also providing moral instruction and work programs.

William's War (1689-1697) and Queen Anne's War (1702-1713)

the British launched expeditions to capture Quebec, but their efforts failed. American Indians supported by the French burned British frontier settlements. Ultimately, the British forces prevailed in Queen Anne's War and gained both Nova Scotia from France and trading rights in Spanish America.

A Fourth Political Party

the Constitutional Union party. For president, they nominated John Bell of Tennessee. The party's platform pledged enforcement of the laws and the Constitution and, above all, preserving the Union.

Civil Rights Cases of 1883

the Court ruled that Congress could not legislate against the racial discrimination practiced by private citizens, which included railroads, hotels, and other businesses used by the public. Then, in 1896, in the landmark case of Plessy v. Ferguson, the Supreme Court upheld a Louisiana law requiring "separate but equal accommodations" for white and black passengers on railroads. The Court ruled that the Louisiana law did not violate the 14th Amendment's guarantee of "equal protection of the laws."

Unlike the French and Spanish colonists

the English brought a tradition of representative government. They were accustomed to holding elections for representatives who would speak for property owners and decide important measures, such as taxes, proposed by the king's government. While political and religious conflicts dominated England, feelings for independence grew in the colonies.

Britain based its claim to Oregon on

the Hudson Fur Company's profitable fur trade with the American Indians of the Pacific Northwest

Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC)/ Elkins Act (1903)

the ICC had greater authority to stop railroads from granting rebates to favored customers

Settlement of the Western Territories

the migration of Americans into these lands began in earnest. The arid area between the Mississippi Valley and the Pacific Coast was popularly known in the 1850s and 1860s as the Great American Desert. Emigrants passed quickly over this vast, dry region to reach the more inviting lands on the West Coast. Therefore, California and Oregon were settled several decades before people attempted to farm the Great Plains.

Social Gospel

or the importance of applying Christian principles to social problems. Leading the Social Gospel movement in the late 19th and early 20th centuries was a Baptist minister from New York, Walter Rauschenbusch, who worked in the poverty-stricken neighborhood of New York City called Hell's Kitchen, wrote several books urging organized religions to take up the cause of social justice. His Social Gospel preaching linked Christianity with the Progressive reform movement (see Chapter 21) and encouraged many middle-class Protestants to attack urban problems.

Georgia, North Carolina, and South Carolina

overtook the New England states as the chief producers of textiles.

dress reform for women,

particularly Amelia Bloomer's efforts to get women to wear pantalettes instead of long skirts

Women

performed myriad daily tasks, including those of doctor, teacher, seamstress, and cook-as well as chief assistant in the fields to their former husbands. The isolation, endless work, and rigors of childbirth resulted in a short lifespan for frontier women.

During the 1840s and 1850s, most state legislatures in the North passed laws establishing a ten-hour workday for industrial workers. Improvement for workers, however, continued to be limited by

periodic depressions, employers and courts that were hostile to unions, an abundant supply of cheap immigrant labor.

March 1814, at the Battle of Horseshoe Bend

present-day Alabama, Jackson ended the power of an important British ally, the Creek nation. The victory eliminated the Indians and opened new lands to white settlers. The victory was impressive-but also meaningless.

Charles Darwin, Origin of Species

presented the concept of evolution, which had an impact well beyond simply justifying the accumulation of wealth (see Chapter 16). The way people thought and reasoned was challenged, and the prevailing philosophy of romantic transcendentalism in America gave way to a balanced pragmatism.

calling in

private guards and state militia to put down strikes

In Maryland,

pro-secessionists attacked Union troops and threatened the railroad to Washington.

The Homestead Act (1862)

promoted settlement of the Great Plains by offering parcels of 160 acres of public land free to any person or family that farmed that land for at least five years.

The Compromise of 1877

promptly withdrew the last of the federal troops protecting African Americans and other Republicans. the Supreme Court struck down one Reconstruction law after another that protected blacks from discrimination. Supporters of the New South promised a future of industrial development, but most Southern African Americans and whites in the decades after the Civil War remained poor farmers, and they fell further behind the rest of the nation.

The National Child Labor Committee

proposed model state child labor laws that were passed by two-thirds of the states by 1907. Ultimately state compulsory school attendance laws proved most effective in keeping children out of the mines and factories.

Memphis, Tennessee

prospered as a center for the South's growing lumber industry.

Thomas Eakins's

realism included paintings of surgical scenes and the everyday lives of working-class men and women. He also used the new technology of serialization photographs to study human anatomy and paint it more realistically.

The Massachusetts Government Act

reduced the power of the Massachusetts legislature while increasing the power of the royal governor.

"Gilded Age,"

referred to the superficial glitter of the new wealth so prominently displayed in the late 19th century. It was the era of "forgettable" presidents, none of whom served two consecutive terms, and of politicians who largely ignored problems arising from the growth of industry and cities.

Moby-Dick (1855)

reflected the theological and cultural conflicts of the era as it told the story of Captain Ahab's pursuit of a white whale.

The Interstate Commerce Act of 1886

required railroad rates to be "reasonable and just." It also set up the first federal regulatory agency, the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC), which had the power to investigate and prosecute pools, rebates, and other discriminatory practices. the ICC helped railroads by stabilizing rates and curtailing destructive competition.

The Contract Labor Law of 1885

restricted temporary workers to protect American workers. A literacy test for immigrants was vetoed by President Cleveland but passed in 1917.

"second Industrial Revolution

resulted in the growth of large-scale industry and the production of steel, petroleum, electric power, and the industrial machinery to produce other goods.

United States v. E. C. Knight Co. (1895)

ruled that the Sherman Antitrust Act could be applied only to commerce, not to manufacturing. As a result, the U.S. Department of Justice secured few convictions until the law was strengthened during the Progressive era

The development of labor

saving technologies and an efficient patent system increased productivity. The federal government granted more than 440,000 new patients from 1860 to 1890.

Thomas Jefferson-

secretary of state

Alexander Hamilton

secretary of the treasury

Yellow Press

sensationalistic reporting that featured bold and lurid headlines of crime, disaster, and scandal. Among the most sensationalistic were two New York newspapers, Joseph Pulitzer's World and William Randolph Hearst's Journal, which printed exaggerated and false accounts of Spanish atrocities in Cuba. Believing what they read daily in their newspapers, many Americans urged Congress and the president to intervene in Cuba for humanitarian reasons and put a stop to the atrocities and suffering.

The most celebrated event of the war (Cuba)

was a cavalry charge up San Juan Hill in Cuba by the Rough Riders, a regiment of volunteers led by Theodore Roosevelt, who had resigned his navy post to take part in the war. Roosevelt's volunteers were aided in victory by veteran regiments of African Americans. Less heroic but more important than the taking of San Juan Hill was the success of the U.S. Navy in destroying the Spanish fleet at Santiago Bay on July 3. Without a navy, Spain realized that it could not continue fighting, and in early August 1898 asked for U.S. terms of peace.

Harriet Tubman

was a conductor who helped slaves escape. She was African-American and helped over 300 slaves to freedom, and also became a very outspoken advocate for women's rights.

John D. Rockefeller

was a man who started from meager beginnings and eventually created an oil empire. In Ohio in 1870 he organized the Standard Oil Company. By 1877 he controlled 95% of all of the refineries in the United States.

W. E. B. Du Bois

was a northerner with a college education, who became a distinguished scholar and writer. In his book The Souls of Black Folk (1903), Du Bois criticized Booker T. Washington's approach and demanded equal rights for African Americans. He argued that political and social rights were a prerequisite for economic independence.

Treaty of Paris

was a peace agreement between Spain and the United States that ended the Spanish-American War. Under the treaty, Cuba gained independence from Spain, and the United States gained possession of the Philippines, Puerto Rico, and Guam.

Wilmot Proviso

was a rider (or provision) attached to an appropriations bill during the Mexican War. It stated that slavery would be banned in any territory won from Mexico as a result of the war.

Anaconda Plan

was a strategy for the Union army by General Winfield Scott. ... The Anaconda Plan had 3 main goals: To gain control of the Mississippi River which would cut the Confederacy into two parts, to blockade the Southern ports, and to capture the Confederate capital of Richmond.

Free-Soil party,

which adopted the slogan "free soil, free labor, and free men." In addition to its chief objective-preventing the extension of slavery-the new party also advocated free homesteads (public land grants to small farmers) and internal improvements.

grandfather clauses

which allowed a man to vote only if his grandfather had cast ballots in elections before Reconstruction

Alien Acts

which authorized the president to deport aliens considered dangerous and to detain enemy aliens in time of war.

Prohibitory Act (August 1775

which declared the colonies in rebellion. A few months later, Parliament forbade all trade and shipping between Britain and the colonies.

New Jersey Plan

which favored the small states

Pinckney Treaty of 1795-

which had allowed American farmers tax-free use of the port. People on the frontier clamored for government action. In addition to being concerned about the economic impact of the closing of New Orleans, President Jefferson was troubled by its consequences on foreign policy. He feared that, so long as a foreign power controlled the river at New Orleans, the United States risked entanglement in European affairs.

the Northeast,

which included New England and the Middle Atlantic states,

he Sherman Silver Purchase Act of 1890,

which increased the coinage of silver, but too little to satisfy farmers and miners

Only one nonsectarian college was founded during this period. The College of Philadelphia

which later became the University of Pennsylvania, had no religious sponsors

Sedition Act-

which made it illegal for newspaper editors to criticize either the president or Congress and imposed fines or imprisonment for editors who violated the law.

Tea Act in 1773

which made the price of the company's tea-even with the tax included-cheaper than that of smuggled Dutch tea.

New England Emigrant Aid Company (1855)

which paid for the transportation of antislavery settlers to Kansas

Sherman Antitrust Act in 1890

which prohibited any "contract, combination, in the form of trust or otherwise, or conspiracy in restraint of trade or commerce."

Chinese Exclusion Act in 1882

which prohibited further immigration to the United States by Chinese laborers. Immigration from China was severely restricted until 1965. The 1882 law was the first major act of Congress to restrict immigration on the basis of race and nationality.

the Dawes Act,

which reformers hoped would benefit American Indians

the Old Northwest

which stretched from Ohio to Minnesota.

Specie Resumption Act

which withdrew all greenbacks from circulation.

Composition of the Reconstruction Governments

whites were in the majority in both houses of the legislature. The exception was South Carolina, where the freedmen controlled the lower house in 1873. Republican legislators included native-born white Southerners, freedmen, and recently arrived Northerners.

radicals,

who championed civil rights for blacks.

Bret Harte

who depicted life in the rough mining camps of the West.

Landscape architect Frederick Law Olmsted,

who designed New York's Central Park in the 1860s, went on to design suburban communities with gracefully curved roads and open spaces-"a village in the park."

Henry Demarest Lloyd

who in 1881 wrote a series of articles for the Atlantic Monthly attacking the practices of the Standard Oil Company and the railroads. Published in book form in 1894, Lloyd's Wealth Against Commonwealth fully exposed the corruption and greed of the oil monopoly but failed to suggest how to control it.

Daniel H. Burnham

who revived classical Greek and Roman architecture in his designs for the World's Columbian Exposition of 1893, continued to explore historical styles

Mary Baker Eddy,

who taught that good health was the result of correct thinking about "Father Mother God." By the time of her death in 1910, hundreds of thousands had joined the church she had founded, the Church of Christ, Scientist-popularly known as Christian Science.

Liberals-

who were most concerned about protecting individual rights and preventing future tyrannies.

David Ricardo (1772-1823 )

whose famous "iron law of wages" argued that raising wages would only increase the working population, and the availability of more workers would in turn cause wages to fall, thus creating a cycle of misery and starvation.

Other parts of the 14th Amendment applied specifically to Congress' plan of Reconstruction. These clauses

• disqualified former Confederate political leaders from holding either state or federal offices • repudiated the debts of the defeated governments of the Confederacy • penalized a state if it kept any eligible person from voting by reducing that state's proportional representation in Congress and the electoral college

Stephen Douglas

the sponsor of the Kansas-Nebraska Act, expected the slavery issue in the territory to be settled peacefully by the antislavery farmers from the Midwest who migrated to Kansas

In Kentucky

the state legislature voted to remain neutral in the conflict.

Supreme Court

the top federal court in the judicial branch.

Among the hundreds of noteworthy inventions of the late 19th century

the typewriter (1867), the telephone developed by Alexander Graham Bell (1876), the cash register (1879), the calculating machine (1887), adding machine (1888).

Social Change

those most directly affected were women, whose labors became more burdensome, and African Americans, who won emancipation.

radical faction

those who championed the cause of immediate abolition of slavery)

New England delegates

thought the colonies should declare their independence.

judicial powers

to a system of courts. The principle of separation of powers was intended to be a safeguard against tyranny-especially against the tyranny of a too-powerful executive.

executive powers

to an elected governor,

Northern opposition

to compromise came from younger antislavery lawmakers, such as Senator William H. Seward of New York, who argued that a higher law than the Constitution existed

International Migration Society in 1894

to help blacks emigrate to Africa. Many moved to Kansas and Oklahoma. ... By the end of the 1800s farmers had become a minority within American society.

The demand for whale oil

to light the homes of middle-class Americans caused a whaling boom between 1830 and 1860, in which New England merchants took the lead.

Failures (Republicans)

took advantage of their power to take kickbacks and bribes from contractors who did business with the state. However, corruption occurred throughout the country, Northern states and cities as well. No geographic section, political party, or ethnic group was immune to the general decline in ethics in government that marked the postwar era.

Packaged foods

under such brand names as Kellogg and Post became common items in American homes. Refrigerated railroad cars and canning enabled Gustavus Swift and other packers to change the eating habits of Americans with mass-produced meat and vegetable products.

The leading Radical Republican in the Senate

was Charles Sumner of Massachusetts (who returned to the Senate three years after his caning by Brooks)

Blanche K. Bruce

was a U.S. politician who represented Mississippi as a Republican in the U.S. Senate from 1875 to 1881 and was the first elected African American senator to serve a full term.

Eighth Amendment

"Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted."

Sixth Amendment

"In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and district wherein the crime shall have been committed; which district shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation; to be confronted with the witnesses against him; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to have the assistance of counsel for his defense."

Factors accounting for the complacency and conservatism of the era included

(1) the prevailing political ideology of the time, (2) campaign tactics of the two parties, (3) party patronage.

Full presidential pardons would be granted to most Confederates who

(1) took an oath of allegiance to the Union and the U.S. Constitution, and - (2) accepted the emancipation of slaves. A state government could be reestablished and accepted as legitimate by the U.S. president as soon as at least 10 percent of the voters in that state took the loyalty oath.

Exodus

1. By 1850, the vast majority of American Indians were living west of the Mississippi River. Those to the east had either been killed by disease, died in battles, emigrated reluctantly, or been forced to leave their land by treaty or military action. T 2. The Great Plains, however, would provide only a temporary respite from conflict with white settlers.

Two other factors went into Britain's decision not to recognize the Confederacy

1. First, as mentioned, General Lee's setback at Antietam played a role; without seeing a decisive Confederate military victory, the British government would not risk recognition. 2. . Second, Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation (January 1863) made the end of slavery an objective of the Union, a position that appealed strongly to Britain's working class.

The Civil War had at least two permanent effects on American women

1. First, the field of nursing was now open to women for the first time; previously, hospitals employed only men as doctors and nurses. 2. Second, the enormous responsibilities undertaken by women during the war gave impetus to the movement to obtain equal voting rights for women.

Decline of Muckraking

1. First, writers found it more and more difficult to top the sensationalism of the last story. 2. Second, publishers were expanding and faced economic pressures from banks and advertisers to tone down their treatment of business 3. Third, by 1910 corporations were becoming more aware of their public image and developing a new specialty: the field of public relations. 4. Nevertheless, muckraking had a lasting effect on the Progressive era. It exposed inequities, educated the public about corruption in high places, and prepared the way for corrective action.

Foreign Affairs

1. Following the War of 1812, the United States adopted a more aggressive, nationalistic approach it its relations with other nations. 2. President Monroe and Secretary of State John Quincy Adams continued to follow a nationalistic policy that actively advanced American interests while maintaining peace.

Consequences of the War

1. For Mexico, the war was a military disaster from the start, but the Mexican government was unwilling to sue for peace and concede the loss of its northern lands. Finally, after the fall of Mexico City, the government had little choice but to agree to U.S. terms.

Farming Frontier

1. Most pioneer families moved west to start homesteads and begin farming. 2. A family needed at least $200 to $300 to make the overland trip, which eliminated many of the poor. The trek to California and Oregon was largely a middle-class movement.

Social Sciences

1. New fields, known as the social sciences, emerged, such as psychology, sociology, anthropology, and political science. 2. Evolutionary theory influenced leading sociologists (Lester F. Ward), political scientists (Woodrow Wilson), and historians (Frederick Jackson Turner) to study the dynamic process of actual human behavior instead of logical abstractions.

Native American Reaction

1. North American tribes saw themselves as groups distinct from each other, not as part of a larger body of Native Americans. 2. Native Americans had to adopt new ways to survive. 3. A number of tribes simply migrated to new land to get away from the slowly encroaching settlers. Regardless of how they dealt with the European invasion, Native Americans would never be able to return to the life they had known prior to 1492.

Effect of Law and Literature

1. Northerners who had earlier scorned abolition became more concerned about slavery as a moral issue 2. Southerners became convinced that the North's goal was to destroy the institution of slavery and the way of life based upon it.

Marketing Consumer Goods

1. The increased output of U.S. factories, as well as the invention of new consumer products, prompted businesses to find ways of selling their merchandise to a large public. 2. Advertising and new marketing techniques not only promoted a consumer economy but also created a consumer culture in which shopping became a favorite pastime. 3. Frank Woolworth's Five and Ten Cent Store bought nationwide chain stores to the towns and urban neighborhoods.

New Parties

1. The increasing tensions over slavery divided Northern and Southern Democrats, and it completely broke apart the Whig party. 2. The new parties came into being at this time-one temporary, the other permanent. Both played a role in bringing about the demise of a major national party, the Whigs.

The Steel Industry

1. The technological breakthrough that launched the rise of heavy industry was the discovery of a new process for making large quantities of steel ( a more durable metal than iron) 2. Henry Bessemer in England and William Kelly in the United States discovered that blasting air through molten iron produced high-quality steel.

Omaha Platform

1. Their Omaha platform called for both political and economic reforms.

Politics-

1. There were eight royal colonies with governors appointed by the king (New Hampshire, Massachusetts, New York, New Jersey, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia) 2. In the three proprietary colonies (Maryland, Pennsylvania, and Delaware), governors were appointed by the proprietors. 3. The governors in only two of the colonies, Connecticut and Rhode Island, were elected by popular vote.

Slave Trading

1. They used the slaves to work newly established sugar plantations on the Madeira and Azores islands off the African coast. 2. Producing sugar with slave labor was so profitable that when Europeans later established colonies in the Americas, they used the slave system there.

Cotton and the South

1. Throughout the 19th century, the principal cash crop in the South was cotton. Eli Whitney's invention of the cotton gin in 1793 transformed the agriculture of an entire region. Now that they could easily separate the cotton fiber from the seeds, southern 2. They invested their capital in the purchase of slaves and new land in Alabama and Mississippi and shipped most of their cotton crop overseas for sale to British textile factories

Political Dominance of the North

1.. With the military triumph of the Union came a new definition of the nature of the federal union. 2. Furthermore, the abolition of slavery in addition to its importance to freed African Americans-gave new meaning and legitimacy to the concept of American democracy.

Money Question

1. easy-money advocates campaigned first for more paper money (greenbacks) and then for the unlimited minting of silver coins. 2. bankers, creditors, investors, and established businesses stood firm for "sound" or "hard" money-meaning currency backed by gold stored in government vaults. Supporters of hard money argued that dollars backed by gold would hold their value against inflation.

Great Plains

1. either nomadic hunters or sedentary people who farmed and traded. 2. The nomadic tribes survived on hunting, principally the buffalo, which supplied their food as well as decorations, crafting tools, knives, and clothing. 3. They lived in tepees, frames of poles covered in animal skins, which were easily disassembled and transported. While the farming tribes also hunted buffalo, they lived permanently in earthen lodges often along rivers. 4. Not until the 17th century did American Indians acquire horses by trading or stealing them from Spanish settlers. 5. The plains tribes would at times merge or split apart as conditions changed. Migration also was common. For example, the Apaches gradually migrated southward from Canada to Texas.

The End of Slavery

1. even though Lincoln in the 1850s spoke out against slavery as "an unqualified evil," as president he seemed hesitant to take action against slavery as advocated by many of his Republican supporters. 2. All these concerns made the timing and method of ending slavery fateful decisions. Enslaved individuals were freed during the Civil War as a result of military events, governmental policy, and their own actions.

Changes in Agriculture

1. farming became increasingly commercialized-and also more specialized. Northern and western farmers of the late 19th century concentrated on raising single cash crops, such as corn or wheat, for both national and international markets. 2. farmers became more dependent on large and expensive machines, such as steam engines, seeders, and reaper-thresher combines. Ever larger farms were run like factories. Unable to afford the new equipment, small, marginal farms could not compete and, in many cases, were driven out of business.

Immediate Causes of the War

1. Polk ordered General Zachary Taylor to move his army toward the Rio Grande across territory claimed by Mexico. On April 24, 1846, a Mexican army crossed theRio Grande and captured an American army patrol, killing 11. 2. Northern Whigs (among them a first-term Illinois representative named Abraham Lincoln) opposed going to war over the incident and doubted Polk's claim that American blood had been shed on American soil. Nevertheless, Whig protests were in vain; a large majority in both houses approved the war resolution.

Revolution in Panama

1. Roosevelt was eager to begin the construction of a canal through the narrow but rugged terrain of the isthmus of Panama. He was frustrated, however, by Colombia's control of this isthmus and its refusal to agree to U.S. terms for digging the canal through its territory 2. Roosevelt orchestrated a revolt for Panama's independence in 1903. With the support of the U.S. The rebellion succeeded immediately and almost without bloodshed.

Limits to Colonial Democracy

1. most colonists were excluded from the political process. Only male property owners could vote for representatives. 2. the gradual development of democratic ideas in the colonies coexisted with antidemocratic practices such as slavery and the widespread mistreatment of American Indians.

Men

1. most men did work. Landowning was primarily reserved to men, who also dominated politics. English law gave the husband almost unlimited power in the home, including the right to beat his wife.

Emancipation Proclamation

1863, the president issued his Emancipation Proclamation. After listing states from Arkansas to Virginia that were in rebellion, the proclamation stated: I do order and declare that all persons held as slaves within said designated States and parts of States are, and henceforward shall be, free; and that the Executive Government of the United States, including the military and naval authorities thereof, shall recognize and maintain the freedom of said persons.

Imperialism

Americans were not alone in pursuing imperialism, which meant either acquiring territory or gaining control over the political or economic life of other countries. Britain, France, Germany, Russia, Japan, and other nations struggled to influence or possess weaker countries in Africa, Asia, and the Pacific Ocean. Some in the United States believed that the nation needed to compete with the imperialistic nations for new territory or it would be reduced to a second-class power. In the United States, advocates of American expansion included missionaries, politicians, naval strategists, and journalists.

George Caleb Bingham

An American realist artist, whose paintings depicted life on the frontier. depicted common people in various settings and carrying out domestic chores.

Puerto Rico

An act of Congress in 1917 granted U.S. citizenship to all the inhabitants and also provided for limited self-government.

Public Education

Another reform movement started in the Jacksonian era focused on the need for establishing free public schools for children of all classes. Middle-class reformers were motivated in part by their fears for the future of the republic posed by growing numbers of the uneducated poor-both immigrant and native-born.

Pragmatism/John Dewey

An idea developed by William James and John Dewey that argued that the "good" and "true" could not be known in the abstract as fixed and changeless ideals. They said that people should take a practical approach to morals, ideals, and knowledge.

Growth of Immigration

An increased combination of pushes and pulls

Colored Farmers' National Alliance

An organization of Southern black farmers formed in Texas in 1886 in response to the Southern Farmers' Alliance, which did not accept black people as members. It helped launch the Populist Party. Subtreasury System.

Arguments Against a Bill of Rights

Federalists argued that since members of Congress would be elected by the people, they did not need to be protected against themselves. Furthermore, people should assume that all rights were protected rather than create a limited list of rights that might allow unscrupulous officials to assert that unlisted rights could be violated at will.

John C. Calhoun of South Carolina

Calhoun argued against compromise and insisted that the South be given equal rights in the acquired territory.

A majority of the Court decided against Scott and gave these reasons:

Dred Scott had no right to sue in a federal court because the Framers of the Constitution did not intend African Americans to be U.S. citizens. • Congress did not have the power to deprive any person of property without due process of law; if slaves were a form of property, then Congress could not exclude slavery from any federal territory. • The Missouri Compromise was unconstitutional because it excluded slavery from Wisconsin and other Northern territories.

The Souls of Black Folk (1903)

Du Bois criticized Booker T. Washington's approach and demanded equal rights for African Americans. He argued that political and social rights were a prerequisite for economic independence.

Regional Differences

During the Gilded Age, industrial growth was concentrated in the Northeast and Midwest regions, the parts of the country with the largest populations, the most capital, and the best transportation. As the industry grew, these regions developed more cities, attracted more immigrants and migrants from rural areas, and created more middle-class jobs.

Return of the Democrats-

In the congressional elections of 1890, the voters, especially in the Midwest, replaced many Republicans with Democrats. They were reacting in part to unpopular measures passed by Republican state legislatures: prohibition of alcohol and laws requiring business to close on Sundays. Voters who were neither Anglo-Saxon nor Protestant rushed back to the Democrats, who had not tried to legislate public morality.

The French in Mexico

Napoleon III (nephew of the famous emperor Napoleon Bonaparte) had taken advantage of U.S. involvement in the Civil War by sending French troops to occupy Mexico. As soon as the Civil War ended in 1865, Seward invoked the Monroe Doctrine and threatened U.S. military action unless the French withdrew. Napoleon III backed down, and the French troops left Mexico.

"pushes

(negative factors from which people are fleeing)

Frank Norris' The Octopus

(on the tyrannical power of railroad companies)

"pulls"

(positive attractions of the adopted country) increased migrations around the world.

Christopher Columbus

But three subsequent voyages across the Atlantic were disappointing-he found little gold, few spices, and no simple path to China and India.

The Port Act

closed the port of Boston, prohibiting trade in and out of the harbor until the destroyed tea was paid for.

the lockout

closing the factory to break a labor movement before it could get organized • blacklists: names of pro-union workers circulated among employers

slavery

as a growing moral issue in the North, versus its defense and expansion in the South;

Reduced migration:

Increases in wages in England reduced the supply of immigrants to the colonies

William S. Mount

Won popularity for his lively rural compositions

the Interstate Commerce Act of 1887,

the federal government's first effort to regulate business,

Aztecs

were dominating Mexico and Central America,

Fifth Amendment-

"No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a Grand Jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the Militia, when in actual service in time of War or public danger; nor shall any person be subject for the same offence to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb; nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor shall private property be taken for public use without just compensation.""No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a Grand Jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the Militia, when in actual service in time of War or public danger; nor shall any person be subject for the same offence to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb; nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor shall private property be taken for public use without just compensation."

Ninth Amendment

"The enumeration in the Constitution of certain rights shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people."

Tenth Amendment

"The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people.

Fourth Amendment

"The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures shall not be violated, and no Warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by Oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized.

Southern Republicans

"scalawags", Northerners went South after the war for various reasons. Some were investors interested in setting up new businesses, while others were ministers and teachers with humanitarian goals. Some went simply to plunder.

Conservate Delegate

( Wanted a mild settlement protest)- John Jay (New York) and Joseph Galloway (Pennsylvania)

national organization of farmers demanded

(1) direct election of U.S. senators (in the original U.S. Constitution, senators were selected by state legislatures), (2) lower tariff rates, (3) a graduated income tax (people with higher incomes would pay higher rates of tax), and ( 4) a new banking system regulated by the federal government. demanded that Treasury notes and silver be used to increase the amount of money in circulation, which farmers hoped would create inflation and raise crop prices. The platform also proposed federal storage for farmers' crops and federal loans, which would free farmers from dependency on middlemen and creditors. stopped short of forming a political party

Politically, it demanded (Omaha Platform)

(1) direct popular election of U.S. senators (instead of indirect election by state legislatures) (2) the use of initiatives and referendums, procedures that allowed citizens to vote directly on proposed laws.

Jones Act of 1916

(1) granted full territorial status to that country, (2) guaranteed a bill of rights and universal male suffrage to Filipino citizens, and (3) promised independence for the Philippines as soon as a stable government was established.

Lincoln's concerns included

(1) keeping the support of the border states, (2) the constitutional protections of slavery, (3) the racial prejudice of many Northerners, and ( 4) the fear that premature action could be overturned in the next election.

Efforts to restrict immigration were supported by diverse groups such as

(1) labor unions, which feared that employers would use immigrants to depress wages and break strikes, (2) a nativist society, the American Protective Association, which was openly prejudiced against Roman Catholics, and (3) social Darwinists, who viewed the new immigrants as biologically inferior to English and Germanic stocks.

The number of U.S. colleges increased in the late 1800s largely as a result of:

(1) land-grant colleges established under the federal Morrill acts of 1862 and 1890, (2) universities founded by wealthy philanthropists-the University of Chicago by John D. Rockefeller, for example, d (3) the founding of new colleges for women, such as Smith, Bryn Mawr, and Mount Holyoke

In 1900, therefore, he wrote a second note to the imperialistic powers stating U.S. commitment too

(1) preserve China's territorial integrity as well as (2) safeguard "equal and impartial trade with all parts of the Chinese empire."

Wilson-Gorman Tariff in 1894

(1) provided a moderate reduction in tariff rates (2) included a 2 percent income tax on incomes of more than $2,000.

Far more controversial than the war itself were the terms of the treaty of peace signed in Paris on December 10, 1898. It provided for

(1) recognition of Cuban independence, (2) U.S. acquisition of two Spanish islands Puerto Rico in the Caribbean and Guam in the Pacific, (3) U.S. acquisition of the Philippines in return for payment to Spain of $20 million.

He (Cleveland) signed into law both

(1) the Interstate Commerce Act of 1887,- the federal government's first effort to regulate business, (2) the Dawes Act,- which reformers hoped would benefit American Indians

proprietary colonies

(Maryland, Pennsylvania, and Delaware),

Royal Colonies

(New Hampshire, Massachusetts, New York, New Jersey, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia)

"Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God

(1741). Invoking the Old Testament scriptures, Edwards argued that God was rightfully angry with human sinfulness. Each individual who expressed deep penitence could be saved by God's grace, but the souls who paid no heed to God's commandments would suffer eternal damnation.

middle colonies

(Pennsylvania, New York, New Jersey, Maryland, and Delaware)

southern colonies

(Virginia, the Carolinas, and Georgia). (Virginia, the Carolinas, and Georgia).

charter

(a document granting special privileges) from the English monarch. Each charter described in general terms the relationship that was supposed to exist between the colony and the crown. Over time, three types of charters-and three types of colonies

polygamy

(allowing a man to have more than one wife)

Rationalism

(belief in human reason)

The Pit

(grain speculation)

Declaratory Act

(1766). This act asserted that Parliament had the right to tax and make laws for the colonies "in all cases whatsoever." This declaration of policy would soon lead to renewed conflict between the colonists and the British government.

A Century of Dishonor-

(1881). Although this book created sympathy for American Indians, especially in the eastern United States, it also generated support for ending Indian culture through assimilation. Reformers advocated formal education, job training, and conversion to Christianity. They set up boarding schools such as the Carlisle School in Pennsylvania to segregate American Indian children from their people and teach them white culture and farming and industrial skills.

xenophobia

(hatred and fear of foreigners)

disfranchisement

(loss of the right to vote and hold office)

Underrepresented

-Loyal colonists who didn't want to challenge the King's Government

Foreign Problems

-Relations between the United States and the major powers of Europe were troubled from the start. States failed to adhere to the Treaty of Paris, which required that they restore property to Loyalists and repay debts to foreigners. In addition, the U.S. government under the Articles was too weak to stop Britain from maintaining military outposts on the western frontier and restricting trade.

House Speaker Joe Cannon

-Taft angered Progressive Republicans when he failed to support their effort to reduce the dictatorial powers of Congress' leading conservative, Speaker of the House Joseph Cannon.

Pennsylvania Railroad

-connected eastern seaports w/Chicago and other midwestern cities

Roosevelt's New Nationalism

-of strong federal government regulations helping the people did have a lasting influence for much of the century

Passage of the Underwood Tariff in 1913

-substantially lowered tariffs for the first time in over 50 years. To compensate for the reduced tariff revenues, the Underwood bill included a graduated income tax with rates from 1 to 6 percent

The national organization of farmers-

-the National Alliance-met in Ocala, Florida, to address the problems of rural America. The alliance attacked both major parties as subservient to Wall Street bankers and big business. Ocala delegates created a platform that would significantly impact politics.

Clay's Proposals

1. admit Missouri as slave state 2. Admit Maine as free state 3. Prohibit slavery in the rest of the Louisiana territory north of latitude 36°30' 4. won majority support for three bills that, taken together, represented a compromise:

The Progressives' Philosophy

-were committed to democratic values and shared in the belief that honest government and just laws could improve the human condition.

national banking system

-with 12 district banks supervised by a Federal Reserve Board. After months of debate, Congress finally passed the Federal Reserve Act in 1914. Ever since, Americans have purchased goods and services using the Federal Reserve Notes (dollar bills) issued by the federally regulated banking system.

Hayes to become president. In return, he would (

1) immediately end federal support for the Republicans in the South, and b. (2) support the building of a Southern transcontinental railroad..

Irish

1,. half of all the immigrants-almost 2 million came from Ireland. 2. These Irish immigrants were mostly tenant farmers driven from their homeland by potato crop failures and a devastating famine in the 1840s. 3. They arrived with limited interest in farming, few special skills, and little money. 4. They faced strong discrimination because of their Roman Catholic religion 5. they congregated for mutual support in the northern cities (Boston, Philadelphia, and New York) where they had first landed. 6. They organized their fellow immigrants and joined the Democratic party, which had long traditions of antiBritish feelings and support for workers

McKinley's War Message, He offered four reasons for the United States to intervene in the Cuban revolution on behalf of the rebels:

1. "Put an end to the barbarities, bloodshed, starvation, and horrible miseries" in Cuba 2. Protect the lives and property of U.S. citizens living in Cuba 3. End "the very serious injury to the commerce, trade, and business of our people" 4. End "the constant menace to our peace" arising from disorder in Cuba

Restricting Immigration

1. -Congress had passed a number of new laws restricting immigration 2.Restrictions also came in 1882 on the immigration of "undesirable" persons, such as paupers, criminals, convicts, and those diagnosed as mentally incompetent. 3.anti-immigrant feelings and early restrictions did not stop the flow of newcomers.

Elementary Education

1. A Massachusetts law in 1647 required towns with more than fifty families to establish primary schools for boys, and towns with more than a hundred families to establish grammar schools to prepare boys for college. 2. In the middle colonies, schools were either church-sponsored or private. Often, teachers lived with the families of their students 3. In the southern colonies, parents gave their children whatever education they could. On plantations, tutors provided instruction for the owners' children.

No Hereditary Aristocracy

1. A narrower class system, based on economics, was developing. 2. Wealthy landowners were at the top; craft workers and small farmers made up the majority of the common people.

Gospel of Wealth

1. A number of Americans found religion more convincing than social Darwinism in justifying the wealth of successful industrialists and bankers. 2. Acres of Diamonds," the Reverend Russell Conwell preached that everyone had a duty to become rich. 3. to both his business and personal life, John D. Rockefeller concluded that "God gave me my riches. 4. Andrew Carnegie's article "Wealth" argued that the wealthy had a God-given responsibility to carry out projects of civic philanthropy for the benefit of society. Practicing what he preached, Carnegie distributed more than $350 million of his fortune to support the building of libraries, universities, and various public institutions.

Political Changes

1. A principal reason for the rapid decline of the Federalist party was its failure to adapt to the changing needs of a growing nation. 2. the Democratic-Republican party, as the only remaining national party, underwent serious internal strains as it adjusted to changing times. Members such as John Randolph clung to the old party ideals of limited government and a strict interpretation of the Constitution. 3. Some members reversed their views from one decade to the next.

New Revenues and Regulations (Reaction)

1. A young Virginia lawyer named Patrick Henry spoke for many when he stood up in the House of Burgesses to demand that the king's government recognize the rights of all citizens-including the right not to be taxed without representation. 2. In Massachusetts, James Otis initiated a call for cooperative action among the colonies to protest the Stamp Act 3. Representatives from nine colonies met in New York in 1765 to form the so-called Stamp Act Congress. They resolved that only their own elected representatives had the legal authority to approve taxes. 4. Boycotts against British imports were the most effective form of protest. It became fashionable in the colonies in 1765 and 1766 for people not to purchase any article of British origin. Faced with a sharp drop in trade, London merchants put pressure on Parliament to repeal the controversial Stamp Act

Urban Reforms

1. Across the country, grassroots efforts arose to combat corruption in city governments. 2. However, many of the reformers of the Gilded Age would not see their efforts reach fruition or have a national impact until the early 20th century.

The Revolution of 1828

1. Adams sought reelection in 1828. But the Jacksonians were now ready to use the discontent of southerners and westerners and the new campaign tactics of party organization to sweep "Old Hickory" (Jackson) into office 2. Jackson's party resorted to smearing the president and accusing Adams' wife of being born out of wedlock. Supporters of Adams retaliated in kind, accusing Jackson's wife of adultery. The mudslinging campaign attracted a lot of interest and voter turnout soared. 3. Jackson won handily, carrying every state west of the Appalachians. His reputation as a war hero and man of the western frontier accounted for his victory more than the positions he took on issues of the day.

Democrats

1. After 1877, Democrats could count upon winning every election in the former states of the Confederacy. 2. The solid South was indeed solidly Democratic until the mid-20th century. 3. In the North, Democratic strength came from big-city political machines and the immigrant vote. Democrats were often Catholics, Lutherans, and Jews who objected to temperance and prohibition crusades conducted by Protestant (and largely Republican) groups. Democrats of the Gilded Age argued for states' rights and limiting powers for the federal government, following in the Jeffersonian tradition.

The West: Settlement of the Last Frontier

1. After the Civil War, many Americans began settling in the vast arid territory in the West that included the Great Plains, the Rocky Mountains, and the Western Plateau 2. In only 35 years, conditions on the Great Plains changed so dramatically that the frontier largely vanished. By 1900, the great buffalo herds had been wiped out. 3. Ten new western states had been carved out of the last frontier. Only Arizona, New Mexico, and Oklahoma remained as territories awaiting statehood. 4. The frenzied rush for the West's natural resources not only nearly exterminated the buffalo, but also seriously damaged the environment. Most significantly, the American Indians who lived in the region paid a high human and cultural price as land was settled by miners, ranchers, and farmers.

Agitation Over Slavery

1. For a brief period-the four years between the Compromise of 1850 and the passage of the Kansas-Nebraska Act in 1854-political tensions abated slightly. 2. the enforcement of the Fugitive Slave Act and the publication of a best-selling antislavery novel kept the slavery question in the forefront of public attention in both the North and South.

Agriculture and King Cotton

1. Agriculture was the foundation of the South's economy, even though by the 1850s small factories in the region were producing approximately 15 percent of the nation's manufactured goods 2. Tobacco, rice, and sugarcane were important cash crops, but these were far exceeded by the South's chief economic activity: the production and sale of cotton. 3. Originally, the cotton was grown almost entirely in two states, South Carolina and Georgia, but as demand and profits increased, planters moved westward into Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Texas. 4. New land was constantly needed, for the high cotton yields required for profits quickly depleted the soil. By the 1850s, cotton provided two-thirds of all U.S. exports and linked the South and Great Britain.

Religious Toleration

1. All of the colonies permitted the practice of different religions, but with varying degrees of freedom 2. Massachusetts, the most conservative, accepted several types of Protestants, but it excluded non-Christians and Catholics. 3. Rhode Island and Pennsylvania were the most liberal.

Religion and Society

1. All religions adapted to the stresses and challenges of modern urban living. 2. Roman Catholicism grew rapidly from the influx of new immigrants. Catholic leaders such as Cardinal James Gibbons of Baltimore inspired the devoted support of old and new immigrants by defending the Knights of Labor and the cause of organized labor. 3. Among Protestants, Dwight Moody, who founded the Moody Bible Institute in Chicago in 1889, would help generations of urban evangelists to adapt traditional Christianity to city life. 4. The Salvation Army, imported from England in 1879, provided basic necessities to the homeless and the poor while preaching the Christian gospel.

Cultures of Central and South America

1. All three civilizations developed highly organized societies, carried on an extensive trade, and created calendars that were based on accurate scientific observations. 2. All three cultivated crops that provided a stable food supply, particularly corn (maize) for the Mayas and Aztecs and potatoes for the Incas.

Language

1. American Indian languages constituted more than 20 language families. 2. Among the largest of these were Algonquian in the Northeast, Siouan on the Great Plains, and Athabaskan in the Southwest. Together, these 20 families included more than 400 distinct languages.

Frontier Pressures

1. Americans on the frontier longed for the lands of British Canada and Spanish Florida. Standing in the way were the British and their Indian and Spanish allies. 2. Conflict with the American Indians was a perennial problem for the restless westerners. For decades, settlers had been gradually pushing the American Indians farther and farther westward.

Invasion of Cuba

1. An ill-prepared, largely volunteer force landed in Cuba by the end of June. Here the most lethal enemy proved to be not Spanish bullets but tropical diseases. More than 5,000 American soldiers died of malaria, typhoid, and dysentery, while fewer than 500 died in battle. 2. Attacks by both American and Cuban forces succeeded in defeating the much larger but poorly led Spanish army.

Boundary Dispute in Maine

1. Another diplomatic issue arose in the 1840s over the ill-defined boundary between Maine and the Canadian province of New Brunswick. At this time, Canada was still under British rule, and many Americans regarded Britain as their country's worst enemy-an attitude carried over from two previous wars (the Revolution and the War of 1812). 2. A conflict between rival groups of lumbermen on the Maine-Canadian border erupted into open fighting. Known as the Aroostook War, or "battle of the maps," the conflict was soon resolved in a treaty negotiated by U.S. Secretary of State Daniel Webster and the British ambassador, Lord Alexander Ashburton

Women

1. As American society became more urban and industrialized, the nature of work and family life changed for women, many of whom no longer worked next to their husbands on family farms 2. Women seeking employment in a city were usually limited to two choices: domestic service or teaching. 3. Factory jobs, as in the Lowell System, were not common. The overwhelming majority of working women were single. If they married, they left their jobs and took up duties in the home. 4. In both urban and rural settings, women were gaining relatively more control over their lives. Marriages arranged by one's parents were less common, and some women elected to have fewer children. Nevertheless, legal restrictions on women remained. For example, they could not vote

The Panama Canal

1. As a result of the Spanish-American War, the new American empire stretched from Puerto Rico in the Caribbean to the Philippines in the Pacific 2. The United States desired a canal through Central America to connect the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. However, building a canal would be difficult

The "New Imperialism"

1. As the United States industrialized in the late 19th century, it also intensified its foreign involvement, partly because it wanted both sources of raw materials for manufacturing and worldwide markets for its growing quantity of industrial and agricultural products. 2. For the most part, advocates of an expansionist policy hoped to achieve their ends by economic and diplomatic means, not by military action.

Attitudes and Motives

1. As they entered a new century, most Americans were well aware of rapid changes in their country. 2. For decades, middle-class Americans had been alarmed by the rising power of big business, the uncertainties of business cycles, the increasing gap between rich and poor, the violent conflict between labor and capital, and the dominance of corrupt political machines in the cities. Most disturbing to minorities were the racist Jim Crow laws in the South that relegated African Americans to the status of second-class citizens. Crusaders for women's suffrage added their voices to the call for greater democracy.

Peace Efforts

1. At first the congress adopted a contradictory policy of waging war while at the same time seeking a peaceful settlement. Many in the colonies did not want independence, for they valued their heritage and Britain's protection, but they did want a change in their relationship with Britain.

Labor

1. At first, factory owners had difficulty finding workers for their mills. Factory life could not compete with the lure of cheap land in the West. In response to this difficulty, textile mills in Lowell, Massachusetts, recruited young farm women and housed them in company dormitories 2. In the 1830s, other factories imitated the Lowell System. Many factories also made extensive use of child labor. (Children as young as seven left home to work in the new factories.) Toward the middle of the century northern manufacturers began to employ immigrants in large numbers.

Boundary Dispute in Oregon

1. At one time, this territory was claimed by four different nations: Spain, Russia, Great Britain, and the United States. Spain gave up its claim to Oregon in a treaty with the United States (the Adams-Onis Treaty of 1819). 2. Their success in farming this fertile valley caused 5,000 Americans to catch "Oregon fever" and travel 2,000 miles over the Oregon Trail to settle in the area south of the Columbia River 3. By the 1844 election, many Americans believed it to be their country's manifest destiny to take undisputed possession of all of Oregon and to annex the Republic of Texas as well. 4. By 1845, Mexican California had a small Spanish-Mexican population of some 7,000 along with a much larger number of American Indians, but American emigrants were arriving in sufficient numbers "to play the Texas game."

Southern Colonies

1. Because of the diverse geography and climate of the southern colonies, agriculture varied greatly. Most people lived on small subsistence family farms with no slaves. A few lived on large plantations of over 2,000 acres and relied on slave labor. 2. Products were mainly tobacco in the Chesapeake and North Carolina colonies, timber and naval stores (tar and pitch) in the Carolinas, and rice and indigo in South Carolina and Georgia. Most plantations were located on rivers so they could ship exports directly to Europe.

The Election of 1844

1. Because slavery was allowed in Texas, many Northerners were opposed to its annexation. Leading the Northern wing of the Democratic party, former president Martin Van Buren opposed immediate annexation. Challenging him for the Democratic nomination in 1844 was the proslavery, pro annexation Southerner, John C. Calhoun. The dispute between these candidates caused the Democratic convention to dead lock 2. In a close election, the Whigs' loss of New York's electoral votes proved decisive, and Polk, the Democratic dark horse, was the victor. The Democrats interpreted the election as a mandate to add Texas to the Union.

Massachusetts Bay Colony

1. Because they wanted to purify the church, they became known as Puritans. 2. A civil war in England in the 1630s drove some 15,000 more settlers to the Massachusetts Bay Colony-a movement known as the Great Migration.

Labor Discontent

1. Before the Industrial Revolution, workers labored in small workplaces that valued an artisan's skills. They often felt a sense of accomplishment in creating a product from start to finish. 2. Industrial workers were often assigned just one step in the manufacturing of a product, performing semi skilled tasks monotonously. 3. In many industries, such as railroads and mining, working conditions were dangerous. Many workers were exposed to chemicals and pollutants that only later were discovered to cause chronic illness and early death. 4. Industrial workers rebelled against intolerable working conditions by missing work or quitting. They changed jobs on the average of every three years. About 20 percent of those who worked in factories eventually dropped out of the industrial workplace rather than continuing. This was a far higher percentage than those who protested by joining labor unions.

Initiative, Referendum, and Recall

1. Between 1898, when South Dakota adopted the initiative and referendum, and 1918 (the end of World War I) 2. a total of 20 states-most of them west of the Mississippi-offered voters the initiative and the referendum, while 11 states offered the recall.

Germans

1. Both economic hardships and the failure of democratic revolutions in 1848 caused more than 1 million Germans to seek refuge in the United States in the late 1840s and the 1850s. 2. they established homesteads throughout the Old Northwest and generally prospered. At first their political influence was limited. As they became more active in public life, many strongly supported public education and staunchly opposed slavery.

End of Slavery

1. Both in the short run and the long run, the group in American society whose lives were most profoundly changed by the Civil War were those African Americans who had been born into slavery. After the adoption of the 13th Amendment in 1865, 4 million people (3.5 million in the Confederate states and 500,000 in the border states) were "freedmen" and "freed women. 2. economic hardship and political oppression would continue for generations. Even so, the end of slavery represented a momentous step. Suddenly, slaves with no rights were protected by the U.S. Constitution, with open-ended possibilities of freedom. 3. The Civil War destroyed slavery and devastated the Southern economy, and it also acted as a catalyst to transform America into a complex modern industrial society of capital, technology, national organizations, and large corporations 4. The characteristics of American democracy and its capitalist economy were strengthened by this Second American Revolution.

Trent Affair

1. Britain came close to siding with the Confederacy in late 1861 over an incident at sea. 2. Despite intense public criticism, Lincoln gave in to British demands. Mason and Slidell were duly set free, but after again sailing for Europe, they failed to obtain full recognition of the Confederacy from either Britain or France.

Reorganization of the British Empire

1. British adopted more forceful policies for taking control of their expanded North American dominions. 2. To pay for troops to guard the frontier without increasing taxes at home, King George III and the dominant political party in Parliament (the Whigs) wanted the American colonies to bear more of the cost of maintaining the British empire.

The Campaign

1. Bryan countered by turning the Democratic-Populist campaign into a nationwide crusade. Traveling by train from one end of the country to the other, the young candidate covered 18,000 miles and gave more than 600 speeches. 2. He raised millions of dollars for the Republican ticket from business leaders who feared that "silver lunacy" would lead to runaway inflation. Hanna used the money to sell McKinley through the mass media (newspapers, magazines), 3. On election day, McKinley carried all of the Northeast and the upper Midwest in a decisive victory over Bryan in both the popular vote (7 .1 million to 6.5 million) and the electoral vote (271 to 176).

State Governments

1. By 1777, ten of the former colonies had written new constitutions. Most of these documents were both written and adopted by the states' legislatures. In a few of the states (Maryland, Pennsylvania, and North Carolina), a proposed constitution was submitted to a vote of the people for ratification (approval). the constitution was submitted to a vote of the people for ratification (approval).

Democrats

1. Issues Supported- • Local rule, Limited government , Free trade and Opportunity for white males 2. Major Concerns- • Monopolies, National bank, High tariffs and High land prices 3. Base of Voter Support- The South and West and • Urban workers

Free African Americans

1. By 1860, as many as 250,000 African Americans in the South were not slaves. They were free citizens (even though, as in the North, racial prejudice restricted their liberties). 2. A number of slaves had been emancipated during the American Revolution. Some were mulatto children whose white fathers had decided to liberate them 3. Others achieved freedom on their own, when permitted, through self-purchase-if they were fortunate enough to have been paid wages for extra work, usually as skilled craftspeople. 4. Most of the free southern blacks lived in cities where they could own property. By state law, they were not equal with whites, were not permitted to vote, and were barred from entering certain occupations 5. Constantly in danger of being kidnapped by slave traders, they had to show legal papers proving their free status. 6. They remained in the South for various reasons. Some wanted to be near family members who were still in bondage; others believed the South to be home and the North to offer no greater opportunities.

Music

1. By 1900, most large cities had either an orchestra, an opera house, or both 2. In smaller towns, outdoor bandstands were the setting for the playing of popular marches by John Philip Sousa. 3. The remarkable black composer and performer Scott Joplin sold nearly a million copies of sheet music of his "Maple Leaf Rag" ( 1899). 4. Also from the South came blues music that expressed the pain of the black experience. Jazz, ragtime, and blues music gained popularity during the early 20th century as New Orleans performers headed north into the urban centers of Memphis, St. Louis, Kansas City, and Chicago.

Wage Earners

1. By 1900, two-thirds of all working Americans worked for wages, usually at jobs that required them to work ten hours a day, six days a week. Wages were determined by the laws of supply and demand, and because there was usually a large supply of immigrants competing for factory jobs, wages were barely above the level needed for bare subsistence 2. Real wages (income adjusted for inflation) rose steadily in the late 19th century, but even so, most wage earners could not support a family decently on one income. Therefore, working-class families depended on the income of women and children. In 1890, 11 million of the 12.5 million families in the United States averaged less than $380 a year in income.

Growth of Industry

1. By midcentury, however, U.S. manufacturing surpassed agriculture in value, and by century's end, it was the world's leader. This rapid industrial growth was the result of a unique combination of factors.

Initial American losses and Hardships

1. By the end of 1777, the British occupied both New York and Philadelphia. After losing Philadelphia, Washington's demoralized troops suffered through the severe winter of 1777-1778 camped at Valley Forge in Pennsylvania. 2. Economic troubles added to the Patriots' bleak prospects. British occupation of American ports resulted in a 95 percent decline in trade between 1775 and 1777. Goods were scarce and inflation was rampant. The paper money issued by Congress, known as continentals, became almost worthless.

New Hampshire

1. Charles II separated New Hampshire from the Bay colony in 1679 and made it a royal colony, subject to the authority of an appointed governor. 2. consisted of a few settlements north of Boston.

The Election of 1888

1. Cleveland introduced a real issue, the first in years that truly divided Democrats and Republicans. 2. Democrats campaigned for Cleveland and a lower tariff; 3. Republicans campaigned for Benjamin Harrison (grandson of the former president, William Henry Harrison) and a high tariff. The Republicans argued that a lower tariff would wreck business prosperity. They played upon this fear to raise campaign funds from big business and to rally workers in the North, whose jobs depended on the success of U.S. industry. The Republicans also attacked Cleveland's vetoes of pension bills to bring out the veteran vote. 4. The election was extremely close. Cleveland received more popular votes than Harrison, but ended up losing the election because Harrison's sweep of the North gained the Republican ticket a majority of votes in the electoral college.

Settlement Houses

1. Concerned about the lives of the poor, a number of young, well-educated women and men of the middle class settled into immigrant neighborhoods to learn about the problems of immigrant families first-hand. 2. The young reformers hoped to relieve the effects of poverty by providing social services for people in the neighborhood.

Slave Life

1. Conditions of slavery varied from one plantation to the next. Some slaves were humanely treated, while others were routinely beaten 2. All suffered from being deprived of their freedom. 3. Families could be separated at any time by an owner's decision to sell a wife, a husband, or a child 4. Women were vulnerable to sexual exploitation. Despite the hard, nearly hopeless circumstances of their lives, enslaved African Americans maintained a strong sense of family and of religious faith.

Protestant Revolt in Northern Europe

1. Conflict between Catholics and Protestants led to a series of religious wars. The conflict also caused the Catholics of Spain and Portugal and the Protestants of England and Holland to want to spread their own versions of Christianity to people in Africa, Asia, and the Americas. Thus, a religious motive for exploration and colonization was added to political and economic motives.

Bryan, Democrats, and Populists

1. Democrats were divided in 1896 between "gold" Democrats loyal to Cleveland and prosilver Democrats looking for a leader. Their national convention in Chicago in the summer of 1896 was dominated by the prosilver forces. 2. The Democratic platform favored the unlimited coinage of silver at the traditional, but inflationary, ratio of 16 ounces of silver to one ounce of gold.

Continued Poverty

1. Despite progress and growth, the South remained a largely agricultural section-and also the poorest region in the country. 2. Northern investors controlled three-quarters of the southern railroads and by 1900 had control of the South's steel industry as well. A large share of the profits from the new industries went to northern banks and financiers. Industrial workers in the South (94 percent of whom were white) earned half of the national average and worked longer hours than elsewhere. Most southerners of both races remained in traditional roles and barely got by from year to year as sharecroppers and farmers. 3. a small number of southerners had the technological skills needed for industrial development. The South failed to invest in technology and engineering schools as did the North. Furthermore, in the late 1800s, political leadership in the South provided little support for the education of either poor whites or poor African Americans. Without adequate education, the southern workforce faced limited economic opportunities in the fast-changing world of the late 19th century.

Fort Sumter

1. Despite the president's message of both conciliation and warning, the danger of a war breaking out was acute. Most critical was the status of two federal forts in states that had seceded. One of these, Fort Sumter, in the harbor of Charleston, South Carolina, was cut off from vital supplies and reinforcements by Southern control of the harbor. 2. Lincoln announced that he was sending provisions of food to the small federal garrison. He thus gave South Carolina the choice of either permitting the fort to hold out or opening fire with its shore batteries. Carolina's guns thundered their reply and thus, on April 12, 1861, the war began. The attack on Fort Sumter and its capture after two days of incessant pounding united most Northerners behind a patriotic fight to save the Union.

Jefferson's Presidency

1. During his first term, Jefferson attempted to win the allegiance and trust of Federalist opponents by maintaining the national bank and debt-repayment plan of Hamilton 2. In foreign policy, he carried on the neutrality policies of Washington and Adams 3. Jefferson retained the loyalty of Democratic-Republican supporters by adhering to his party's guiding principle of limited central government. 4. He reduced the size of the military, eliminated a number of federal jobs, repealed the excise taxes-including those on whiskey- and lowered the national debt. 5. Only Republicans were named to his cabinet, as he sought to avoid the internal divisions that distracted Washington. 6. The single most important achievement of these years was the acquisition by purchase of vast western lands known as the Louisiana Territory.

Dutch Claims

1. During the 1600s, the Netherlands also began to sponsor voyages of exploration. 2. The Dutch government hired Henry Hudson, an experienced English sailor, to seek westward passage to Asia through northern America. In 1609, while searching for a northwest passage, Hudson sailed up a broad river that was later named for him, the Hudson River. This expedition established Dutch claims to the surrounding area that would become New Amsterdam (and later New York). The Dutch government granted a private company, the Dutch West India Company, the right to control the region for economic gain.

Women

1. During the war, both the Patriots and Loyalists depended on the active support of women. Some women followed their men into the armed camps and worked as cooks and nurses. In a few instances, women actually fought in battle, either taking their husband's place, 2. The most important contribution of women during the war was in maintaining the colonial economy. While fathers, husbands, and sons were away fighting, women ran the family farms and businesses. They provided much of the food and clothing necessary for the war effort. 3. Despite their contributions, women remained in a second-class status.

Reasons for Westward Movement

1. Economic Pressures 2. Improved Transportation 3.. Immigrants-

The Plymouth Colony

1. Economic hardship and cultural differences with the Dutch led many of the Pilgrims to seek another haven for their religion. 2. The settlers at Plymouth were helped to adapt to the land by friendly American Indians. They celebrated a good harvest at a thanksgiving feast (the first Thanksgiving) in 1621. Under strong leaders, including Captain Miles Standish and Governor William Bradford, the Plymouth colony grew slowly but remained small. Fish, furs, and lumber became the mainstays of the economy.

Public Schools

1. Elementary schools after 1865 continued to teach the 3 R's (reading, writing, arithmetic) and the traditional values promoted in the standard texts, McGuffey's readers. New compulsory education laws that required children to attend school, however, dramatically increased the number of students enrolled. 2. As a result, the literacy rate rose to 90 percent of the population by 1900. The practice of sending children to kindergarten (a concept borrowed from Germany) became popular and reflected the growing interest in early childhood education in the United States. 3. the growing support for tax-supported public high schools. At first, these schools followed the college preparatory curriculum of private academies, but soon the public high schools became more comprehensive. They began to provide vocational and citizenship education for a changing urban society.

Slavery

1. English law at that time did not recognize hereditary slavery, the first Africans in Virginia were not in bondage for life, and any children born to them were free 2. However, by the end of the 1660s, the Virginia House of Burgesses had enacted laws that discriminated between blacks and whites. Africans and their offspring were to be kept in permanent bondage. They were slaves.

African Resistance

1. Enslaved Africans resisted slavery in whatever ways they could. 2. they often ran away, sabotaged work, or revolted. And for generations they maintained aspects of their African culture, particularly in music, religion, and folkways.

Military Defeats and Naval Victories

1. Facing Britain's overwhelming naval power, Madison's military strategists based their hope for victory on (1) Napoleon's continued success in Europe and (2) a U.S. land campaign against Canada. 2. Probably the most important naval battle of the war was in 1813 on Lake Erie with American Captain Oliver Hazard Perry, declaring victory with, "We have met the enemy and they are ours."

Rising Costs

1. Farmers felt victimized by the impersonal forces of the larger national economy. Industrial corporations were able to keep prices high on manufactured goods by forming monopolistic trusts. Wholesalers and retailers (known as "the middlemen") took their cut before selling to farmers. 2, Taxes too seemed unfair to farmers. Local and state governments taxed property and land heavily but did not tax income from stocks and bonds. The tariffs protecting various American industries were viewed as just another unfair tax paid by farmers and consumers for the benefit of the industrialists.

Problems with the Articles

1. Financial- 2. Foreign 3. Domestic.

The Revolutionary War

1. First shots fired on Lexington green in 1775 to the final signing of a peace treaty in 1783, the American War for Independence, or Revolutionary War, was a long and bitter struggle. As Americans fought they also forged a new national identity, as the former colonies became the United States of America 2. Maybe 40 percent of the population actively participated in the struggle against Britain. They called themselves American Patriots. 3. Around 20 to 30 percent sided with the British as Loyalists. 4. Everyone else tried to remain neutral and uninvolved.

The Purchase of Alaska

1. For decades, Russia and Great Britain both claimed the vast territory of Alaska. Russia finally assumed control and established a small colony for seal hunting, but the territory soon became an economic burden because of the threat of a British takeover. 2. Russia found Seward to be an enthusiastic champion of the idea of the United States purchasing Alaska. As a result of Seward's lobbying, and also in appreciation of Russian support during the Civil War, Congress in 1867 agreed to buy Alaska for $7.2 million. However, for many years, Americans saw no value in Alaska and referred to it derisively as "Seward's Folly" or "Seward's Icebox."

Political Influence

1. For the first time, the colonists regardless of their national origins or their social class-shared in a common experience as Americans. 2. had a democratizing effect by changing the way people viewed authority.

Keeping the Border States in the Union

1. Four other slaveholding states might have seceded, but instead remained in the Union. The decisions of Delaware, Maryland, Missouri, and Kentucky not to join the Confederacy was partly due to Union sentiment in those states and partly the result of shrewd federal policies 2. Keeping the border states in the Union was a primary military and political goal for Lincoln. 3. Lincoln rejected initial calls for the emancipation of slaves.

Building Black Communities

1. Freedom meant many things to Southern blacks: reuniting families, learning to read and write, migrating to cities where "freedom was free-er." Most of all, ex-slaves viewed emancipation as an opportunity for achieving independence from white control 2. African Americans left white-dominated churches for the Negro Baptist and African Methodist Episcopal churches. During Reconstruction, black ministers emerged as leaders in the African American community. 3. The desire for education induced large numbers of African Americans to use their scarce resources to establish independent schools for their children and to pay educated African Americans to become their teachers. Black colleges such as Howard, Atlanta, Fisk, and Morehouse were established during Reconstruction to prepare African American black ministers and teachers.

Military Actions

1. George Washington was appointed the commander-in-chief of a new colonial army and sent to Boston to lead the Massachusetts militia and volunteer units from other colonies. 2. Congress also authorized a force under Benedict Arnold to raid Quebec in order to draw Canada away from the British empire.

Religious Impact

1. Great Awakening had a profound effect on religious practice in the colonies. 2. emotionalism became a common part of Protestant services. Ministers lost some of their former authority among those who now studied the Bible in their own homes. 3. Great Awakening also caused divisions within churches, such as the Congregational and Presbyterian, between those supporting its teachings ("New Lights") and those condemning them ("Old Lights").

The War's Legacy

1. Having survived two wars with Britain, the United States gained the respect of other nations. 2. The United States accepted Canada as a part of the British Empire. 3. Denounced for its talk of secession, the Federalist party came to an end as a national force and declined even in New England. 4. Talk of nullification and secession in New England set a precedent that would later be used by the South. 5. Abandoned by the British, American Indians were forced to surrender land to white settlement. 6. With the British naval blockade limiting European goods, U.S. factories were built and Americans moved toward industrial self-sufficiency. 7. War heroes such as Andrew Jackson and William Henry Harrison would soon be in the forefront of a new generation of political leaders. 8. The feeling of nationalism grew stronger as did a belief that the future for the United States lay in the West and away from Europe.

Hay's Second Round of Notes

1. Hay feared that the expeditionary force in China might attempt to occupy the country and destroy its independence. 2. Hay's first and second notes set U.S. policy on China not only for the administrations of McKinley and Theodore Roosevelt but also for future presidents. In the 1930s, this Open Door policy for China would strongly influence U.S. relations with Japan. 3. The situation in China. For the moment, European powers were kept from grabbing larger pieces of China by the political rivalries among themselves.

Johnson's Vetoes

1. He vetoed a bill increasing the services and protection offered by the Freedmen's Bureau and a civil rights bill that nullified the Black Codes and granted full citizenship and equal rights to African Americans. The vetoes marked the end of the first round of Reconstruction 2. During this round, Presidents Lincoln and Johnson had restored the 11 ex-Confederate states to their former position in the Union, ex-Confederates had returned to high offices, and Southern states began passing Black Codes.

Washington's Farewell Address

1. He warned Americans not to get involved in European affairs 2. not to make "permanent alliances" in foreign affairs 3. not to form political parties 4. not to fall into sectionalism 5. One long-range consequence of Washington's decision to leave office after two terms was that later presidents followed his example. Presidents elected to two terms (including Jefferson, Madison, Monroe, and Jackson) would voluntarily retire even though the Constitution placed no limit on a president's tenure in office.

Military Intervention under Wilson

1. He went far beyond both Roosevelt and Taft in his use of U.S. marines to straighten out financial and political troubles in the region. He kept marines in Nicaragua and ordered U.S. troops into Haiti in 1915 and the Dominican Republic in 1916. He argued that such intervention was necessary to maintain stability in the region and protect the Panama Canal 2. Wilson refused to recognize the military dictatorship of General Victoriano Huerta, who had seized power in 1913 by having the democratically elected president killed.

Annexation Denied

1. Houston applied to the U.S. government for his country to be annexed, or added to, the United States as a new state. However, presidents Jackson and Van Buren both put off the request for annexation primarily because of political opposition among Northerners to the expansion of slavery and the potential addition of up to five new slave states created out of the Texas territories. The threat of a costly war with Mexico also dampened expansionist zeal. 2. The next president, John Tyler (1841-1845), was a Southern Whig who was worried about the growing influence of the British in Texas. He worked to annex Texas, but the U.S. Senate rejected his treaty of annexation in 1844.

Movement for Public Asylums

1. Humanitarian reformers of the 1820s and 1830s called attention to the increasing numbers of criminals, emotionally disturbed persons, and paupers. 2.Often these people were forced to live in wretched conditions and were regularly either abused or neglected by their caretakers. To alleviate the suffering of these individuals, reformers proposed setting up new public institutions, state-supported prisons, mental hospitals, and poorhouses. Reformers hoped that inmates would be cured as a result of being withdrawn from squalid surroundings and treated to a disciplined pattern of life in some rural setting.

Streetcar Cities

1. Improvements in urban transportation made the growth of cities possible. 2. By the 1890s, both horse-drawn cars and cable cars were being replaced by electric trolleys, elevated railroads, and subways, which could transport people to urban residences even farther from the city's commercial center. The building of massive steel suspension bridges such as New York's Brooklyn Bridge (completed in 1883) also made possible longer commutes between residential areas and the center city. 3. Mass transportation had the effect of segregating urban workers by income. The upper and middle classes moved to streetcar suburbs to escape the pollution, poverty, and crime of the city. The exodus of higher-income residents left older sections of the city to the working poor, many of whom were immigrants. The residential areas of the cities and suburbs both reflected and contributed to the class, race, ethnic, and cultural divisions in American society.

Slave Laws

1. In 1641, Massachusetts became the first colony to recognize the enslavement of "lawful" captives. 2. Virginia in 1661 enacted legislation stating that children automatically inherited their mother's enslaved status for life. 3. By 1664, Maryland declared that baptism did not affect the enslaved person's status, and that white women could not marry African American men. 4. Racism and slavery soon became integral to colonial society. 5. Every time one type of cargo was traded for another, the slave-trading entrepreneur usually succeeded in making a substantial profit.

Population Growth

1. In 1701, the English colonies on the Atlantic Coast had a population of barely 250,000 Europeans and Africans. 2. By 1775, the figure had jumped to 2,500,000, a tenfold increase within the span of a single lifetime. Among African Americans, the population increase was even more dramatic: from about 28,000 in 1701 to 500,000 in 1775. 3. resulted from two factors: immigration of almost a million people and a sharp natural increase, caused chiefly by a high birth rate among colonial families.

Immigration

1. In 1820, about 8,000 immigrants arrived from Europe, but beginning in 1832, there was a sudden increase 2. The immigrants strengthened the U.S. economy by providing both a steady stream of inexpensive labor and an increased demand for mass-produced consumer goods.

Texas

1. In 1823, after having won its national independence from Spain, Mexico hoped to attract settlers-including Anglo settlers-to farm its sparsely populated northern frontier province of Texas. 2. Stephen Austin, succeeded in bringing 300 families into Texas and thereby beginning a steady migration of American settlers into the vast frontier territory. By 1830, Americans (both white farmers and enslaved blacks) outnumbered Mexicans in Texas by three to one. 3. Friction developed between the Americans and the Mexicans when, in 1829, Mexico outlawed slavery and required all immigrants to convert to Roman Catholicism. When many settlers refused to obey these laws, Mexico closed Texas to additional American immigrants. Land-hungry Americans from the Southern states ignored the Mexican prohibition and streamed into Texas by the thousands.

Lincoln-Douglas Debates

1. In 1858, the focus of the nation was on Stephen Douglas's campaign for reelection as senator from Illinois. Challenging him for the Senate seat was a successful trial lawyer and former member of the Illinois legislature, Abraham Lincoln. The Republican candidate had served only one two-year term in Congress in the 1840s as a Whig. Nationally, he was an unknown compared to Douglas (the Little Giant), the champion of popular sovereignty and possibly the best hope for holding the nation together if elected president in 1860. 2. Lincoln was not an abolitionist. Even so, as a moderate who was against the expansion of slavery, he spoke effectively of slavery as a moral issue 3. In seven campaign debates held in different Illinois towns, Lincoln shared the platform with his famous opponent, Douglas. The Republican challenger attacked Douglas's seeming indifference to slavery as a moral issue 4. Douglas won his campaign for reelection to the U.S. Senate. In the long run, however, he lost ground in his own party by alienating Southern Democrats. Lincoln, on the other hand, emerged from the debates as a national figure and a leading contender for the Republican nomination for president in 1860.

Skyscrapers

1. In 1885, William Le Baron Jenny built the ten-story Home Insurance Company Building in Chicago 2. Home Insurance Company Building in Chicago-the first true skyscraper with a steel skeleton. Structures of this size were made possible by such innovations as the Otis elevator and the central steam-heating system with radiators in every room 3. By 1900 steel-framed skyscrapers for offices of the industry had replaced church spires as the dominant feature of American urban skylines.

The Election of 1892

1. In 1892, James Weaver of Iowa, the Populist candidate for president, won more than 1 million votes and 22 electoral votes, making him one of the few third-party candidates in U.S. history to win votes in the electoral college. 2. The two major parties provided a rematch between President Harrison and former president Cleveland. This time, Cleveland won a solid victory in both the popular and electoral vote. 3. Cleveland became the first and only former president thus far to return to the White House after having left it.

Improvements in Technology

1. In Europe, a rebirth of classical learning prompted an outburst of artistic and scientific activity in the 15th and 16th centuries known as the Renaissance. 2.they began to use gunpowder (invented by the Chinese) and the sailing compass (adopted from Arab merchants who learned about it from the Chinese). 3.Europeans also made major improvements in shipbuilding and mapmaking. In addition, the invention of the printing press in the 1450s aided the spread of knowledge across Europe.

Whigs

1. Issues Supported-American System: A national bank, Federal funds for internal improvements, A protective tariff 2. Major Concerns- Crime associated with immigrants 3. Base of Voter Support- • New England and the , Mid-Atlantic states • Protestants of English heritage and Urban professionals

The Rise of a Democratic Society

1. In hotels, under the American Plan, men and women from all classes ate together at common tables 2. On stagecoaches, steamboats, and later in railroad cars, there was also only one class for passengers, so that the rich and poor alike sat together in the same compartments. 3. European visitors could not distinguish between classes in the United States. 4. Men of all backgrounds wore simple dark trousers and jackets, while less well-to-do women emulated the fanciful and confining styles illustrated in wide-circulation women's magazines like Godey's Lady's Book 5. Equality was becoming the governing principle of American society. 6. Among the white majority in American society, people shared a belief in the principle of equality-more precisely, equality of opportunity for white males. 7. These beliefs ignored the oppression of enslaved African Americans and discrimination against free blacks.

Chinese Exclusion Act

1. In many mining towns, half the population was foreign-born. About one-third of the western miners in the 1860s were Chinese immigrants. Native-born Americans resented the competition. In California, hostility to foreigners took the form of a Miner's Tax of $20 a month on all foreign-born miners. Political pressure from western states moved Congress to pass the Chinese Exclusion Act in 1882, 2. Mining not only stimulated the settlement of the West but also reshaped the economics and politics of the nation. The vast increase in the supply of silver created a crisis over the relative value of gold- and silver-backed currency, which became a bitter political issue in the 1880s and 1890s. The mining boom left environmental scars that remain visible today, and it had a disastrous effect on American Indians, who lost their lands to miners pursuing instant riches.

Architecture

1. In the 1740s and 1750s, the Georgian style of London was widely imitated in colonial houses, churches, and public buildings. Brick and stucco homes built in this style were characterized by a symmetrical placement of windows and dormers and a spacious center hall flanked by two fireplaces. 2. Such homes were found only on or near the eastern seaboard. On the frontier, a one-room log cabin was the common shelter.

Origins

1. In the 1790s, sometimes called the Federalist era because it was dominated largely by Federalist policies, political parties began to form around two leading figures, Hamilton and Jefferson. 2. The Federalist party supported Hamilton and his financial program. 3. Democratic-Republican party supported Jefferson and tried to elect candidates in different states who opposed Hamilton's program.

Established Churches

1. In the 17th century, most colonial governments taxed the people to support one particular Protestant denomination 2. As various immigrant groups increased the religious diversity of the colonies, governments gradually reduced their support of churches. 3. some direct tax support of the denomination remained until the 1830s.

Reservation Policy

1. In the 1830s, President Andrew Jackson's policy of removing eastern American Indians to the West was based on the belief that lands west of the Mississippi would permanently remain "Indian country." 2. the federal government began to assign the Plains tribes large tracts of land-or reservations -with definite boundaries. Most Plains tribes, however, refused to restrict their movements to the reservations and continued to follow the migrating buffalo wherever they roamed.

Tariff Issue

1. In the 1890s, tariffs provided more than half of federal revenue. 2. Congress had raised tariffs to protect U.S. industry and also fund the Union government. After the war, southern Democrats as well as some northern Democrats objected to high tariffs because these taxes raised the prices on consumer goods. Another result of the protective tariff was that other nations retaliated by placing taxes of their own on U.S. farm products. American farmers lost some overseas sales, contributing to surpluses of corn and wheat and resulting in lower farm prices and profits.

Baptists and Methodists

1. In the South and on the advancing western frontier, Baptist and Methodist circuit preachers, such as Peter Cartwright, would travel from one location to another and attract thousands to hear their dramatic preaching at outdoor revivals, or camp meetings. 2. These preachers activated the faith of many people who had never belonged to a church. 3.

Failure of Cotton Diplomacy

1. In the end, the South's hopes for European intervention were disappointed. "King Cotton" did not have the power to dictate another nation's foreign policy, since Europe quickly found ways of obtaining cotton from other sources. By the time shortages of Southern cotton hit the British textile industry, adequate shipments of cotton began arriving from Egypt and India. 2. While conservative leaders of Britain were sympathetic to the Confederates, they could not defy the proNorthern, antislavery feelings of the British majority.

A Nation of Immigrants

1. In the last half of the 19th century, the U.S. population more than tripled, from about 23.2 million in 1850 to 76.2 million in 1900 2. An additional 8.8 million more arrived during the peak years of immigration, 1901-1910.

Protestant Revolt

1. In the late 1600s, Protestant resentment against a Catholic proprietor erupted into a brief civil war. 2. triumphed, and the Act of Toleration was repealed. Catholics lost their right to vote in elections for the Maryland assembly. In the 18th century, Maryland's economy and society was much like that of neighboring Virginia, except that in Maryland there was greater tolerance of religious diversity among different Protestant sects.

The Frontier

1. In the public imagination, the West represented the possibility of a fresh start for those willing to venture there. If not in fact, at least in theory and myth, the West beckoned as a place promising greater freedom for all ethnic groups: American Indians, African Americans, European Americans, and eventually Asian Americans as well.

English Policy

1. Initially, at least in Massachusetts, the English and the American Indians coexisted, traded, and shared ideas. American Indians taught the settlers how to grow new crops such as corn (maize) and showed them how to hunt in the forests. 2. The English had no respect for American Indian cultures, which they viewed as primitive or "savage." 3. American Indians saw their way of life threatened as the English began to take more land to support their ever-increasing population 4. The English occupied the land and forced the small, scattered tribes they encountered to move away from the coast to inland territories. They expelled the natives rather than subjugating them.

Theodore Parker

A theologian and radical reformer who lived at Brook Farm

Georgia: The last Colony

1. It was the last of the British colonies and the only one to receive direct financial support from the government in London 2. led by James Oglethorpe founded Georgia's first settlement, Savannah, in 1733. Oglethorpe acted as the colony's first governor and put into effect an elaborate plan for making the colony thrive. There were strict regulations, including bans on drinking rum and slavery. Nevertheless, partly because of the constant threat of Spanish attack, the colony did not prosper. 3. Restrictions on rum and slavery were dropped. 4. Georgia was the smallest and poorest of the 13 colonies.

Nullification Crisis

1. Jackson favored states' rights-but not disunion. In 1828, the South Carolina legislature declared the increased tariff of 1828, the so-called Tariff of Abominations, to be unconstitutional. 2. The convention passed a resolution forbidding the collection of tariffs within the state. Jackson reacted decisively. He told the secretary of war to prepare for military action. 3. The president shared southerners' alarm about the growing antislavery movement in the North. He used his executive power to stop antislavery literature from being sent through the U.S. mail. Southern Jacksonians trusted that Jackson would not extend democracy to African Americans.

New York

1. James also ordered new taxes, duties, and rents without seeking the consent of a representative assembly. In fact, he insisted that no assembly should be allowed to form in his colony. 2. James yielded by allowing New York's governor to grant broad civil and political rights, including a representative assembly.

National Bank

1. Jefferson argued that the Constitution did not give Congress the power to create a bank 2. Washington supported Hamilton on the issue, and the proposed bank was voted into law. Although chartered by the federal government, the Bank of the United States was privately owned. As a major shareholder of the bank, the federal government could print paper currency and use federal deposits to stimulate business.

Trial for Treason

1. Jefferson ordered Burr's arrest and trial for treason 2. A jury acquitted Burr, basing its decision on Marshall's narrow definition of treason and the lack of witnesses to any "overt act" by Burr.

Challenges

1. Jews, Catholics, and Quakers suffered from the most serious discrimination and even persecution. 2. Congregationalist ministers were criticized by other Protestants as domineering and for preaching an overly complex doctrine 3. Because the Church of England was headed by the king, it was viewed as a symbol of English control in the colonies.

Reconstruction Acts of 1867

1. Johnson took to the road in the fall of 1866 in his infamous "swing around the circle" to attack his opponents. His speeches appealed to the racial prejudices of whites by arguing that equal rights for blacks would result in an "Africanized" society. Republicans counterattacked by accusing Johnson of being a drunkard and a traitor. They appealed to anti-Southern prejudices by employing a campaign tactic known as "waving the bloody shirt"-inflaming the anger of Northern voters by reminding them of the hardships of war. 2. Election results gave the Republicans an overwhelming victory. After 1866, Johnson's political adversaries-both moderate and Radical Republicans-had more than a two-thirds majority in both the House and the Senate.

President Van Buren and the Panic of 1837

1. Just as Van Buren took office, the country suffered a financial panic as one bank after another closed its doors.

Federalists (ideals)

1. Leaders - George Washington, Benjamin Franklin, James Madison, Alexander 2. Arguments- Stronger central government was needed to maintain order and preserve the Union 3. Strategy- Emphasized the weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation showed their opponents as merely negative opponents with no solutions 4. Advantages- Strong leaders; well organized 5. Disadvantages- Constitution was new and untried; as originally written, it lacked a bill of rights

Anti-Federalists (ideals)

1. Leaders- From Virginia: George Mason and Patrick Henry; From Massachusetts: James Winthrop and John Hancock; From New York: George Clinton 2. Arguments- Stronger central government would destroy the work of the Revolution, limit democracy, and restrict states' rights 3. Strategy - Argued that the proposed Constitution contained no protection of individual rights, that it gave the central government more power than the British ever had 4. Advantages- Appealed to popular trust of government based on colonial experiences 5. Disadvantages - Poorly organized; slow to respond to Federalist challenge

Grant in Command

1. Lincoln finally found a general who could fight and win. In early 1864, he brought Grant east to Virginia and made him commander of all the Union armies. Grant settled on a strategy of war by attrition. He aimed to wear down the Confederate's armies and systematically destroy their vital lines of supply. Fighting doggedly for months, Grant's Army of the Potomac suffered heavier casualties than Lee's forces in the battles of the Wilderness, Spotsylvania, and Cold Harbor. 2. Grant succeeded in reducing Lee's army in each battle and forcing it into a defensive line around Richmond. In this final stage of the Civil War, the fighting foreshadowed the trench warfare that would later characterize World War I. No longer was this a war "between gentlemen" but a modern "total" war against civilians as well as soldiers. l

Repeal of the Townshend Acts

1. Lord Frederick North became the new prime minister. He urged Parliament to repeal the Townshend Acts because they damaged trade and generated a disappointingly small amount of revenue. The repeal of the Townshend Acts in 1770 ended the colonial boycott and, except for an incident in Boston 2. However, Parliament retained a small tax on tea as a symbol of its right to tax the colonies.

The Election of 1808

1. Madison was widely viewed as a brilliant thinker. He had worked tirelessly with Jefferson in developing the Democratic-Republican party. 2. On the other hand, he was a weak public speaker, possessed a stubborn temperament, and lacked Jefferson's political skills. 3.Madison was able to win a majority of electoral votes and to defeat both his Democratic-Republican opponents and the Federalist candidate, Charles Pinckney.

European Immigrants

1. Many immigrants, most of whom were Protestants, came from France and German-speaking kingdoms and principalities 2. Some came to escape religious persecution and wars 3. Others sought economic opportunity either by farming new land or setting up shop in a colonial town as an artisan or a merchant.

The Delegates

1. Of the 55 delegates who went to Philadelphia for the convention in the summer of 1787, all were white, all were male, and most were college-educated. As a group, they were relatively young (averaging in their early forties). 2. A number of them were practicing lawyers, and many had helped to write their state constitutions. 3. The delegates voted to conduct their meetings in secret and say nothing to the public about their discussions until their work was completed. 4. Several major leaders of the American Revolution were not at the convention. John Jay, Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, and Thomas Paine were on diplomatic business abroad 5. Samuel Adams and John Hancock were not chosen as delegates. 6. Patrick Henry, who opposed any growth in federal power, refused to take part in the convention.

Marshall's Supreme Court and Central Government Powers

1. One Federalist official continued to have major influence throughout the years of Democratic-Republican ascendancy: John Marshall. 2. His decisions consistently favored the central government and the rights of property against the advocates of states' rights. 3. Several of Marshall's decisions became landmark rulings that defined the relationship between the central government and the states

Working Women

1. One adult woman out of every five in 1900 was in the labor force working for wages. Most were young and single-only 5 percent of married women worked outside the home. 2. In 1900, men and women alike believed that, if a family could afford it, a woman's proper role was in the home raising children. 3. Factory work for women was usually in industries that people perceived as an extension of the home: the textile, garment, and food-processing industries, for example. 4. women moved into formerly male occupations as secretaries, bookkeepers, typists, and telephone operators. Occupations or professions that became feminized (women becoming the majority) usually lost status and received lower wages and salaries.

Lecompton Constitution

1. One of Buchanan's first challenges as president in 1857 was to decide whether to accept or reject a proslavery state constitution for Kansas submitted by the Southern legislature at Lecompton. 2. Buchanan knew that the Lecompton constitution, as it was called, did not have the support of the majority of settlers. Even so, he asked Congress to accept the document and admit Kansas as a slave state. Congress did not do so, because many Democrats, including Stephen Douglas, joined with the Republicans in rejecting the Lecompton constitution. The next year, 1858, the proslavery document was overwhelmingly rejected by Kansas settlers, most of whom were antislavery Republicans.

Cleveland, Olney, and the Monroe Doctrine

1. One of the most important uses of the Monroe Doctrine in the 19th century concerned a boundary dispute between Venezuela and its neighbor-the British colony of Guiana. 2. The British initially said the matter was not the business of the United States. However, the United States argued that the Monroe Doctrine applied to the situation. If the British did not arbitrate, the United States would back up its argument with military force. 3. a, the British agreed to U.S. demands. As it turned out, the arbitrators ruled mainly in favor of Britain, not Venezuela. Even so, Latin American nations appreciated U.S. efforts to protect them from European domination 4. Most important, the Venezuela boundary dispute marked a turning point in U.S.-British relations. From 1895 on, the two countries cultivated a friendship rather than continuing their former rivalry. The friendship would prove vital for both nations in the 20th century.

Assassination of Lincoln

1. Only a month before Lee's surrender, Lincoln delivered one of his greatest speeches-the second inaugural address. He urged that the defeated South be treated benevolently, "with malice toward none; with charity for all." 2. On April 14, John Wilkes Booth, an embittered actor and Confederate sympathizer, shot and killed the president while he was attending a performance in Ford's Theater in Washington. On the same night, a co-conspirator attacked but only wounded Secretary of State William Seward. These shocking events aroused the fury of Northerners at the very time that the Confederates most needed a sympathetic hearing. The loss of Lincoln's leadership was widely mourned, but the extent of the loss was not fully appreciated until the two sections of a reunited country had to cope with the overwhelming problems of postwar Reconstruction.

The Philippine Question

1. Opinion both in Congress and the public at large became sharply divided between imperialists who favored annexing the Philippines and anti-imperialists who opposed it. In the Senate, where a two-thirds vote was required to ratify the Treaty of Paris, anti-imperialists were determined to defeat the treaty because of its provision for acquiring the Philippines. 2. Anti-imperialists argued that, for the first time, the United States would be taking possession of a heavily populated area whose people were of a different race and culture. Such action, they thought, violated the principles of the Declaration of Independence by depriving Filipinos of the right to "life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness," and also would entangle the United States in the political conflicts of Asia. 3. On February 6, 1899, the Treaty of Paris (including Philippine annexation) came to a vote in Congress. The treaty was approved 57 to 27, just one vote more than the two-thirds majority required by the Constitution for ratification. The anti-imperialists fell just two votes short of defeating the treaty. The people of the Philippines were outraged that their hopes for national independence from Spain were now being denied by the United States.

Loss of Civil Rights

1. Other discriminatory laws resulted in the wholesale disenfranchisement of black voters by 1900. In Louisiana, for example, 130,334 black voters were registered in 1896 but only 1,342 in 1904-a 99 percent decline. Various political and legal devices were invented to prevent southern blacks from voting. Among the most common obstacles were literacy tests, poll taxes, and political party primaries for whites only 2. Discrimination took many forms. 3. In southern courts, African Americans were barred from serving on juries 4. If convicted of crimes, they were often given stiffer penalties than whites. 5. In some cases, African Americans accused of crimes were not even given the formality of a court-ordered sentence 6. Lynch mobs killed more than 1,400 men during the 1890s. Economic discrimination was also widespread, keeping most southern African Americans out of skilled trades and even factory jobs. Thus, while poor whites and immigrants learned the industrial skills that would help them rise into the middle class, African Americans remained engaged in farming and low-paying domestic work.

Peace Efforts

1. Roosevelt saw his big-stick policies as a way to promote peaceful solutions to international disputes. 2. Roosevelt was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1906. In the same year, he helped arrange and direct the Algeciras Conference in Spain, which succeeded in settling a conflict between France and Germany over claims to Morocco.

Population Growth

1. Population growth provided both the laborers and the consumers required for industrial development. Between 1800 and 1825, the U.S. population doubled; in the following 25 years it doubled again. 2. A high birthrate accounted for most of this growth, but it was strongly supplemented after 1830 by immigrants arriving from Europe, particularly from Great Britain and Germany. 3. The nonwhite population-African Americans and American Indians-grew despite the ban on the importation of slaves after 1808. 4. as a percentage of the total population, nonwhites declined from almost 20 percent in 1790 to 15 percent in the 1850s. 5. By the 1830s, almost one-third of the population lived west of the Alleghenies. At the same time, both old and new urban areas were growing rapidly.

Candidates (1912)

1. President Taft was renominated by the Republicans after his supporters excluded Theodore Roosevelt's delegates from the party's convention. Progressive Republicans then formed a new party and nominated Theodore Roosevelt. (Roosevelt's claim that he was as strong as a bull moose gave the new Progressive party its nickname: the Bull Moose party.) 2, Democrats united behind Woodrow Wilson, a newcomer who had first been elected to office in 1910 as governor of New Jersey. The Socialist party, at the peak of its strength, again nominated Eugene V. Debs.

Spectator Sports

1. Professional spectator sports originated in the late 19th century. 2. Boxing attracted male spectators from all classes, and champions such as John L. Sullivan became national heroes. 3. Baseball, while it recalled a rural past of green fields and fences, was very much an urban game that demanded the teamwork needed for an industrial age 4. Jim Crow laws and customs prevented blacks from playing on all-white big-league baseball teams between the 1890s and 1947. In the 1920s professional football teams and leag 5. In the 1920s professional football teams and leagues were organized. Basketball was invented in 1891 at Springfield College, in Massachusetts. Within a few years, high schools and colleges across the nation had teams. 6. American spectator sports were played and attended by men.

Bleeding Kansas

1. Proslavery Missourians, mockingly called "border ruffians" by their enemies, crossed the border to create a proslavery legislature in Lecompton, Kansas 2. Antislavery settlers refused to recognize this government and created their own legislature in Topeka

Henry Clay's American System

1. Protective Tariffs 2. National Bank 3. Internal Improvements 4. Two parts of Clay's system were already in place in 1816, the last year of James Madison's presidency. 5. Throughout his presidency, Monroe consistently vetoed acts of Congress providing funds for road-building and canal-building projects. Thus, the individual states were left to make internal improvements on their own.

Southwest Settlements

1. Pueblos evolved multifaceted societies supported by farming with irrigation systems. they lived in caves, under cliffs, and in multistoried buildings. By the time Europeans arrived, extreme drought and other hostile natives had taken their toll on these groups. 2. Their life was preserved in the arid land and their stone and masonry dwellings.

Competition and Consolidation

1. Railroads also suffered from mismanagement and outright fraud. Speculators such as Jay Gould entered the railroad business for quick profits and made their millions by selling off assets and watering stock 2. railroads competed by offering rebates (discounts) and kickbacks to favored shippers while charging exorbitant freight rates to smaller customers such as farmers. 3. They also attempted to increase profits by forming pools, in which competing companies agreed secretly and informally to fix rates and share traffic. 4. A financial panic in 1893 forced a quarter of all railroads into bankruptcy 5. By 1900, seven giant systems controlled nearly two-thirds of the nation's railroads. 6. The system was controlled by a few powerful men, such as Morgan, who dominated the boards of competing railroad corporations through interlocking directorates. In effect, they created regional railroad monopolies. 7. Railroads captured the imagination of late-19th century America, as the public, local communities, states, and the federal government invested in their development 8. The Granger laws passed by midwestern states in the 1870s were overturned by the courts, and the federal Interstate Commerce Act of 1886 was at first ineffective

Economic Weakness and Interstate Quarrels

1. Reduced foreign trade and limited credit because states had not fully repaid war debts contributed to widespread economic depression. 2. the 13 states treated one another with suspicion and competed for economic advantage. They placed tariffs and other restrictions on the movement of goods across state lines. A number of states faced boundary disputes with neighbors that increased interstate rivalry and tension.

Plymouth and Massachusetts Bay

1. Religious motivation, not the search for wealth, was the principal force behind the settlement of two other English colonies, Plymouth and Massachusetts Bay. 2. Both were settled by English Protestants who dissented from the official government-supported Church of England, also known as the Anglican Church.

Religion: The Second Great Awakening

1. Religious revivals swept through the United States during the early decades of the 19th century. They were partly a reaction against the rationalism (belief in human reason) that had been the fashion during the Enlightenment and the American Revolution. Calvinist (Puritan) teachings of original sin and predestination had been rejected by believers in more liberal and forgiving doctrines, such as those of the Unitarian Church.

McKinley, Hanna, and Republicans

1. Republicans nominated William McKinley of Ohio, best known for his support of a high protective tariff but also considered a friend of labor 2.the Republicans offered the American people the promise of a strong and prosperous industrial nation. The Republican platform proposed a high tariff to protect industry and upheld the gold standard against unlimited coinage of silver.

Middle Colonies

1. Rich soil produced an abundance of wheat and corn for export to Europe and the West Indies. Farms of up to 200 acres were common. 2. indentured servants and hired laborers worked with the farm family 3. a variety of small manufacturing efforts developed, including iron-making. Trading led to the growth of such cities as Philadelphia and New York.

The Philippines

1. Roosevelt had ordered a fleet commanded by Commodore George Dewey to the Philippines. This large group of islands had been under Spanish control ever since the 1500s. 2. Commodore Dewey's fleet fired on Spanish ships in Manila Bay. The Spanish fleet was soon pounded into submission by U.S. naval guns. The fight on land took longer. Allied with Filipino rebels, U.S. troops captured the city of Manila on August 13.

Conservation

1. Roosevelt's most original and lasting contribution in domestic policy may have been his efforts to protect the nation's natural resources. Three actions were particularly important. 2. In 1908, the president publicized the need for conservation by hosting a White House Conference of Governors to promote coordinated conservation planning by federal and state governments. Following this conference, a National Conservation Commission was established under Gifford Pinchot of Pennsylvania, whom Roosevelt had earlier appointed to be the first director of the U.S. Forest Service.

Other factors also played a role in the expansion of U.S. trade in the mid-1800s:

1. Shipping firms 2. The demand for whale oil 3. Improvements in ship design

The Election of 1852

1. Signs of trouble for the Whig party were apparent in the 1852 election for president. The Whigs nominated another military hero of the Mexican War, General Winfield Scott. Attempting to ignore the slavery issue, the Whig campaign concentrated on the party's innocuous plans for improving roads and harbors. 2. The Democrats nominated a safe compromise candidate, Franklin Pierce of New Hampshire. Though a Northerner, Pierce was acceptable to Southern Democrats because he supported the Fugitive Slave Law. In the electoral college vote, Pierce and the Democrats won all but four states in a sweep that suggested the days of the Whig party were numbered

Emancipation Proclamation Effects

1. Since the president's proclamation applied only to enslaved people residing in Confederate states outside Union control, it immediately freed only about 1 percent of slaves. Slavery in the border states was allowed to continue. Even so, the proclamation was of major importance because it enlarged the purpose of the war 2. Union armies were fighting against slavery, not merely against secession. The proclamation added weight to the Confiscation acts, increasing the number of slaves who sought freedom by fleeing to Union lines 3. As an added blow to the Confederacy, the proclamation also authorized the use of freed slaves as Union soldiers. Suddenly, the Union army had thousands of dedicated new recruits.

Resistance

1. Slaves contested their status through a range of actions, primarily work slowdowns, sabotage, and escape 2. In addition, there were a few major slave uprisings.

Economics

1. Slaves were employed doing whatever their owners demanded of them. Most slaves labored in the fields, but many learned skilled crafts or worked as house servants, in factories, and on construction gangs 2. Because of the greater profits to be made on the new cotton plantations in the West, many slaves were sold from the Upper South to the cotton-rich Deep South of the lower Mississippi Valley.

Key Issues

1. Some wanted to simply revise the Articles. Strong nationalists, such as Madison and Hamilton, wanted to draft an entirely new document. The nationalists quickly took control of the convention. 2. Americans in the 1780s generally distrust the government and feared that officials would seize every opportunity to abuse their powers, even if they were popularly elected. Therefore, Madison and other delegates wanted the new constitution to be based on a system of checks and balances so that the power of each branch would be limited by the powers of the others.

Columbus's Legacy

1. Spaniards viewed Columbus as a failure because they suspected that he had found not a valuable trade route, but a "New World." 2. Columbus's voyages brought about, for the first time in history, permanent interaction between people from all over the globe. He changed the world forever.

Building the Canal

1. Started in 1904, the Panama Canal was completed in 1914. Hundreds of laborers lost their lives in the effort 2. Most Americans approved of Roosevelt's determination to build the canal, but many were unhappy with his high-handed tactics to secure the Canal Zone. Latin Americans were especially resentful. 3. Congress finally voted in 1921 to pay Colombia an indemnity of $25 million for its loss of Panama. In 1999, United States returned the Canal Zone to the Republic of Panama to end the growing bitterness over the original treaty

Abolition of Aristocratic Titles

1. State constitutions and laws abolished old institutions that had originated in medieval Europe. No legislature could grant titles of nobility, nor could any court recognize the feudal practice of primogeniture 2. Many such estates were subdivided and sold to raise money for the war.

Industrial Warfare

1. Strikers could easily be replaced by bringing in strikebreakers, or scabs-unemployed persons desperate for jobs. 2. Labor itself was often divided into the best methods for fighting management. 3. Some union leaders advocated political action. 4. Others favored direct confrontation: strikes, picketing, boycotts, and slowdowns to achieve union recognition and collective bargaining.

Railroads in China

1. Taft first tested his policy in China. 2. Taft succeeded in securing American participation in an agreement signed in 1911. In the northern province of Manchuria, however, the United States was excluded from an agreement between Russia and Japan to build railroads there. In direct defiance of the U.S. Open Door policy, Russia and Japan agreed to treat Manchuria as a jointly held sphere of influence.

African Americans

1. The 250,000 African Americans who lived in the North in 1860 constituted only 1 percent of northerners. 2. However, they represented 50 percent of all free African Americans 3. Freedom may have meant they could maintain a family and in some instances own land, but it did not mean economic or political equality, since strong racial prejudices kept them from voting and holding jobs in most skilled professions and crafts. 4. In the mid-l 800s, immigrants displaced them from occupations and jobs that they had held since the time of the Revolution.In the mid-l 800s, immigrants displaced them from occupations and jobs that they had held since the time of the Revolution. 5. Denied membership in unions, African Americans were often hired as strikebreakers-and often dismissed after the strike ended.

American Indians in the West

1. The American Indians who occupied the West in 1865 belonged to dozens of different cultural and tribal groups

The Economy

1. The British government permitted limited kinds of colonial manufacturing, such as making flour or rum. It restricted efforts that would compete with English industries, such as textiles. 2. increasing numbers became ministers, lawyers, doctors, and teachers. The quickest route to wealth was through the land,

Dred Scott Case effects-

1. The Court's ruling delighted Southern Democrats and infuriated Northern Republicans. In effect, the Supreme Court declared that all parts of the western territories were open to slavery. Republicans denounced the Dred Scott decision as "the greatest crime in the annals of the republic." 2. many Northerners suspected that the Democratic president and the Democratic majority on the Supreme Court, including Taney, had secretly planned the Dred Scott decision, hoping that it would settle the slavery question once and for all. The decision increased Northerners' suspicions of a slave power conspiracy and induced thousands of former Democrats to vote Republican

The Two-Party System

1. The Democratic party harked back to the old Republican party of Jefferson 2. The Whig party resembled the defunct Federalist party of Hamilton. 3. the new parties reflected the changed conditions of the Jacksonian era. Democrats and Whigs alike were challenged to respond to the relentless westward expansion of the nation and the emergence of an industrial economy.

Breakup of the Democratic Party

1. The Democratic party represented the last practical hope for coalition and compromise. The Democrats held their national nominating convention in Charleston, South Carolina. Stephen Douglas was the party's leading candidate and the person most capable of winning the presidency. However, his nomination was blocked by a combination of angry Southerners and supporters of President Buchanan. 2. Democrats held a second convention in Baltimore. Many delegates from the slave states walked out, enabling the remaining delegates to nominate Douglas on a platform of popular sovereignty and enforcement of the Fugitive Slave Law. Southern Democrats then held their own convention in Baltimore and nominated Vice President John C. Breckinridge of Kentucky as their candidate

Cleveland's First Term

1. The Democratic president believed in frugal and limited government in the tradition of Jefferson. He implemented the new civil service system (see below) and vetoed hundreds of private pension bills for those falsely claiming to have served or been injured in the Civil War 2. Cleveland's administration also retrieved some 81 million acres of government land from cattle ranchers and the railroads.

Differences Between the Parties

1. The Federalists were strongest in the northeastern states and advocated the growth of federal power. 2. The Democratic-Republicans were strongest in the southern states and on the western frontier and argued for states' right 3. By 1796, the two major political parties were already taking shape and becoming better organized.

Outcome

1. The Federalists won early victories in the state conventions in Delaware, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania-the first three states to ratify. 2. With New Hampshire voting yes in June 1788, the Federalists won the necessary nine states to achieve ratification of the Constitution.

Religious Issues in Maryland

1. The Maryland proprietorship passed to his son, Cecil Calvert-the second Lord Baltimore-who set about implementing his father's plan in 1634. 2. Protestants therefore held a majority in Maryland's assembly. 3. Calvert persuaded the assembly to adopt the Act of Toleration, the first colonial statute granting religious freedom to all Christians. However, the statute also called for the death of anyone who denied the divinity of Jesus.

The new Congress was the most active in years, passing the first billion-dollar budget in U.S. history. It enacted the following:

1. The McKinley Tariff of 1890 2. Increases in the monthly pensions to Civil War veterans, widows, and children 3. The Sherman Antitrust Act, outlawing "combinations in restraint of trade" (see Chapter 16) 4. The Sherman Silver Purchase Act of 1890, which increased the coinage of silver, but too little to satisfy farmers and miners 5. A bill to protect the voting rights of African Americans, passed by the House but defeated in the Senate

Urban Life

1. The North's urban population grew from approximately 5 percent of the population in 1800 to 15 percent by 1850 2. rapid growth in cities from Boston to Baltimore, slums also expanded. 3. Crowded housing, poor sanitation, infectious diseases, and high rates of crime soon became characteristic of large working-class neighborhoods. 4. Nevertheless, the new opportunities in cities offered by the Industrial Revolution continued to attract both native-born Americans from farms and immigrants from Europe.

The Coercive Acts (1774)

1. The Port Act - closed the port of Boston, prohibiting trade in and out of the harbor until the destroyed tea was paid for. 2. The Massachusetts Government Act- reduced the power of the Massachusetts legislature while increasing the power of the royal governor. 3. The Administration of Justice Act- allowed royal officials accused of crimes to be tried in Great Britain instead of in the colonies. 4. A fourth law- expanded the Quartering Act to enable British troops to be quartered in private homes. It applied to all colonies.

Higher Education

1. The Puritans founded Harvard in Cambridge, Massachusetts, in 1636 in order to give candidates for the ministry a proper theological and scholarly education 2. The Anglicans opened William and Mary in Virginia in 1694, and the Congregationalists started Yale in Connecticut in 1701.

The Election of 1856

1. The Republicans' first test of strength came in the presidential election of 1856. Their nominee for president was a senator from California, the young explorer and "Pathfinder," John C. Fremont. The Republican platform called for no expansion of slavery, free homesteads, and a probusiness protective tarif 2. As the one major national party, the Democrats expected to win. They nominated James Buchanan of Pennsylvania, rejecting both President Pierce and Stephen Douglas because they were too closely identified with the controversial Kansas-Nebraska Act. As expected, the Democratic ticket won a majority of both the popular and electoral vote. But the Republicans made a remarkably strong showing for a sectional party. In the electoral college, Fremont carried 11 of the 16 free states. People could predict that the antislavery Republicans might soon win the White House without a single vote from the South 3. The election of 1856 foreshadowed the emergence of a powerful political party that would win all but four presidential elections between 1860 and 1932.

Reforms

1. The Second Great Awakening, like the first, caused new divisions in society between the newer, evangelical sects and the older Protestant churches. It affected all sections of the country. 2. in the northern states from Massachusetts to Ohio the Great Awakening also touched off social reform. 3. Activist religious groups provided both the leadership and the well-organized voluntary societies that drove the reform movements of the antebellum era.

Agriculture

1. The South's postwar economy remained tied mainly to growing cotton. 2. Increased productivity, however, only added to the cotton farmer's problems, as a glut of cotton on world markets caused cotton prices to decline by more than 50 percent by the 1890s. 3. By 1900, more than half the region's white farmers and three-quarters of the black farmers were tenants (or sharecroppers), most of them straining to make a living from small plots of 15 to 20 acres. A shortage of credit forced farmers to borrow supplies from local merchants in the spring with a lien, or mortgage, on their crops to be paid at harvest.

In 1883, three other transcontinental railroads were completed.

1. The Southern Pacific tied New Orleans to Los Angeles. 2. The Atchison, Topeka, and Santa Fe linked Kansas City and Los Angeles. 3. The Northern Pacific connected Duluth, Minnesota, with Seattle, Washington.

Spanish Policy

1. The Spanish who settled in Mexico and Peru encountered the highly organized Aztec and Inca empires. 2. Many natives who did not die from disease died from forced labor. 3. A rigid class system developed in the Spanish colonies, one dominated by pure-blooded Spaniards.

Financing the War

1. The Union financed the war chiefly by borrowing $2.6 billion, obtained through the sale of government bonds. Even this amount was not enough 2. Congress raised tariffs (Morrill Tariff of 1861), added excise taxes, and instituted the first income tax 3. The U.S. Treasury also issued more than $430 million in a paper currency known as Greenbacks. This paper money could not be redeemed in gold, which contributed to creeping inflation. 4. Prices in the North rose by about 80 percent during the war 5. Congress created a national banking system in 1863. This was the first unified banking network since Andrew Jackson vetoed the recharter of the Bank of the United States in the 1830s.

Women at Work

1. The absence of millions of men from their normal occupations in fields and factories added to the responsibilities of women in all regions 2. They stepped into the labor vacuum created by the war, operating farms and plantations and taking factory jobs customarily held by men. 3. women played a critical role as military nurses and as volunteers in soldiers' aid societies. When the war ended and the war veterans returned home, most urban women vacated their jobs in government and industry, while rural women gladly accepted male assistance on the farm

Impact on the Colonies

1. The acts caused New England shipbuilding to prosper, provided Chesapeake tobacco with a monopoly in England, and provided English military forces to protect the colonies from potential attacks by the French and Spanish. However, the acts also severely limited the development of colonial manufacturing, forced Chesapeake farmers to accept low prices for their crops, and caused colonists to pay high prices for manufactured goods from England. 2. the economic advantages from the Navigation Acts were offset by their negative political effects on British-colonial relations.

Southern Reaction to Reform

1. The antebellum reform movement was largely found in the northern and western states, with little impact in the South 2. While "modernizers" worked to perfect society in the North, 3. southerners were more committed to tradition and slow to support public education and humanitarian reforms. They were alarmed to see northern reformers join forces to support the antislavery movement. 4. Increasingly, they viewed social reform as a northern threat against the southern way of life.

Women

1. The average colonial wife bore eight children and performed a wide range of tasks. 2. Household work included cooking, cleaning, making clothes, and providing medical care. Women also educated the children. A woman usually worked next to her husband in the shop, on the plantation, or on the farm. Divorce was legal but rare, and women had limited legal and political rights. 3. shared labors and mutual dependence with their husbands gave most women protection from abuse and an active role in decision-making.

Railroads

1. The canal-building era of the 1820s and 1830s was replaced in the next two decades with the rapid expansion of rail lines, especially across the Northeast and Midwest. The railroads soon emerged as America's largest industry. 2. As such, they required immense amounts of capital and labor and gave rise to complex business organizations. Local merchants and farmers would often buy stocks in the new railroad companies in order to connect their area to the outside world 3. Local and state governments also helped the railroads grow by granting special loans and tax breaks. In 1850, the U.S. government granted 2.6 million acres of federal land to build the Illinois Central Railroad from Lake Michigan to the Gulf of Mexico, the first such federal land grant. 4. The railroads not only united the common commercial interests of the Northeast and Midwest, but would also give the North strategic advantages in the Civil War.

Voting Rights for Women

1. The cause of women's suffrage, launched at Seneca Falls in 1848, was vigorously carried forward by a number of middle-class women.

Campaign Strategy

1. The closeness of elections between 1876 and 1892 was one reason that Republicans and Democrats alike avoided taking strong positions on the issues. 2. The Democrats won only two presidential contests in the electoral college (but four in the popular vote). They nevertheless controlled the House of Representatives after eight of the ten general elections. The result was divided government in Washington ( except for two years of the Harrison administration, 1889-1891, 3. when the Republicans were in control of both the presidency and the two houses of Congress) 4. Election campaigns of the time were characterized by brass bands, flags, campaign buttons, picnics, free beer, and crowd-pleasing oratory

The Conservation Movement

1. The concerns over deforestation sparked the conservation movement, and the breathtaking paintings and photographs of western landscapes helped to push Congress to preserve such western icons as Yosemite Valley as a California state park in 1864 (a national park in 1890), and to dedicate the Yellowstone area as the first National Park in 1872. Carl Schurz, as Secretary of the Interior in the in the 1880s, advocated the creation of forest reserves and a federal forest service to protect federal lands from exploitation 2. With the closing of the frontier era, Americans grew increasingly concerned about the loss of public lands and the natural treasures they contained.

Population

1. The cotton boom was largely responsible for a fourfold increase in the number of slaves, from 1 million in 1800 to nearly 4 million in 1860. 2. In parts of the Deep South, slaves made up as much as 75 percent of the total population. Fearing slave revolts, southern legislatures added increased restrictions on movement and education to their slave codes.

The Mining Frontier

1. The discovery of gold in California in 1848 caused the first flood of newcomers to the territory. The California Gold Rush was only the beginning of a feverish quest for gold and silver that would extend well into the 1890s and would help to settle much of the region. 2. A series of gold strikes and silver strikes in what became the states of Colorado, Nevada, Idaho, Montana, Arizona, and South Dakota kept a steady flow of hopeful prospectors pushing into the western mountains. 3. The discovery of gold near Pike's Peak, Colorado, in 1859 brought nearly 100,000 miners to the area. In the same year, the discovery of the fabulous Comstock Lode ( which produced more than $340 million in gold and silver by 1890) 4. California's great gold rush of 1849 set the pattern for other rushes. First, individual prospectors would look for traces of gold in the mountain streams by a method called placer mining, using simple tools such as shovels and washing pans

Mining Frontier

1. The discovery of gold in California in 1848 set off the first of many migrations to mineral-rich mountains of the West. Gold or silver rushes occurred in Colorado, Nevada, the Black Hills of the Dakotas, and other western territories. 2. The mining boom brought tens of thousands of men ( and afterward women as well) into the western mountains. Mining camps and towns-many of them short-lived-sprang up wherever a strike (discovery) was reported. 3. Largely as a result of the gold rush, California's population soared from a mere 14,000 in 1848 to 380,000 by 1860. Booms attracted miners from around the world. By the 1860s, almost one-third of the miners in the West were Chinese.

The Business of Railroads

1. The dynamic combination of business leadership, capital, technology, markets, labor, and government support was especially evident in the development of the nation's first big business-railroads 2. Railroads created a market for goods that was national in scale, and by so doing encouraged mass production, mass consumption, and economic specialization. 3. promoted the growth of other industries, especially coal and steel. Railroads also affected the routines of daily life.

Communal Experiments

1. The early Mormons were an example of a religious communal effort and Brook Farm was an example of a humanistic or secular experiment

Political Change

1. The electoral process continued during the war with surprisingly few restrictions. Secession of the Southern states had created Republican majorities in both houses of Congress. Within Republican ranks, however, there were sharp difference 2. Most Democrats supported the war but criticized Lincoln's conduct of it. Peace Democrats and Copperheads opposed the war and wanted a negotiated peace.

Problems and Solutions

1. The first "sodbusters" on the dry and treeless plains often built their homes of sod bricks. Extremes of hot and cold weather, plagues of grasshoppers, and the lonesome life on the plains challenged even the most resourceful of the pioneer families. Water was scarce, and wood for fences was almost nonexistent. The invention of barbed wire by Joseph Glidden in 1874 helped farmers to fence in their lands on the lumber-scarce plains. 2. Those who managed to survive adopted "dry farming" and deep-plowing techniques to use the moisture available. They also learned to plant hardy strains of Russian wheat that withstood the extreme weather. Ultimately, dams and irrigation saved many western farmers, as humans reshaped the rivers and physical environment of the West to provide water for agriculture.

Rockefeller and the Oil Industry

1. The first U.S. oil well was drilled by Edwin Drake in 1859 in Pennsylvania 2. Only four years later, in 1863, a young John D. Rockefeller founded a company that would come to control most of the nation's oil refineries by eliminating its competition. Rockefeller took charge of the chaotic oil refinery business by applying the latest technologies and efficient practices. At the same time, as his company grew, he was able to extort rebates from railroad companies and temporarily cut prices for Standard Oil kerosene to force rival companies to sell out. 3. Standard Oil's profits soared and so did Rockefeller's fortune, which at the time of his retirement amounted to $900 million

Popular Press

1. The first newspaper to exceed a million in circulation was Joseph Pulitzer's New York World. Pulitzer filled his daily paper with both sensational stories of crimes and disasters and crusading feature stories about political and economic corruption. 2. . Another New York publisher, William Randolph Hearst, pushed scandal and sensationalism to new heights (or lows).

Inventions

1. The first radical change in the speed of communications was the invention of a workable telegraph by Samuel F. B. Morse, initially demonstrated in 1844. By the time of the Civil War, electronic communication by telegraph and rapid transportation by railroad were already becoming standard parts of modern living, especially in the northern states. 2. After the war, Cyrus W. Field's invention of an improved transatlantic cable in 1866 suddenly made it possible to send messages across the seas in minutes. By 1900, cables linked all continents of the world in an electronic network of nearly instantaneous, global communication. This communication revolution soon internationalized markets and prices for basic commodities, such as grains, coal, and steel, often placing local and smaller producers at the mercy of international forces. 3. These new products became essential tools for business.

The Compromise of 1850

1. The gold rush of 1849 and the influx of about 100,000 settlers into California created the need for law and order in the West. In 1849, Californians drafted a constitution for their new state-a constitution that banned slavery. 2. Even though President Taylor was a Southern slaveholder himself, he supported the immediate admission of both California and New Mexico as free states. 3. Some Southern extremists even met in Nashville in 1850 to discuss secession. By this time, however, the astute

Self-government

1. The government of each colony had a representative assembly that was elected by eligible voters (limited to white male property owners). 2. In only two colonies, Rhode Island and Connecticut, was the governor also elected by the people. 3. The governors of the other colonies were either appointed by the crown (for example, New York and Virginia) or by a proprietor (Pennsylvania and Maryland).

Monetary System

1. The growing colonies were forced to use much of the limited hard currency-gold and silver-to pay for the imports from Britain that increasingly exceeded colonial exports. 2. The British government also vetoed colonial laws that might harm British merchants.

In the last weeks of the campaign, Bryan was hurt by

1. a rise in wheat prices, which made farmers less desperate, 2. employers telling their workers that factories would shut down if Bryan was elected.

Families in Urban Society

1. Urban life placed severe strains on parents and their children by isolating them from the extended family (relatives beyond the family nucleus of parents and children) and village support. Divorce rates increased to one in 12 marriages by 1900, partly because a number of state legislatures had expanded the grounds for divorce to include cruelty and desertion. Another consequence of the shift from rural to urban living was a reduction in family size 2. Children were an economic asset on the farm, where their labor was needed at an early age. In the city, however, they were more of an economic liability. Therefore, in the last decades of the 19th century, the national average for birthrates and family size continued to drop.

Urbanization

1. Urbanization and industrialization developed simultaneously. Cities provided both laborers for factories and a market for factory-made goods. The shift in population from rural to urban became more obvious with each passing decade. By 1900 almost 40 percent of Americans lived in towns or cities. By 1920, for the first time, more Americans lived in urban areas than in rural areas. 2. They left the farms for industrial and commercial jobs, and few of them returned. Among those who joined the movement from farms to cities were African Americans from the South. Between 1897 and 1930, nearly 1 million southern blacks settled in northern and western cities.

The Missouri Compromise

1. Vermont entered the Union as a free state 2.Kentucky entered as a slave state, 3. Keeping a balance in the House of Representatives was difficult because population in the North was growing more rapidly than in the South. By 1818 the northern states held a majority of 105 to 81 in the House. 4. However, in the Senate, the votes remained divided evenly: 11 slave and 11 free states. As long as this balance was preserved, southern senators could block legislation that they believed threatened the interests of their section.

Headright System

1. Virginia attempted to attract immigrants through offers of land 2. The colony offered 50 acres of land to (1) each immigrant who paid for his own passage 3. any plantation owner who paid for an immigrant's passage.

New Routes

1. Voyages of exploration sponsored by Portugal's Prince Henry the Navigator eventually succeeded in opening up a long sea route around South Africa's Cape of Good Hope. 2. In 1498, the Portuguese sea captain Vasco da Gama was the first European to reach India via this route. By this time, Columbus had attempted what he mistakenly believed would be a shorter route to Asia.

Slavery, the 11 Peculiar lnstitution

1. Wealth in the South was measured in terms of land and slaves 2. some whites were sensitive about how they treated the other humans that they referred to slavery as "that peculiar institution." In colonial times, people justified slavery as an economic necessity, 3. but in the 19th century, apologists for slavery mustered historical and religious arguments to support their claim that it was good for both slave and master.

Republican Nomination of Lincoln

1. When the Republicans met in Chicago, they enjoyed the prospect of an easy win over the divided Democrats. They made the most of their advantage by drafting a platform that appealed strongly to the economic self-interest of Northerners and Westerners. 2. the Republican platform promised a protective tariff for industry, free land for homesteaders, and internal improvements to encourage western settlement, including a railroad to the Pacific. 3. strong debater from Illinois, Abraham Lincoln-a candidate who could carry the key Midwestern states of Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio. One cloud on the horizon darkened the Republicans' otherwise bright future. In the South, secessionists warned that if Lincoln was elected president, their states would leave the Union.

Results (1912)

1. Wilson won less than a majority of the popular vote, but with the Republicans split, he won a landslide in the electoral college and the Democrats gained control of Congress. 2. Wilson, while the failure of the Progressive party to elect local candidates suggested that the new party would not last. But the idea contained in Roosevelt's New Nationalism

Woodrow Wilson's Progressive Program

1. Wilson, who grew up in Virginia during the Civil War, was only the second Democrat elected president since the war (Cleveland was the other), and the first southerner to occupy the White House since Zachary Taylor (1849 1850). Wilson was idealistic, intellectual, righteous, and inflexible. Like Roosevelt, he believed that a president should actively lead Congress and, as necessary, appeal directly to the people to rally support for his legislative program. 2. the Democratic president pledged again his commitment to a New Freedom. To bring back conditions of free and fair competition in the economy, Wilson attacked "the triple wall of privilege": tariffs, banking, and trusts.

Literature

1. With limited resources available, most authors wrote on serious subjects, chiefly religion and politics 2. widely read religious tracts by two Massachusetts ministers, Cotton Mather and Jonathan Edwards 3. In the years preceding the American Revolution, writers including John Adams, James Otis, John Dickinson, Thomas Paine, and Thomas Jefferson issued political essays and treatises highlighting the conflict between American rights and English authority 4. The poetry of Phillis Wheatley is noteworthy both for her triumph over slavery and the quality of her verse.

New England

1. With rocky soil and long winters, farming was limited to subsistence levels that provided just enough for the farm family 2. Most farms were small-under 100 acres-and most work was done by family members and an occasional hired laborer.

Amateur Sports

1. Women were considered unfit for most competitive sports, but they engaged in such recreational activities as croquet and bicycling. 2. Sports such as golf and tennis grew, but mostly among the prosperous members of athletic clubs. 3. The very rich pursued expensive sports of polo and yachting. Clubs generally discriminated against Jews, Catholics, and Africans Americans

The Transcendentalists

1. Writers such as Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thoreau questioned the doctrines of established churches and the business practices of the merchant class. They argued for a mystical and intuitive way of thinking as a means for discovering one's inner self and looking for the essence of God in nature. 2. Their views challenged the materialism of American society by suggesting that artistic expression was more important than the pursuit of wealth. 3. Although the transcendentalists valued individualism highly and viewed organized institutions as unimportant, they supported a variety of reforms, especially the antislavery movement.

The Presidency of Andrew Jackson

1. as a different kind of president from any of his predecessors. A strong leader, he not only dominated politics for eight years but also became a symbol of the emerging working class and middle class (the so-called common man). Born in a frontier cabin, Jackson gained fame as an Indian fighter and as hero of the Battle of New Orleans, and came to live in a fine mansion in Tennessee as a wealthy planter and slave owner. 2. He chewed tobacco, fought several duels, and displayed a violent temper. Jackson was the first president since Washington to be without a college education. In a phrase, he could be described as an extraordinary ordinary man.

Africans

1. been taken captive, forced into European ships, and sold as enslaved laborers to southern plantation owners and other colonists. Some Africans were granted their freedom after years of forced labor. Outside the South, thousands of African Americans worked at a broad range of occupations, such as being a laborer, bricklayer, or blacksmith. 2. Every colony, from New Hampshire to Georgia, passed laws that discrimataed aganist Africans 3. By 1775, the African American population (both enslaved and free) made up 20 percent of the colonial population. 4. About 90 percent lived in the southern colonies in lifelong bondage. African Americans formed a majority of the population in South Carolina and Georgia.

The Draft

1. both the Union and the Confederacy resorted to laws for conscripting, or drafting, men into service

The Cattle Frontier

1. cowboys, or vaqueros. 2. By the 1860s, wild herds of about 5 million head of cattle roamed freely over the Texas grasslands. The Texas cattle business was easy to get into because both the cattle and the grass were free. 3. The construction of railroads into Kansas after the war opened up eastern markets for the Texas cattle 4. Dodge City and other cow towns sprang up along the railroads to handle the millions of cattle driven up the Chisholm, Goodnight-Loving, and other trails out of Texas during the 1860s and 1870s. The cowboys, many of whom were African Americans or Mexicans, received about a dollar a day for their dangerous work. 5. The long cattle drives began to come to an end in the 1880s. Overgrazing destroyed the grass and a winter blizzard and drought of 1885-1886 killed off 90 percent of the cattle. Another factor that closed down the cattle frontier was the arrival of homesteaders, who used barbed wire fencing to cut off access to the formerly open range. Wealthy cattle owners turned to developing huge ranches and using scientific ranching techniques. 6. They raised new breeds of cattle that produced more tender beef by feeding them hay and grains. The Wild West was largely tamed by the 1890s, but in these few decades, Americans' eating habits changed from pork to beef and people created the legend of the rugged, self-reliant American cowboy.

Agriculture

1. crops of corn and wheat were very profitable. Using the newly invented steel plow (by John Deere) and mechanical reaper (by Cyrus McCormick), a farm family was more efficient and could plant more acres, 2. needing to supplement its labor only with a few hired workers at harvest time.

Eastern Trunk lines

1. early decades of railroading (1830-1860), 2. "Commodore" Cornelius Vanderbilt used his millions earned from a steamboat business to merge local railroads into the New York Central Railroad (1867), 3. Baltimore and Ohio Railroad and the Pennsylvania Railroad, connected eastern seaports with Chicago and other midwestern cities and set standards of excellence and efficiency for the rest of the industry.

The Articles of Confederation- effects

1. gave the congress the power to wage war, make treaties, send diplomatic representatives, and borrow money. 2. Congress did not have the power to regulate commerce or to collect taxes. To finance any of its decisions, the congress had to rely upon taxes voted by each state. Neither did the government have executive power to enforce its laws

James Monroe

1. had fought in the Revolutionary War and suffered through the Valley Forge winter 2. served as Jefferson's minister to Great Britain and as Madison's secretary of state. 3. In the election of 1816, Monroe defeated the Federalist, Rufus King, overwhelmingly-183 electoral votes to 34 4.Under Monroe, the country acquired Florida, agreed on the Missouri Compromise, and adopted the Monroe Doctrine.

War with Mexico

1. he U.S. annexation of Texas quickly led to diplomatic trouble with Mexico. Upon taking office in 1845, President Polk dispatched John Slidell as his special envoy to the government in Mexico City 2. The Mexican government refused to sell California and insisted that Texas's southern border was on the Nueces River. Polk and Slidell asserted that the border lay farther to the south, along the Rio Grande.

Realism and Naturalism

1. naturalism, which focused on how emotions and experience shaped human experience 2. A naturalistic book that caused a sensation and shocked the moral sensibilities of the time was Theodore Dreiser's novel about a poor working girl in Chicago, Sister Carrie (1900). 3. As the 19th century ended, a group of social realists, such as George Bellows, of the "Ashcan School" painted scenes of everyday life in poor urban neighborhoods. 4. nonrepresentational paintings exhibited in the Armory Show in New York City in 1913. Art of this kind would be rejected by most Americans until the 1950s when it finally achieved respect among collectors of fine art.

Theodore Roosevelt's Big-Stick Policy

1. only a few months after being inaugurated president for a second time, McKinley was fatally shot by an anarchist 2. Succeeding him in office was the Republican vice president-the young expansionist and hero of the Spanish-American War, Theodore Roosevelt. Describing his foreign policy, the new president had once said that it was his motto to "speak softly and carry a big stick." The press, therefore, applied the label "big stick" to Roosevelt's aggressive foreign policy 3. Roosevelt attempted to build the reputation of the U.S. as a world power. Imperialists applauded his every move, but critics disliked breaking the tradition of noninvolvement in global politics.

Northwest Settlements

1. people lived in permanent longhouses or plank houses. 2. They had a rich diet based on hunting, fishing, and gathering nuts, berries, and roots. 3. To save stories, legends, and myths, they carved large totem poles. The high mountain ranges in this region isolated tribes from one another, creating barriers to development.

Polk wanted Slidell to

1. persuade Mexico to sell the California and New Mexico territories to the United States 2. settle the disputed Mexico-Texas border. Slidell's mission failed on both counts.

Hamilton's Financial Program

1. three main actions 2. Pay off the national debt at face value and have the federal government assume the war debts of the states. 3. Protect the young nation's "infant" (new and developing) industries and collect adequate revenues at the same time by imposing high tariffs on imported goods. 4. Create a national bank for depositing government funds and printing banknotes that would provide the basis for a stable U.S. currency. 5. Support for this program came chiefly from northern merchants, who would gain directly from high tariffs and a stabilized currency. 6. Congress finally adopted Hamilton's plan in slightly modified form. For example, the tariffs were not as high as Hamilton wanted.

Populists advocated:

1. unlimited coinage of silver to increase the money supply, 2.a graduated income tax (the greater a person's income, the higher the percentage of the tax on his or her income), 3. public ownership of railroads by the U.S. government, telegraph and telephone systems owned and operated by the government, 4. loans and federal warehouses for farmers to enable them to stabilize prices for their crops, 5. an eight-hour day for industrial workers.

French Policy

1. viewed American Indians as potential economic and military allies. 2. French maintained good relations with the tribes they encountered. 3. At these posts, they exchanged French goods for beaver pelts and other furs collected by American Indians. 4. they posed less threat to the native population than did other Europeans. In addition, French soldiers assisted the Huron people in fighting their traditional enemy, the Iroquois.

labor Shortages

1.. In both Maryland and Virginia, landowners saw great opportunities. They could get land, either by taking it from or trading for it with American Indians, and Europeans had a growing demand for tobacco. 2. they could not find enough laborers. For example, in Virginia, the high death rate from disease, food shortages, and battles with American Indians meant that the population grew slowly. Landowners tried several ways to find the workers they wanted.

Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848) effects

1.. In the Senate, some Whigs opposed the treaty because they saw the war as an immoral effort to expand slavery 2.. A few Southern Democrats disliked the treaty for opposite reasons; as expansionists, they wanted the United States to take all of Mexico. Nevertheless, the treaty was finally ratified in the Senate by the required two-thirds vote.

Annexing Texas and Dividing Oregon

1.. Outgoing president John Tyler took the election of Polk as a signal to push the annexation of Texas through Congress. Instead of seeking Senate approval of a treaty that would have required a two-thirds vote, Tyler persuaded both houses of Congress to pass a joint resolution for annexation. This procedure required only a simple majority of each house. Tyler left Polk with the problem of dealing with Mexico's reaction to annexation. 2. Polk decided to compromise with Britain and back down from his party's bellicose campaign slogan, "Fifty-four Forty or Fight!" Rather than fighting for all of Oregon, the president was willing to settle for just the southern half of it. British and American negotiators agreed to divide the Oregon territory at the 49th parallel 3. Final settlement of the issue was delayed until the United States agreed to grant Vancouver Island to Britain and guarantee its right to navigate the Columbia River. In June 1846, the treaty was submitted to the Senate for ratification. Some Northerners viewed the treaty as a sellout to Southern interests because it removed British Columbia as a source of potential free states

Federal Land Grants

1.. Recognizing that western railroads would lead the way to settlement, the federal government provided railroad companies with huge subsidies in the form of loans and land grants. The government gave 80 railroad companies more than 170 million acres of public land, more than three times the acres given away under the Homestead Act. 2. The government expected that the railroad would sell the land to new settlers to finance construction. 3. The land grants and cash loans promoted hasty and poor construction and led to corruption in all levels of government. 4. Protests against the land grants mounted in the 1880s when citizens discovered that the railroads controlled half of the land in some western states. 5. The two railroads came together on May 10, 1869, at Promontory Point, Utah, where a golden spike was ceremoniously driven into the rail tie to mark the linking of the Atlantic and the Pacific states. 6. The transcontinental railroads may have helped to settle the West, but many proved failures as businesses. They were built in areas with few customers and with little promise of returning a profit in the near term.

Modernizing Northern Society

1.. The war's impact on the Northern economy was dramatic. Economic historians differ on the question of whether, in the short run, the war promoted or retarded the growth of the Northern economy 2. On the negative side, workers' wages did not keep pace with inflation. 3. On the other hand, there is little doubt that many aspects of a modern industrial economy were accelerated by the war. 4. Because the war placed a premium on mass production and complex organization, it sped up the consolidation of the North's manufacturing businesses. War profiteers took advantage of the government's urgent needs for military supplies to sell shoddy goods at high prices-a problem that decreased after the federal government took control of the contract process away from the states. 5. Republican politics also played a major role in stimulating the economic growth of the North and the West. Taking advantage of their wartime majority in Congress, the Republicans passed an ambitious economic program

Election Results

1.. While Douglas campaigned across the country, Lincoln confidently remained at home in Springfield, Illinois, meeting with Republican leaders and giving statements to the press. The election results were predictable. Lincoln carried every one of the free states of the North, which represented a solid majority of 59 percent of the electoral votes. He won only 39.8 percent of the popular vote, however, and would therefore be a minority president 2. Together, the two Democrats, Douglas and Breckinridge, received many more popular votes than Lincoln, the Republican

Religion

1.. larger towns such as New York and Boston attracted some Jewish settlers, the overwhelming majority of colonists belonged to various Protestant denominations. 2. Congregationalists (the successors to the Puritans) and Presbyterians were most common. 3. In New York, people of Dutch descent often attended services of the Reformed Church, 4. many merchants belonged to the Church of England, also known as Anglicans (and later, Episcopalians) 5. In Pennsylvania, Lutherans, Mennonites, and Quakers were the most common groups. Anglicans were dominant in Virginia and some of the other southern colonies.

Industrial Technology

1.Before 1840, factory production had been concentrated mainly in the textile mills of New England. After 1840, industrialization spread rapidly to the other states of the Northeast. The new factories produced shoes, sewing machines, ready-to wear clothing, firearms, precision tools, and iron products for railroads and other new technologies. 2. The invention of the sewing machine by Elias Howe took much of the production of clothing out of homes into factories 3. An electric telegraph successfully demonstrated in 1844 by its inventor, Samuel F. B. Morse, went hand in hand with the growth of railroads in enormously speeding up communication and transportation across the country.

Politics of the Common Man

1.Between 1824 and 1840, politics moved out of the fine homes of rich southern planters and northern merchants who had dominated government in past eras and into middle- and lower-class homes. Several factors contributed to the spread of democracy, including new suffrage laws, changes in political parties and campaigns, improved education, and increases in newspaper circulation.

Factory System

1.Early in the next century, the embargo and the War of 1812 stimulated domestic manufacturing, and the protective tariffs enacted by Congress helped the new factories prosper. 2. In the 1820s, New England emerged as the country's leading manufacturing center as a result of the region's abundant waterpower for driving the new machinery and excellent seaports for shipping goods. New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania-followed New England's lead. As the factory system expanded, it encouraged the growth of financial businesses such as banking and insurance.

Free-Soil Movement

1.Northern Democrats and Whigs supported the Wilmot Proviso and the position that all African Americans-slave and free-should be excluded from the Mexican Cession (territory ceded to the U.S. by Mexico in 1848). 2. abolitionists advocated eliminating slavery everywhere 3. e, many Northerners who opposed the westward expansion of slavery did not oppose slavery in the South. They sought to keep the West a land of opportunity for whites only so that the white majority would not have to compete with the labor of slaves or free blacks

Transportation

1.centers such as Boston, New York, Philadelphia, and Charleston were located on the sites of good harbors and navigable rivers 2. overland travel by horse and stage became more common in the 18th century. 3. Taverns not only provided food and lodging for travelers, but also served as social centers where news was exchanged and politics discussed 4. A postal system using horses on overland routes and small ships on water routes was operating both within and between the colonies by the mid-18th century.

Slavery

1.many people throughout the nation believed and hoped that slavery would gradually disappear 2. However, the rapid growth of the cotton industry and the expansion of slavery into new states such as Alabama and Mississippi ended hopes for a quiet end to slavery. As the arguments over the Missouri Compromise suggested, the slavery issue defied easy answer

The Family

1.was the economic and social center of colonial life 2. people married at a younger age and reared more children than in Europe. 3. More than 90 percent of the people lived on farms. While life in the coastal communities and on the frontier was hard, most colonists had a higher standard of living than did most Europeans.

Federal Farm Loan Act In 1916

12 regional federal farm loan banks were established to provide farm loans at low interest rates.

College of New Jersey (Princeton)

1746, Presbyterian

King's College (Columbia)

1754, Anglican

Rhode Island College (Brown),

1764, Baptist

Queens College (Rutgers)

1766, Reformed

Dartmouth College

1769, Congregationalist

The Sherman Antitrust Act

1890 law banning any trust that restrained interstate trade or commerce

Platt Amendment affects-

A Cuban convention reluctantly accepted these terms, adding them to its country's new constitution. In effect, the Platt Amendment made Cuba a U.S. protectorate. As a result, Cuba's foreign policy would, for many years, be subject to U.S. oversight and

Dark Horse Candidate

A candidate for office with little support before the beginning of the nomination process; James K. Polk was the first dark horse candidate for president in 1844.

National Negro Business League

A league that established 320 chapters across the country to support businesses owned and operated by African Americans. Commercial Farming. As time went on, farmers began to depend on large, expensive machinery, and stores for goods.

"Gentlemen's Agreement"

A major cause of friction between Japan and the United States concerned the laws of California, which discriminated against Japanese Americans. San Francisco's practice of requiring Japanese American children to attend segregated schools was considered a national insult in Japan. In 1908, President Roosevelt arranged a compromise by means of an informal understanding, or "gentlemen's agreement." The Japanese government secretly agreed to restrict the emigration of Japanese workers to the United States in return for Roosevelt persuading California to repeal its discriminatory laws.

John Locke

A major influence on the Enlightenment and on American thinking , e, in his Two Treatises of Government, reasoned that while the state (the government) is supreme, it is bound to follow "natural laws" based on the rights that people have simply because they are human. He argued that sovereignty ultimately resides with the people rather than with the state. Furthermore, said Locke, citizens had a right and an obligation to revolt against whatever government failed to protect their rights. His stress on natural rights would provide a rationale for the American Revolution and later for the basic principles of the U.S. Constitution.

Religion

A missionary spirit inspired some middle-class reformers. Protestant churches preached against vice and taught a code of social responsibility, which included caring for the less fortunate and insisting on honesty in public life. The Social Gospel popularized by Walter Rauschenbusch (see Chapter 18) was an important element in Protestant Christians' response to the problem of urban poverty. Most of these Protestants were native-born and older stock Americans, often from families of older elites who felt that their central role in society had been replaced by wealthy industrialists and urban political machines.

Militant Suffragists

A more militant approach to gaining the vote was adopted by some women, who took to the streets with mass pickets, parades, and hunger strikes

Continental Association ( Association)

A network of committees to enforce the economic sanctions of the Suffolk Reserves

Mountain People

A number of small farmers lived in frontier conditions in isolation from the rest of the South, along the slopes and valleys of the Appalachian and Ozark mountains. The mountain people disliked the planters and their slaves. During the Civil War, many (including a future president, Andrew Johnson of Tennessee) would remain loyal to the Union.

Cohens v. Virginia (1821)

A pair of brothers named Cohens were convicted in Virginia of illegally selling lottery tickets for a lottery authorized by Congress for Washington, D.C. While Marshall and the Court upheld the conviction, they established the principle that the Supreme Court would review a state court's decision involving any of the powers of the federal government.

Knights of Labor

A second national labor union, the Knights of Labor, began in 1869 as a secret society in order to avoid detection by employers. Under the leadership of Terence V. Powderly, the union went public in 1881, opening its membership to all workers, including African Americans and women.were loosely organized, however, he could not control local units that decided to strike. The Knights of Labor grew rapidly and attained a peak membership of 730,000 workers in 1886. It declined just as rapidly, however, after the violence of the Haymarket riot in Chicago in 1886 turned public opinion against the union.

Andrew Johnson

A self-taught tailor, he rose in Tennessee politics by championing the interests of poor whites in their economic conflict with rich planters. Johnson was the only senator from a Confederate state who remained loyal to the Union. he was appointed that state's war governor. Johnson was a Southern Democrat, but Republicans picked him to be Lincoln's running mate in 1864 in order to encourage pro-Union Democrats to vote for the Union (Republican) party. Johnson became the wrong man for the job. As a white supremacist, the new president was bound to clash with Republicans in Congress who believed that the war was fought not just to preserve the Union but also to liberate blacks from slavery.

Suffolk Resolves

A statement originally issued by Mass. Called for immediate repeal of the Intolerable Acts and for colonies to resist them by making military preparations and boycotting British goods.

President John Quincy Adams

Adams further alienated the followers of Jackson when he asked Congress for money for internal improvements, aid to manufacturing, and even a national university and an astronomical observatory

John Adams' Presidency

Adams won by three electoral votes. Jefferson became vice-president, since the original Constitution gave that office to the candidate receiving the second highest number of electoral votes.

The Compromise of 1850

Admit California to the Union as a free state • Divide the remainder of the Mexican Cession into two territoriesUtah and New Mexico-and allow the settlers in these territories to decide the slavery issue by majority vote, or popular sovereignty • Give the land in dispute between Texas and the New Mexico territory to the new territories in return for the federal government assuming Texas's public debt of $10 million • Ban the slave trade in the District of Columbia but permit whites to hold slaves as before • Adopt a new Fugitive Slave Law and enforce it rigorously

the Platt Amendment of 1901,

Amendment required Cuba to agreed ( 1) to never sign a treaty with a foreign power that impaired its independence, (2) to permit the United States to intervene in Cuba's affairs to preserve its independence and maintain law and order, and (3) to allow the U.S. to maintain naval bases in Cuba, including one permanent base at Guantanamo Bay.

Rutherford B. Hayes

After being declared the winner of the disputed election of 1876, Rutherford B. Hayes's most significant act was to end Reconstruction by withdrawing the last federal troops from the South. President Hayes also attempted to re-establish honest government after the corrupt Grant administration. Hayes vetoed efforts to restrict Chinese immigration.

Freedmen in the War

After the Emancipation Proclamation (January 1863), hundreds of thousands of Southern blacks-approximately one-quarter of the slave population-walked away from slavery to seek the protection of the approaching Union armies. Almost 200,000 African Americans, most of whom were newly freed slaves, served in the Union army and navy. Segregated into all-black units, such as the Massachusetts 54th Regiment, black troops performed courageously under fire and won the respect of Union white soldiers. More than 37,000 African American soldiers died in what became known as the Army of Freedom.

Oneida Community

After undergoing a religious conversion, John Humphrey Noyes in 1848 started a cooperative community in Oneida, New York. Dedicated to an ideal of perfect social and economic equality, community members shared property and, later, marriage partners. Critics attacked the Oneida system of planned reproduction and communal child-rearing as a sinful experiment in "free love." Despite the controversy, the community managed to prosper economically by producing and selling silverware of excellent quality.

Three-Fifths Compromise

Agreement that each slave counted as three-fifths of a person in determining representation in the House for representation and taxation purposes (negated by the 13th amendment)

Haymarket Bombing

Also living in Chicago was about 200 anarchists who advocated the violent overthrow of all governments. labor violence broke out at Chicago's McCormick Harvester plant. On May 4, workers held a public meeting in Haymarket Square, and as police attempted to break up the meeting, someone threw a bomb, which killed seven police officers. The bomb-thrower was never found. Even so, eight anarchist leaders were tried for the crime, and seven were sentenced to death. Horrified by the bomb incident, many Americans concluded that the union movement was radical and violent. The Knights of Labor, as the most visible union at the time, lost popularity and membership.

Impending Crisis of the South

Although it did not appear until 1857, Hinton R. Helper's book of nonfiction, Impending Crisis of the South, attacked slavery from another angle. The author, a native of North Carolina, used statistics to demonstrate to fellow Southerners that slavery weakened the South's economy. Southern states acted quickly to ban the book, but it was widely distributed in the North by antislavery and Free-Soil leaders.

Radical Republicans

Although most Republicans were moderates, several became more radical in 1866 partly out of fear that a reunified Democratic party might again become dominant. After all, now that the federal census counted all people equally (no longer applying the old three-fifths rule for enslaved persons), the South would have more representatives in Congress than before the war and more strength in the electoral college in future presidential elections

Changes in Families and Roles for Women

American society was still overwhelmingly rural in the mid-19th century. But in the growing cities, the impact of the Industrial Revolution was redefining the family. Industrialization reduced the economic value of children. In middle-class families, birth control was used to reduce average family size, which declined from 7.04 family members in 1800 to 5.42 in 1830.

Controversy Over the Treaty of Peace

Americans accepted this provision of the treaty. However, many were not prepared for taking over a large Pacific island nation, the Philippines, as a colony.

The French Revolution

Americans generally supported the French people's aspiration to establish a republic, but many were also horrified by reports of mob hysteria and mass executions. To complicate matters, the U.S. French alliance remained in effect, although it was an alliance with the French monarchy, not with the revolutionary republic.

Spoils System-

Any previous holder of the office who was not a Democrat was fired and replaced with a loyal Democrat. This practice of dispensing government jobs in return for party loyalty was called the spoils system because of a comment that, in a war, victors seize the spoils, or wealth, of the defeated.

Chester A. Arthur

Arthur proved a much better president than people expected. He distanced himself from the Stalwarts, supporting a bill reforming the civil service. This bill expanded the number of government employees hired based on their qualifications rather than their political connections. In addition, he approved the development of a modern American navy and began to question the high protective tariff. His reward was denial of renomination by the Republican party in 1884.

Jacob Riis

Articles on tenement life, one of the first photojournalists, were published as How the Other Half Lives (1890).

Executive Departments

As chief executive, Washington's first task was to organize new departments of the executive (law-enforcing) branch. The Constitution authorizes the president to appoint chiefs of departments, although they must be confirmed, or approved, by the Senate. Washington appointed four heads of departments:

Proclamation of Amnesty and Reconstruction (1863)

As early as December 1863, Lincoln set up an apparently simple process for political reconstruction-that is, for reconstructing the state governments in the South so that Unionists were in charge rather than secessionists. The president's Proclamation of Amnesty and Reconstruction provided for the following: meant that each Southern state would be required to rewrite its state constitution to eliminate the existence of slavery. Lincoln's seemingly lenient policy was designed both to shorten the war and to give added weight to his Emancipation Proclamation.

Falling Prices

As prices fell, farmers with mortgages faced both high-interest rates and the need to grow more and more to pay off old debts

Cheap labor:

As tobacco prices fell, rice and indigo became the most profitable crops. To grow such crops required a large land area and many inexpensive, relatively unskilled field hands.

American Indians

At first, American Indians tried to stay out of the war. Eventually, however, attacks by colonists prompted many American Indians to support the British, who promised to limit colonial settlements in the West.

Reforming Society

At first, the leaders of reform hoped to improve people's behavior through moral persuasion. However, after they tried sermons and pamphlets, reformers often moved on to political action and to ideas for creating new institutions to replace the old.

Sharecropping

At first, white landowners attempted to force freed African Americans into signing contracts to work the fields. These contracts set terms that nearly bound the signer to permanent and unrestricted labor-in effect, slavery by a different name.

The Great Migration

At the close of the 19th century, about nine out of ten African Americans lived in the South. In the next century, this ratio steadily shifted toward the North. This internal migration began in earnest between 1910 and 1930 when about a million people traveled north to seek jobs in the cities

State Reform

At the state level, reform governors battled corporate interests and championed such measures as the initiative, the referendum, and the direct primary to give common people control of their own government

Declaration of Resolves

Backed by the moderate delegates in a petition that urged the King to redress colonial grievances and restore colonial rights. It recognized parents authority to regulate commerce

Passage

Because California was admitted as a free state, the compromise added to the North's political power, and the political debate deepened the commitment of many Northerners to saving the Union from secession

Andrew Carnegie-

Born in 1835 in Scotland, Carnegie immigrated to the United States and worked his way up from poverty to become the superintendent of a Pennsylvania railroad. In the 1870s, he started manufacturing steel in Pittsburgh and soon outdistanced his competitors by a combination of salesmanship and the use of the latest technology. Carnegie employed a business strategy known as vertical integration,

Cities

Because the South was primarily an agricultural region, there was only a limited need for major cities. New Orleans was the only southern city among the nation's 15 largest in 1860 (it was fifth, after New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and Boston). Cities such as Atlanta, Charleston, Chattanooga, and Richmond were important trading centers, but had relatively small populations in comparison to those of the North.

Secession of the Upper South

Before the attack on Fort Sumter, only seven states of the Deep South had seceded. After it became clear that Lincoln would use troops in the crisis, four states of the Upper South-Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee, and Arkansas-also seceded and joined the Confederacy.

Books of Social Criticism

Both books encouraged a shift in American public opinion away from pure laissez-faire and toward greater government regulation.

Constitutional Issues

Both the Democrats' position of popular sovereignty and the Republicans' stand against the expansion of slavery received serious blows during the Buchanan administration (1857-1861). Republicans attacked Buchanan as a weak president.

Red River War

Brief war in North Texas in 1874 to force the Indians off the land and into Indian Territory (Reserve) -The Kiowa Indians and the Comanche Indians often cooperated to keep other Indian tribes off the land.: US Army troops slaughtered Indians and destroyed Indian supplies; many Indian leaders captured and sent to reservations.

Quebec Act (177 4)

British government also passed a law organizing the Canadian lands gained from France. This plan was accepted by most French Canadians, but it was resented by many in the 13 colonies. The Quebec Act established Roman Catholicism as the official religion of Quebec, set up a government without a representative assembly, and extended Quebec's boundary to the Ohio River. The colonists viewed the Quebec Act as a direct attack on the American colonies because it took away lands that they claimed along the Ohio River. They also feared that the British would attempt to enact similar laws in America to take away their representative government

Proclamation of 1763

British government issued a proclamation that prohibited colonists from settling west of the Appalachian Mountains. The British hoped that limiting settlements would prevent future hostilities between colonists and American Indians. But the colonists reacted to the proclamation with anger and defiance. Defying the prohibition, thousands streamed westward beyond the imaginary boundary line drawn by the British.

Farmers' Alliances

By 1890, about 1 million farmers had joined farmers' alliances. In the South, both poor white and black farmers joined the movement.

Higher Education

By 1900, 71 percent of the colleges admitted women, who represented more than one-third of the attending students.

Women, Suffrage, and the Progressive Movement

By 1900, the older generation of suffrage crusaders led by Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton had passed the torch to younger women. They sought allies among male Progressives, but not always with success. For example, President Wilson refused to support the suffragists' call for a national amendment until late in his presidency

Controlling Public Utilities

By 1915 fully two-thirds of the nation's cities owned their own water systems. As a result of the Progressives' efforts, many cities also came to own and operate gas lines, electric power plants, and urban transportation systems.

Emancipation Proclamation

By July 1862, Lincoln had already decided to use his powers as commander in chief of the armed forces to free all enslaved persons in the states then at war with the United States. He justified his policy as a "military necessity." Lincoln delayed announcement of the policy, however, until he could win the support of conservative Northerners. At the same time, he encouraged the border states to come up with plans for emancipation, with compensation to the owners.

system of rotation in office-

By limiting a person to one term in office he could then appoint some other deserving Democrat in his place. Jackson defended the replacement and rotation of officeholders as a democratic reform.

Chesapeake Campaign

By the spring of 1814, the defeat of Napoleon in Europe enabled the British to increase their forces in North America. In the summer of that year, a British army marched through the nation's capital, Washington, D.C., and set fire to the White House, the Capitol, and other government buildings.

Florida Purchase Treaty of 1819

By treaty in 1819, Spain turned over all of its possessions in Florida and its own claims in the Oregon Territory to the United States. In exchange, the United States agreed to assume $5 million in claims against Spain and give up any U.S. territorial claims to the Spanish province of Texas. The agreement is also called the Adams-Onfs Treaty.

Frederick W. Taylor

By using a stopwatch to time the output of factory workers, Taylor discovered ways of organizing people in the most efficient manner-the scientific management system. Many Progressives believed that the government too could be made more efficient if placed in the hands of experts and scientific managers. They objected to the corruption of political bosses partly because it was antidemocratic and partly because it was an inefficient way to run things.

State Reform (NY)

Charles Evans Hughes battled fraudulent insurance companies.

after becoming president of Harvard in 1869

Charles W. Eliot reduced the number of required courses and introduced electives (courses chosen by students) to accommodate the teaching of modern languages and the sciences: physics, chemistry, biology, and geology

Established Churches

Churches financed through the government

Municipal Reform

City bosses and their corrupt alliance with local businesses (trolley lines and utility companies, for example) were the first target of Progressive leaders

Economic (Confederacy)

Confederates hoped that European demand for its cotton would bring recognition and financial aid. Like other rebel movements in history, the Confederates counted on outside help to be successful.

the legislative branch

Congress

Land Ordinance of 1785

Congress established a policy for surveying and selling the western lands. The policy provided for setting aside one section of land in each township for public education

The Amnesty Act of 1872

Congress in 1872 passed a general amnesty act that removed the last of the restrictions on ex-Confederates, except for the top leaders. The chief political consequence of the Amnesty Act was that it allowed Southern conservatives to vote for Democrats to retake control of state governments.

Teller Amendment

Congress passed a joint resolution on April 20 authorizing war. Part of the resolution, the Teller Amendment, declared that the United States had no intention of taking political control of Cuba and that, once peace was restored to the island, the Cuban people would control their own government

Wade-Davis Bill (1864)

Congress passed the Wade-Davis Bill, which proposed far more demanding and stringent terms for Reconstruction. The bill required 50 percent of the voters of a state to take a loyalty oath and permitted only non-Confederates to vote for a new state constitution. Lincoln refused to sign the bill, pocket vetoing it after Congress adjourned.

Reconstruction Acts of 1867

Congress passed three Reconstruction acts in early 1867, which took the drastic step of placing the South under military occupation. The acts divided the former Confederate states into five military districts, each under the control of the Union army. In addition, the Reconstruction acts increased the requirements for gaining readmission to the Union. To win such readmission, an ex-Confederate state had to ratify the 14th Amendment and place guarantees in its constitution for granting the franchise (right to vote) to all adult males, regardless of race.

Federal Court System

Congress, however, was given the power to create other federal courts with lesser powers and to determine the number of justices making up the Supreme Court.

Politicians

Congressional leaders such as Henry Cabot Lodge of Massachusetts and the Republican governor of New York, Theodore Roosevelt, were eager to build U.S. power through global expansion.

elected by popular vote.

Connecticut and Rhode Island

Cuban Revolt

Cuban nationalists, after fighting but failing to overthrow Spanish colonial rule between 1868 and 1878, renewed the struggle in 1895. Through sabotage and laying waste to Cuban plantations, they hoped to either force Spain's withdrawal or pull in the United States as an ally. In response, Spain sent autocratic General Valeriano Weyler and over 100,000 troops to crush the revolt. Weyler forced civilians into armed camps, where tens of thousands died of starvation and disease, and gained him the title of "The Butcher" in the American press.

Violent Abolitionism

David Walker and Henry Highland Garnet were two northern African Americans who advocated the most radical solution to the slavery question. They argued that slaves should take action themselves by rising up in revolt against their owners. In 1831, a Virginia slave named Nat Turner led a revolt in which 55 whites were killed. In retaliation, whites killed hundreds of African Americans in brutal fashion and put down the revolt. Before this event, there had been some antislavery sentiment and discussion in the South. After the revolt, fear of future uprisings as well as Garrison's inflamed rhetoric put an end to antislavery talk in the South.

Federalists: Military Policy

Develop large peacetime army and navy

Democratic-Republicans military policy

Develop small peacetime army and navy

The Kansas-Nebraska Act (1854

Douglas introduced a bill to divide the Nebraska Territory into two parts, the Kansas Territory and Nebraska Territory, and allow settlers in each territory to decide whether to allow slavery or not. Since these territories were located north of the 36° 30' line, Douglas's bill gave Southern slave owners an opportunity to expand slavery that previously had been closed to them by the Missouri Compromise of 1820. Northern Democrats condemned the bill as a surrender to the "slave power." Both houses of Congress passed Douglas's bill as the Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854, and President Pierce signed it into law.

The Election of 1800

During Adams' presidency, the Federalists rapidly lost popularity. People disliked the Alien and Sedition Acts and complained about the new taxes imposed by the Federalists to pay the costs of preparing for a war against France.

U.S. Interest in the Mississippi River

During Jefferson's presidency, the western frontier extended beyond Ohio and Kentucky into the Indiana Territory. Settlers in this region depended for their economic existence on transporting goods on rivers that flowed westward into the Mississippi and southward as far as New Orleans

Discrimination and the Supreme Court

During Reconstruction, federal laws protected southern blacks from discriminatory acts by local and state governments. Starting in the late 1870s, however, the U.S. The Supreme Court struck down one Reconstruction act after another applying to civil rights.

Payne-Aldrich Tariff

During his 1908 campaign, Taft had promised to lower the tariff. Instead, conservative Republicans in Congress passed the Payne-Aldrich Tariff in 1909, which raised the tariff on most imports. Taft angered Progressives in his party not only by signing the tariff bill but by making a public statement in its defense.

More Elected Offices

During the Jacksonian era, a much larger number of state and local officials were elected to office, instead of being appointed, as in the past. This change gave the voters more voice in their government and also tended to increase their interest in participating in elections.

Freeport Doctrine (1858)

During the Lincoln-Douglas debates, Douglas said in his Freeport Doctrine that Congress couldn't force a territory to become a slave state against its will - this enraged the South because he was saying despite the Dred Scott decision states did not have to tolerate slavery -- there were methods around it - such as passing no slave codes to protect it.

Reconstruction in the South

During the second round of Reconstruction, dictated by Congress, the Republican party in the South dominated the governments of the ex-Confederate states. Beginning in 1867, each Republican-controlled government was under the military protection of the U.S. Army until such time as Congress was satisfied that a state had met its Reconstruction requirements.

The Scarlet Letter (1850) and other novels

by Nathaniel Hawthorne questioned the intolerance and conformity in American life

Other reforms

Efforts to reform individuals and society during the antebellum era also included smaller movements such as: - the American Peace Society -dietary reforms, -dress reform for women, -phrenology,

Acts of Trade and Navigation

England's government implemented a mercantilist policy with a series of Navigation Acts between 1650 and 1673, which established three rules for colonial trade:

Black Abolitionists

Escaped slaves and free African Americans were among the most outspoken and convincing critics of slavery. A former slave such as Frederick Douglass could speak about the brutality and degradation of slavery from firsthand experience. An early follower of Garrison, Douglass later advocated both political and direct action to end slavery and racial prejudice. In 1847, he started the antislavery journal The North Star. Other African American leaders, such as Harriet Tubman, David Ruggles, Sojourner Truth, and William Still, helped organize the effort to assist fugitive slaves escape to free territory in the North or to Canada, where slavery was prohibited

Eugene V. Debs

Eugene Debs, was the party's candidate for president in five elections from 1900 to 1920. A former railway union leader, Debs adopted socialism while jailed for the Pullman strike. He was an outspoken critic of business and a champion of labor.

Foreign-

European nations had little respect for a new nation that could neither pay its debts nor take effective and united action in a crisis. Britain and Spain threatened to take advantage of U.S. weakness by expanding their interests in the western lands soon after the war ended.

Midterm Elections

Fighting back against his Progressive critics, Taft openly supported conservative candidates for Congress in the midterm elections of 1910. It was a serious political mistake. Progressive Republicans from the Midwest easily defeated the candidates endorsed by Taft. After this election, the Republican party was split wide open between two opposing groups: a conservative faction loyal to Taft and a Progressive faction

Baltimore and Ohio Railroad

First American railroad; finished in 1830; only thirteen miles long, but still significant because of what it was the start of. an early leader in the transportation revolution, provided the country with a more efficient means of travel. The rail line's construction began on July 4, 1828, and eventually expanded into thirteen states.

Fourteenth Amendment effects

For the first time, the Constitution required states as well as the federal government to uphold the rights of citizens. The amendment's key clauses about citizenship and rights produced mixed results in 19th-century courtrooms. However, in the 1950s and later, the Supreme Court would make "equal protection of the laws" and the "due process" clause the keystone of civil rights for minorities, women, children, disabled persons, and those accused of crimes.

Northwest Ordinance of 1787-

For the large territory lying between the Great Lakes and the Ohio River, the congress passed an ordinance (law) that set the rules for creating new states. The Northwest Ordinance granted limited self-government to the developing territory and prohibited slavery in the region.

National Labor Union

Founded in 1866, it had some 640,000 members by 1868. Besides championing the goals of higher wages and the eight-hour day, the first national union also had a broad social program: equal rights for women and blacks, monetary reform, and worker cooperatives. Its chief victory was winning the eight-hour day for workers employed by the federal government. It lost support, however, after a depression began in 1873 and after the unsuccessful strikes of 1877.

American Federation of Labor

Founded in 1886 as an association of 25 craft unions, and led by Samuel Gompers until 1924, the AF of L focused on just higher wages and improved working conditions. Gompers directed his local unions of skilled workers to walk out until the employer agreed to negotiate a new contract through collective bargaining. By 1901, the AF of L was by far the nation's largest union, with 1 million members. Even this union, however, would not achieve major successes until the early decades of the 20th century.

The United States Under the Articles, 1781-1787

Four years separated the signing of the Treaty of Paris of 1783 and the meeting of the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia. During that time, the government operated under the Articles of Confederation, which consisted of a one-house congress, no separate executive, and no separate judiciary (court system). The country faced several major problems.

Alliance With France

France had secretly extended aid to the American revolutionaries as early as 1775, giving both money and supplies. After Saratoga, in 1778, France openly allied itself with the Americans. The French alliance proved a decisive factor in the American struggle for independence because it widened the war and forced the British to divert military resources away from America.

Foreign Affairs and Diplomacy

From the Union's point of view, it was critically important to prevent the Confederacy from gaining the foreign support and recognition that it desperately needed.

judicial review-

From this point on, the Supreme Court would exercise the power to decide whether an act of Congress or of the president was allowed by the Constitution. The Supreme Court could now overrule actions of the other two branches of the federal government.

Liberty Party

Garrison's radicalism soon led to a split in the abolitionist movement. Believing that political action was a more practical route to reform than Garrison's moral crusade, a group of northerners formed the Liberty party in 1840. They ran James Birney as their candidate for president in 1840 and 1844. The party's one campaign pledge was to bring about the end of slavery by political and legal means.

Peninsula Campaign

General George B. McClellan, the new commander of the Union army in the East, insisted that his troops be given a long period of training before going into battle. Finally, after many delays that sorely tested Lincoln's patience, McClellan's army invaded Virginia in March 1862. The Union army was stopped as a result of brilliant tactical moves by Confederate General Robert E. Lee, who emerged as the commander of the South's eastern forces. After five months, McClellan was forced to retreat and was ordered back to the Potomac, where he was replaced by General John Pope.

Union Strategy

General-in-Chief Winfield Scott, veteran of the 1812 and Mexican wars, devised a three-part strategy for winning a long war: - Use the U.S. Navy to blockade Southern ports (called the Anaconda Plan), cutting off essential supplies from reaching the Confederacy -Take control of the Mississippi River, dividing the Confederacy in two • Raise and train an army 500,000 strong to conquer Richmond

Painting

Genre painting-portraying the everyday life of ordinary people such as riding riverboats and voting on election day-became the vogue of artists in the 1830s

Moderate Delegates-

George Washington (Virgina) and John Dickinson (Pennsylvania)

Progress and Poverty-

George called attention to the alarming inequalities in wealth caused by industrialization. , George proposed one innovative solution to poverty: replacing all taxes with a single tax on land

The Amana Colonies

Germans who belonged to the religious reform movement known as Pietism. Like the Shakers, they emphasized simple, communal living. However, they allowed for marriage, and their communities continue to prosper, although they no longer practice their communal ways of living.

Dumbbell Tenements (1879)

Government requires all buildings get new windows to prevent growth of bacteria, James E. Ware gets to design them, allows for crowded yet breathable conditions; unfortunately the window shafts created too much crowding, turned into trash dumps, spread fires

The Panic of 1873-

Grant's second term began with an economic disaster that rendered thousands of Northern laborers both jobless and homeless. Overs peculation by financiers and overbuilding by industry and railroads led to widespread business failures and depression. Debtors on the farms and in the cities, suffering from the tight money policies, demanded the creation of greenback paper money that was not supported by gold. In 1874, Grant finally decided to side with the hard-money bankers and creditors who wanted a money supply backed by gold and vetoed a bill calling for the release of additional greenbacks.

a peace treaty (the Peace of Paris) in 1763

Great Britain acquired both French Canada and Spanish Florida. France ceded (gave up) to Spain its huge western territory, Louisiana, and claims west of the Mississippi River in compensation for Spain's loss of Florida. With this treaty, the British extended their control of North America, and French power on the continent virtually ended.

The Whiskey Rebellion (1794)

Hamilton, to make up the revenue lost because the tariffs were lower than he wanted, persuaded Congress to pass excise taxes, particularly on the sale of whiskey. The rebelling farmers could ill afford to pay a tax on the whiskey that they distilled from surplus com. Rather than pay the tax, they defended their "liberties" by attacking the revenue collectors.

Difficulties Abroad

He sought to maintain U.S. neutrality despite increasing provocations from both France and Britain during the Napoleonic wars.

Battle of Tippecanoe, in 1811

Harrison destroyed the Shawnee headquarters and put an end to Tecumseh's efforts to form an Indian confederacy. The British had provided only limited aid to Tecumseh. Nevertheless, Americans on the frontier blamed the British for instigating the rebellion.

W. E. B. Du Bois

Harvard educated scholar and advocate of full black social and economic equality through the leadership of a talented tenth. William James. Harvard scholar who made original contributions to modern psychology and philosophy.

William Miller

He led the group that believed that Jesus was to come back to earth on October 22, 1844. They originated in the Burned-Over-District. gained tens of thousands of followers by predicting a specific date (October 21, 1844) for the second coming. Nothing happened on the appointed day, but the Millerites continued as a new Christian denomination, the Seventh-Day Adventists.

The lodge Corollary

Henry Cabot Lodge, a Republican senator from Massachusetts, was responsible for another action that alienated both Latin America and Japan. A group of Japanese investors wanted to buy a large part of Mexico's Baja Peninsula, extending south of California.

Homestead Strike-

Henry Clay Frick, the manager of Andrew Carnegie's Homestead Steel plant near Pittsburgh, precipitated a strike in 1892 by cutting wages by nearly 20 percent. Frick used the weapons of the lockout, private guards, and strikebreakers to defeat the steelworkers' walkout after five months. The failure of the Homestead strike set back the union movement in the steel industry until the New Deal in the 1930s.

State Reform (CA)

Hiram Johnson successfully fought against the economic and political power of the Southern Pacific Railroad.

American Response

However, Secretary of State John Quincy Adams disagreed. He believed that joint action with Britain would restrict U.S. opportunities for further expansion in the hemisphere. Adams reasoned as follows: (1) If the United States acted alone, Britain could be counted upon to stand behind the U.S. policy. (2) No European power would risk going to war in South America, and if it did, the British navy would surely defeat the aggressor.

Life on the Plains

Horses, brought to America by the Spanish in the 1500s, revolutionized life for American Indians on the Great Plains.

Treaty of 1818

Improved relations between the United States and Britain continued in a treaty that provided for (1) shared fishing rights off the coast of Newfoundland; (2) joint occupation of the Oregon Territory for ten years; and (3) the setting of the northern limits of the Louisiana Territory at the 49th parallel, thus establishing the western U.S.-Canada boundary line.

Representative Assembly in Virginia

In 1619, just 12 years after the founding of Jamestown, Virginia's colonists organized the first representative assembly in America, the House of Burgesses.

Newspapers

In 1725, only five newspapers existed in the colonies, but by 1776 the number had grown to more than 40.

Letters From a Farmer in Pennsylvania

In 1767 and 1768, John Dickinson of Pennsylvania , wrote that Parliament could regulate commerce but argued that because duties were a form of taxation, they could not be levied on the colonies without the consent of their representative assemblies. Dickinson argued that the idea of no taxation without representation was an essential principle of English law.

Circular Letter

In 1768, James Otis and Samuel Adams jointly wrote the Massachusetts Circular Letter and sent copies to every colonial legislature. It urged the various colonies to petition Parliament to repeal the Townshend Acts. British officials in Boston ordered the letter retracted, threatened to dissolve the legislature, and increased the number of British troops in Boston

Lexington and Concord-

In 1775 General Thomas Gage the commander of the British troops in Boston sent a large force to seize colonial military supplies in the town of Concord. They were warned by the British by two riders ( Paul Revere and Wiillian Dawes), the militia of Lexington assembled on the village green to face the British. Americans were forced to retreat under British fire, 8 Americans were killed. The British entered Concord where they destroyed some military supplies. On the way back to Boston British soldiers were attacked by hundreds of militiamen firing at them from behind the stone walls. The British suffered 250 casualties

Woodrow Wilson and Foreign Affairs

In his campaign for president in 1912, the Democratic candidate Woodrow Wilson called for a New Freedom in government and promised a moral approach to foreign affairs. Wilson said he opposed imperialism and the big stick and dollar-diplomacy policies of his Republican predecessors.

Yorktown

In 1781, the last major battle of the Revolutionary War was fought near Yorktown, Virginia, on the shores of Chesapeake Bay. Washington's army forced the surrender of a large British army commanded by General Charles Cornwallis

Jefferson's Reelection

In 1804 Jefferson won reelection by an overwhelming margin, receiving all but 14 of the 176 electoral votes. His second term was marked by growing difficulties

Chesapeake-Leopard Affair-

In 1807, only a few miles off the coast of Virginia, the British warship Leopard fired on the U.S. warship Chesapeake. Three Americans were killed and four others were taken captive and impressed into the British navy. Anti-British feeling ran high, and many Americans demanded war. Jefferson, however, resorted to diplomacy and economic pressure as his response to the crisis.

Trail of Tears

In 1838, after Jackson had left office, the U.S. The Army forced 15,000 Cherokees to leave Georgia. The hardships on the "trail of tears" westward caused the deaths of 4,000 Cherokees.

James Garfield

In his first weeks in office, Garfield was besieged in the White House by hordes of Republicans seeking some 100,000 federal jobs. s. While the president was preparing to board a train for a summer vacation in 1881, a deranged office seeker who identified with the Stalwarts shot Garfield in the back. After an 11-week struggle, the gunshot wound proved fatal. Chester A. Arthur then became president.

The War Begins

In his inaugural address, Lincoln assured Southerners that he would not interfere with slavery. At the same time, he warned, no state had the right to break up the Union

Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA)-

In 1890, two of the pioneer feminists of the 1840s, Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony of New York helped found the National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA) to secure the vote for women. A western state, Wyoming, was the first to grant full suffrage to women, in 1869. By 1900, some states allowed women to vote in local elections, and most allowed women to own and control property after marriage.

Commissions and City Managers

In 1900, Galveston, Texas, was the first city to adopt a commission plan of government,

Boxer Rebellion (1900)

In 1900, a secret society of Chinese nationalists-the Society of Harmonious Fists, or Boxers-attacked foreign settlements and murdered dozens of Christian missionaries. To protect American lives and property, U.S. troops participated in an international force that marched into Peking (Beijing) and quickly crushed the rebellion of the Boxers. The countries forced China to pay a huge sum in indemnities, which further weakened the imperial regime.

Niagara Movement.

In 1905, W. E. B. Du Bois met with a group of black intellectuals in Niagara Falls, Canada, to discuss a program of protest and action aimed at securing equal rights for blacks.

Stephen Crane

In his naturalistic novel Maggie: A Girl of the Streets (1893), Stephen Crane told how a brutal urban environment could destroy the lives of young people. Crane also wrote the popular Red Badge of Courage about fear and human nature on the Civil War battlefield before dying himself of tuberculosis at only 29.

Fredericksburg

In December 1862, a large Union army under Burnside attacked Lee's army at Fredericksburg, Virginia, and suffered immense losses: 12,000 dead or wounded compared to 5,000 Confederate casualties. Both Union and Confederate generals were slow to learn that improved weaponry, especially the deadly fire from enemy artillery, took the romance out of heroic charges against entrenched positions. By the end of 1862, the awful magnitude of the war was all too clear-with no prospect of military victory for either side.

Confederate States of America

In February 1861, representatives of the seven states of the Deep South met in Montgomery, Alabama, and created the Confederate States of America. The constitution of this would-be Southern nation was similar to the U.S. Constitution, except that the Confederacy placed limits on the government's power to impose tariffs and restrict slavery. Elected president and vice president of the Confederacy were Senator Jefferson Davis of Mississippi and Alexander Stephens of Georgia.

Confiscation Acts

In July 1862, Congress passed a second Confiscation Act that freed persons enslaved by anyone engaged in rebellion against the United States. The law also empowered the president to use freed slaves in the Union army in any capacity, including battle.

Fourteenth Amendment-

In June 1866, Congress passed and sent to the states an amendment that, when ratified in 1868, had both immediate and long term significance for American society. The 14th Amendment declared that all persons born or naturalized in the United States were citizens • obligated the states to respect the rights of U.S. citizens and provide them with "equal protection of the laws" and "due process of law" ( clauses full of meaning for future generations)

Report of the Joint Committee

In June 1866, a joint committee of the House and the Senate issued a report recommending that the reorganized former states of the Confederacy were not entitled to representation in Congress. Therefore, those elected from the South as senators and representatives should not be permitted to take their seats. The report further asserted that Congress, not the president, had the authority to determine the conditions for allowing reconstructed states to rejoin the Union. By this report, Congress officially rejected the presidential plan of Reconstruction and promised to substitute its own plan, part of which was embodied in the 14th Amendment.

Habeas Corpus

In law, an order requiring that a prisoner be brought before a court at a specified time and place in order to determine the legality of the imprisonment.

Victory

In a campaign through 1778-1779, the Patriots, led by George Rogers Clark, captured a series of British forts in the Illinois country to gain control of parts of the vast Ohio territory

Fletcher v. Peck (1810)

In a case involving land fraud in Georgia, Marshall concluded that a state could not pass legislation invalidating a contract. This was the first time that the Supreme Court declared a state law to be unconstitutional and invalid. (In Marbury v. Madison, the Court ruled a federal law unconstitutional.)

Literature-

In addition to the transcendentalist authors (notably Emerson and Thoreau), other writers helped to create a literature that was distinctively American. Partly as a result of the War of 1812, the American people became more nationalistic and eager to read the works of American writers about American themes.

The Expanding Middle Class

In addition, industrialization helped expand the middle class by creating jobs for accountants, clerical workers, and salespersons. In tum, these middle-class employees increased the demand for services from other middle-class workers: professionals (doctors and lawyers), public employees, and storekeepers

Stamp Act-

In an effort to raise funds to support British military forces in the colonies, Lord Grenville turned to a tax long in use in Britain. The Stamp Act, enacted by Parliament in 1765, required that revenue stamps be placed on most printed paper in the colonies, including all legal documents, newspapers,pamphlets, and advertisements. This was the first direct tax-collected from those who used the goods-paid by the people in the colonies, as opposed to the taxes on imported goods, which were paid by merchants.

American Indians

In an effort to resist the settlers' encroachment on their lands, a number of the tribes formed the Northwest ( or Western) Confederacy. Initially the tribes, including the Shawnee, Delaware, Iroquois, and others under the Miami war chief Little Turtle, won a series of bloody victories over the local militia

Western Lands

In the 1790s, the Jay Treaty and the victory at the Battle of Fallen Timbers gave the federal government control of vast tracts of land.

Asylum Movement

In the 1820s and 1830s, this movement sought to improve the conditions for criminals, emotionally disturbed people, and paupers. They proposed setting up state-supported prisons, mental hospitals, and poorhouses. (p. 212). structure and discipline would bring about moral reform.

The Spanish-American War

In the 1890s, large American investments in Cuban sugar, Spanish misrule of Cuba, and the Monroe Doctrine all provided justification for U.S. intervention in the Caribbean's largest island.

Vicksburg

In the West, by the spring of 1863, Union forces controlled New Orleans as well as most of the Mississippi River and surrounding valley. Thus, the Union objective of securing complete control of the Mississippi River was close to an accomplished fact when General Grant began his siege of the heavily fortified city of Vicksburg, Mississippi. Union artillery bombarded Vicksburg for seven weeks before the Confederates finally surrendered the city (and nearly 29,000 soldiers) on July 4. Federal warships now controlled the full length of the Mississippi and cut off Texas, Louisiana, and Arkansas from the rest of the Confederacy.

Direct Primaries

In the late 19th century, Republicans and Democrats commonly nominated candidates for state and federal offices in state conventions dominated by party bosses. In 1903, the Progressive governor of Wisconsin, Robert La Follette, introduced a new system for bypassing politicians and placing the nominating process directly in the hands of the voters in the direct primary. By 1915, some form of the direct primary was used in every state. The system's effectiveness in overthrowing boss rule was limited, as politicians devised ways of confusing the voters and splitting the anti machine vote. Some southern states even used white-only primaries to exclude African Americans from voting.

Indian Wars

In the late 19th century, the settlement of thousands of miners, ranchers, and homesteaders on American Indian lands led to violence. Fighting between U.S. troops and Plains Indians was often brutal, with the U.S. Army responsible for several massacres. In 1866, during the Sioux War, the tables were turned when an army column under Captain William Fetterman was wiped out by Sioux warriors. Following these wars, another round of treaties attempted to isolate the Plains Indians on smaller reservations with federal agents promising government support. However, gold miners refused to stay off American Indians' lands if gold was to be found on them, as indeed it was in the Dakotas' Black Hills. Soon, minor chiefs not involved in the treaty-making and younger warriors denounced the treaties and tried to return to ancestral lands.

Popular Election of the President-

In the presidential election of 1832, only South Carolina used the old system in which the state legislature chose the electors for president. All other states had adopted the more democratic method of allowing the voters to choose a state's slate of presidential electors

Local Government (southern colonies)

In the southern colonies, on the other hand, towns were much less common, and farms and plantations were widely separated. In the southern colonies, local government was carried on by a law-enforcing sheriff and other officials who served a large territorial unit called a county.

Panic of 1893

In the spring and summer of 1893, the stock market crashed as a result of overspeculation, and dozens of railroads went into bankruptcy as a result of overbuilding. The depression continued for almost four years. Farm foreclosures reached new highs, and the unemployed reached 20 percent of the workforce. Many people ended up relying on soup kitchens and riding the rails as hoboes. President Cleveland, more conservative than he had been in the 1880s, dealt with the crisis by championing the gold standard and otherwise adopting a hands-off policy toward the economy.

Domestic.

In the summer of 1786, Captain Daniel Shays, a Massachusetts farmer and Revolutionary War veteran, led other farmers in an uprising against high state taxes, imprisonment for debt, and lack of paper money. The rebel farmers stopped the collection of taxes and forced the closing of debtors' courts

Cult of Domesticity

In traditional farm families, men were the moral leaders. However, when men took jobs outside the home to work for salaries or wages in an office or a factory, they were absent most of the time. As a result, the women in these households who remained at home took charge of the household and children. The idealized view of women as moral leaders in the home is called the cult of domesticity.

Federalists (View of the Constitution)

Interpret loosely Create strong central government

Indian Removal Act (1830

Indian Removal Act, which forced the resettlement of many thousands of American Indians. By 1835 most eastern tribes had reluctantly complied and moved west. The Bureau of Indian Affairs was created in 1836 to assist the resettled tribes.

Organized Labor

Industrial development meant that large numbers of people who had once earned their living as independent farmers and artisans became dependent on wages earned in a factory. With the common problems of low pay, long hours, and unsafe working conditions, urban workers in different cities organized both unions and local political parties to protect their interests.

African American

Initially, George Washington rejected the idea of African Americans serving in the Patriot army. However, when the British promised freedom to enslaved people who joined their side, Washington and the congress quickly made the same offer. Approximately 5,000 African Americans fought as Patriots. Most of them were free citizens from the North, who fought in mixed racial forces, although there were some all-AfricanAmerican units. African Americans took part in most of the military actions of the war, and a number, including Peter Salem, were recognized for their bravery.

Markets

Initially, western farmers were limited to sending their products down the Ohio and Mississippi rivers to southern markets. The advent of canals and railroads opened new markets in the growing factory cities in the East.

Roads-

Its success stimulated the construction of other privately built and relatively short toll roads that, by the mid-1820s, connected most of the country's major cities. Despite the need for interstate roads, states' righters blocked

The Constitution was directed by

James Madison (who came to be known as the Father of the Constitution), Alexander Hamilton, Gouverneur Morris, and John Dickinson. While they represented different states, these convention leaders shared the common goal of wanting to strengthen the young nation.

The Jay Treaty (1794)

Jay brought back a treaty in which Britain agreed to evacuate its posts on the U.S. western frontier. But the treaty said nothing about British seizures of American merchant ships. Narrowly ratified by the Senate, the unpopular Jay Treaty angered American supporters of France, but it did maintain Washington's policy of neutrality, which kept the United States at peace.

Debt

Jefferson and his supporters agreed to Hamilton's urgent insistence that the U.S. government pay off the national debt at face value and also assume payment of the war debts of the states. In return for Jefferson's support on this vital aspect of his plan, Hamilton agreed to Jefferson's idea to establish the nation's capital in the South along the Potomac River (an area that, after Washington's death, would be named Washington, D.C.).

Constitutional Predicament

Jefferson and most Americans strongly approved of the Louisiana Purchase. Nevertheless, a constitutional problem troubled the president. Jefferson was committed to a strict interpretation of the Constitution and rejected Hamilton's argument that certain powers were implied.

Johnson's Reconstruction Policy

Johnson issued his own Reconstruction proclamation that was very similar to Lincoln's 10 percent plan. In addition to Lincoln's terms, it provided for the, This was an escape clause for the wealthy planters, and Johnson made frequent use of it. As a result of the president's pardons, many former Confederate leaders were back in office by the fall of 1865. disfranchisement- (loss of the right to vote and hold office) f ( 1) all former leaders and officeholders of the Confederacy and (2) Confederates with more than $20,000 in taxable property.

Winslow Homer,

the foremost American painter of seascapes and watercolors, often rendered scenes of nature in a matter-of-fact way

Federalists (leaders)

John Adams and Alexander Hamilton

John Brown's Raid at Harpers Ferry

John Brown confirmed the South's worst fears of radical abolitionism when he tried to start a slave uprising in Virginia. In October 1859, he led a small band of followers, including his four sons and some former slaves, in an attack on the federal arsenal at Harpers Ferry. His impractical plan was to use guns from the arsenal to arm Virginia's slaves, whom he expected to rise up in general revolt. Federal troops under the command of Robert E. Lee captured Brown and his band after a two-day siege. Brown and six of his followers were tried for treason, convicted, and hanged by the state of Virginia.

Manifest Destiny to the South

Many Southerners were dissatisfied with the territorial gains from the Mexican War. In the early 1850s, they hoped to acquire new territories, especially in areas of Latin America where they thought plantations worked by slaves were economically feasible.

dependable workforce

Large plantation owners were disturbed by the political demands of small farmers and indentured servants and by the disorders of Bacon's Rebellion (see page 29). They thought that slavery would provide a stable labor force totally under their control.

Ghost Dance

Leaders of the movements believed it could return prosperity to American Indians. In the government's campaign to suppress the movement, the famous Sioux medicine man Sitting Bull was killed during his arrest. Then in December 1890, the U.S. Army gunned down more than 200 American Indian men, women, and children in the "battle" (massacre) of Wounded Knee in the Dakotas. This final tragedy marked the end of the Indian Wars on the crimsoned prairie.

Sherman's March

Leading a force of 100,000 men, Sherman set out from Chattanooga, Tennessee, on a campaign of deliberate destruction that went clear across the state of Georgia and then swept north into South Carolina. Sherman was a pioneer of the tactics of total war. Marching relentlessly through Georgia, his troops destroyed everything in their path, burning cotton fields, barns, and houses-everything the enemy might use to survive. Sherman took Atlanta in September 1864 in time to help Lincoln's prospects for reelection. He marched into Savannah in December and completed his campaign in February 1865 by setting fire to Columbia, the capital of South Carolina and cradle of secession. Sherman's march had its intended effects: helping to break the spirit of the Confederacy and destroying its will to fight on

Richmond, Virginia,

the former capital of the Confederacy, became the capital of the nation's tobacco industry.

Antietam

Lee led his army across the Potomac into enemy territory in Maryland. In doing so, he hoped that a major Confederate victory in a Union state would convince Britain to give official recognition and support to the Confederacy. McClellan had the advantage of knowing Lee's battle plan, because a copy of it had been dropped accidentally by a Confederate officer. The Union army intercepted the invading Confederates at Antietam Creek in the Maryland town of Sharpsburg. Here the bloodiest single day of combat in the entire war took place, a day in which more than 22,000 soldiers were killed or wounded. Lee's army retreated to Virginia. Disappointed with McClellan for failing to pursue Lee's weakened and retreating army, Lincoln removed him for a final time as the Union commander. Antietam proved to be a decisive battle because the Confederates failed to get what they so urgently needed-open recognition and aid from a foreign power. Lincoln used the partial triumph of Union arms to announce plans for a direct assault on the institution of slavery.

Second Battle of Bull Run

Lee took advantage of the change in Union generals to strike quickly at Pope's army in Northern Virginia. He drew Pope into a trap, then struck the enemy's flank, and sent the Union army backward to Bull Run. Pope withdrew to the defenses of Washington.

Lewis and Clark Expedition

Lewis and Clark set out from St. Louis in 1804, crossed the Rockies, reached the Oregon coast on the Pacific Ocean, then turned back and completed the return journey in 1806. The benefits of the expedition were many: greater geographic and scientific knowledge of the region, stronger U.S. claims to the Oregon Territory, better relations with American Indians, and more accurate maps and land routes for fur trappers and future settlers.

French Claims

Like the English, the French were slow to develop colonies across the Atlantic. During the 1500s, the French monarchy was preoccupied with European wars as well as with internal religious conflict between Roman Catholics and French Protestants known as Huguenots.

Lincoln's Last Speech-

Lincoln encouraged Northerners to accept Louisiana as a reconstructed state. (Louisiana had already drawn up a new constitution that abolished slavery in the state and provided for African Americans' education.) The president also addressed the question-highly controversial at the time-of whether freedmen should be granted the right to vote. Lincoln's evolving plans for Reconstruction were ended with his assassination. His last speech suggested that, had he lived, he probably would have moved closer to the position taken by the progressive, or Radical, Republicans.

Macon's Bill No. 2 (1810)

Macon's Bill No. 2 provided, however, that if either Britain or France formally agreed to respect U.S. neutral rights at sea, then the United States would prohibit trade with that nation's foe.

New York Central Railroad (1867)

Made in 1867 by Cornelius Vanderbilt, ran from NYC to Chicago and operated 4500+ miles track. The railroad primarily connected greater New York and Boston in the east with Chicago and St. Louis in the Midwest along with the intermediate cities of Albany, Buffalo, Cleveland, Cincinnati, Detroit, and Syracuse.

Election of 1812

Madison won reelection, defeating De Witt Clinton of New York, the candidate of the Federalists and antiwar Democratic-Republicans.

Commercial Warfare

Madison's presidency was dominated by the same European problems that had plagued Jefferson's second term. Like Jefferson, he attempted a combination of diplomacy and economic pressure to deal with the Napoleonic wars. Unlike Jefferson, he finally consented to take the United States to war.

Horatio Alger Myth

Many Americans ignored the widening gap between the rich and the poor. They found hope in the examples of "self-made men" in business such as Andrew Carnegie and Thomas Edison and novels by Horatio Alger Jr. Every Alger novel portrayed a young man of modest means who becomes wealthy through honesty, hard work, and a little luck. In reality, opportunities for upward mobility (movement into a higher economic bracket) did exist, but the rags-to-riches career of Andrew Carnegie was unusual.

Prelude to Civil War?

Many Northerners viewed the war with Mexico as part of a Southern plot to extend the "slave power." Some historians see the Wilmot Proviso as the first round in an escalating political conflict that led ultimately to civil war.

Missionaries

Many missionaries who traveled to Africa, Asia, and the Pacific islands believed in the racial superiority and natural supremacy of whites. Mission activities of their churches encouraged many Americans to support active U.S. government involvement in foreign affairs.

McCulloch v. Maryland (1819)

Maryland attempted to tax the Second Bank of the United States located in Maryland. Marshall ruled that a state could not tax a federal institution because "the power to tax is the power to destroy," and federal laws are supreme over state laws. In addition, Marshall settled the long-running debate over constitutionality of the national bank. Using a loose interpretation of the Constitution, Marshall ruled that, even though no clause in the Constitution specifically mentions a national bank, the Constitution gave the federal government the implied power to create one.

Beginning of Modern Politics

McKinley emerged as the first modern president, an active leader who took the United States from being relatively isolated to becoming a major player in international affairs.

-Financial

Most war debts were unpaid. Individual states as well as the congress issued worthless paper money. The underlying problem was that the congress had no taxing power and could only request that the states donate money for national needs.

"City Beautiful" movement

Movement in environmental design that drew directly from the beaux arts school. Architects from this movement strove to impart order on hectic, industrial centers by creating urban spaces that conveyed a sense of morality and civic pride, which many feared was absent from the frenzied new industrial world.advanced grand plans to remake American cities with tree-lined boulevards, public parks and public cultural attractions.

Millennialism

Much of the religious enthusiasm of the time was based on the widespread belief that the world was about to end with the second coming of Jesus.

Bacon's Rebellion

Nathaniel Bacon, an impoverished gentleman farmer, seized upon the grievances of the western farmers to lead a rebellion against Berkeley's government. Bacon and others resented the economic and political control exercised by a few large planters in the Chesapeake area. He raised an army of volunteers and, in 1676, conducted a series of raids and massacres against American Indian villages on the Virginia frontier. Berkeley's government in Jamestown accused Bacon of rebelling against royal authority. Bacon's army succeeded in defeating the governor's forces and even burned the Jamestown settlement.

The Hartford Convention

New England states threatened to secede from the Union. s, a special convention was held at Hartford, Connecticut, in December 1814. Delegates from the New England states rejected the radical calls for secession. But to limit the growing power of the Democratic-Republicans in the South and West, they adopted a number of proposals. One of them called for a two-thirds vote of both houses for any future declaration of war.

New England Confederation

New England colonies (Plymouth, Massachusetts Bay, Connecticut, and New Haven) formed a military alliance known as the New England Confederation. The confederation was directed by a board composed of two representatives from each colony. It had limited powers to act on boundary disputes, the return of runaway servants, and dealings with American Indians.n lasted until 1684, when colonial rivalries and renewed control by the English monarch brought this first experiment in colonial cooperation to an end. It was important because it established a precedent for colonies taking unified action toward a common purpose.

Final States

North Carolina in November 1789 and Rhode Island in May 1790 reversed their earlier rejections and thus became the last two states to ratify the Constitution as the new "supreme law of the land."

Immediate Effects of the War

No longer did the American colonies face the threat of concerted attacks from the French, the Spanish, and their American Indian allies. More important to the colonies, though, was a change in how the British and the colonists viewed each other.

federalists chief supporters

Northern businessmen Large landowners

Boston Massacre

On a snowy day in March 1770, a crowd of colonists harassed the guards near the customs house. The guards fired into the crowd, killing five people including an African American, Crispus Attucks. At their trial for murder, the soldiers were defended by colonial lawyer John Adams and acquitted.

Accomplishments (Republicans)

On the positive side, Republican legislators liberalized state constitutions in the South by providing for universal male suffrage, property rights for women, debt relief, and modern penal codes. They also promoted the building of roads, bridges, railroads, and other internal improvements. They established such needed state institutions as hospitals, asylums, and homes for the disabled. The reformers established state-supported public school systems in the South, which benefited whites and African Americans alike. They paid for these improvements by overhauling the tax system and selling bonds.

King George's War (17 44-17 48)

Once again, the British colonies were under attack from their perennial rivals, the French and the Spanish. In Georgia, James Oglethorpe led a colonial army that managed to repulse Spanish attacks. Britain agreed to give Louisbourg back to the French in exchange for political and economic gains in India. New Englanders were furious about the loss of a fort that they had fought so hard to win.

Shakers

One of the earliest religious communal movements, the Shakers had about 6,000 members in various communities by the 1840s. Shakers held property in common and kept women and men strictly separate (forbidding marriage and sexual relations). For lack of new recruits, the Shaker communities virtually died out by the mid-1900s.

Great Railroad Strike of 1877

One of the worst outbreaks of labor violence in the century erupted in 1877, during an economic depression, when the railroad companies cut wages in order to reduce costs. A strike on the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad quickly spread across 11 states and shut down two-thirds of the country's rail trackage. Railroad workers were joined by 500,000 workers from other industries in an escalating strike that quickly became national in scale. For the first time since the 1830s, a president (Rutherford B. Hayes) used federal troops to end labor violence. The strike and the violence finally ended, but not before more than 100 people had been killed. After the strike, some employers addressed the workers' grievances by improving wages and working conditions, while others took a hard line by busting workers' organizations.

Common Sense,

Paine's essay argued in clear and forceful language for the colonies becoming independent states and breaking all political ties with the British monarchy. Paine argued that it was contrary to common sense for a large continent to be ruled by a small and distant island and for people to pledge allegiance to a king whose government was corrupt and whose laws were unreasonable.

Antislavery Movement

Opponents of slavery ranged from moderates who proposed gradual abolition to radicals who demanded immediate abolition without compensating their owners. The Second Great Awakening led many Christians to view slavery as a sin. This moral view made compromise with defenders of slavery difficult.

Anti-Federalists

Opponents of the Constitution, tended to be small farmers and settlers on the western frontier.

League of Women Voters

Organized by Carrie Chapman Catt, a civic organization dedicated to keeping voters informed about candidates and issues.

Nathaniel Hawthorne

Originally a transcendentalist; later rejected them and became a leading anti-transcendentalist. He was a descendant of Puritan settlers. The Scarlet Letter shows the hypocrisy and insensitivity of New England puritans by showing their cruelty to a woman who has committed adultery and is forced to wear a scarlet "A".

Industrial Northeast

Originally, the Industrial Revolution centered in the textile industry, but by the 1830s, northern factories were producing a wide range of goods-everything from farm implements to clocks and shoes.

Other Europeans immigration

Other immigrant groups included French Protestants (called Huguenots), the Dutch, and the Swedes. These groups made up 5 percent of the population of all the colonies in 1775

The Road to Secession

Outside Illinois, the Republicans did well in the congressional elections of 1858, which alarmed many Southerners. They worried not only about the antislavery plank in the Republicans' program but also about that party's economic program, which favored the interests of Northern industrialists at the expense of the South. The higher tariffs pledged in the Republican platform could only help Northern business and hurt the South's dependence on the export of cotton. Therefore, Southerners feared that a Republican victory in 1860 would spell disaster for their economic interests and also threaten their "constitutional right," as affirmed by the Supreme Court, to hold slaves as property.

Party Nominating Conventions

Party politicians and voters would gather in a large meeting hall to nominate the party's candidates. The Anti-Masonic party was the first to hold such a nominating convention. This method was more open to popular participation, hence more democratic.

Radical Delegates (Demanded the greatest concessions from Britain)

Patrick Henry (Virginia), Samuel Adams (Virginia) and John Adams (Massachuesteests).

Prisons-

Pennsylvania took the lead in prison reform, building new prisons and penitentiaries to take the place of crude jails. Reformers placed prisoners in solitary confinement to force them to reflect on their sins and repent

First Years of a Long War: 1861-1862

People at first expected the war to last no more than a few weeks As Americans soon learned, it would take almost four years of ferocious fighting before Union troops finally did march into the Confederate capital.

political machines-

Political parties in major cities came under the control of tightly organized groups of politicians, s. Each machine had its boss, the top politician who gave orders to the rank and file and doled out government jobs to loyal supporters. Several political machines, such as Tammany Hall in New York City, started as social clubs and later developed into power centers to coordinate the needs of businesses, immigrants, and the underprivileged. In return, machines asked for people's votes on election day. Political machines often brought modem services to the city, including a crude form of welfare for urban newcomers. The political organization would find jobs and apartments for recently arrived immigrants and show up at a poor family's door with baskets of food during hard times. But the political machine could be greedy as well as generous and often stole millions from the taxpayers in the form of graft and fraud.

Improved Transportation

Pioneers had an easier time reaching the frontier as a result of the building of roads and canals, steamboats, and railroads.

Australian, or Secret, Ballot-

Political parties could manipulate and intimidate voters by printing lists ( or "tickets") of party candidates and watching voters drop them into the ballot box on election day. In 1888, Massachusetts was the first state to adopt a system successfully tried in Australia of issuing ballots printed by the state and requiring voters to mark their choices secretly within a private booth. By 1910, all states had adopted the secret ballot.

Charles G. Finney

Presbyterian minister started a series of revivals in upstate New York, where many New Englanders had settled. Instead of delivering sermons based on rational argument, Finney appealed to people's emotions and fear of damnation. He prompted thousands to publicly declare their revived faith. He preached that every individual could be saved through faith and hard work-ideas that strongly appealed to the rising middle class. Because of Finney's influence, western New York became known as the "burned-over district" for its frequent "helland-brimstone" revivals.

Harrison and the Billion-Dollar Congress

President Cleveland created a political storm by challenging the high protective tariff. He proposed that Congress set lower tariff rates, since there was a growing surplus in the federal treasury and the government did not need the added tax revenue.

Gadsden Purchase

President Pierce succeeded in adding a strip of land to the American Southwest for a railroad. In 1853, Mexico agreed to sell thousands of acres of semi desert land to the United States for $10 million. Known as the Gadsden Purchase, the land forms the southern sections of present-day New Mexico and Arizona.

Railroad Regulation

President Roosevelt also took the initiative in persuading a Republican majority in Congress to pass two laws that significantly strengthened the regulatory powers of the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC).

Cuba and the Platt Amendment (1901)

Previously, the Teller Amendment to the war resolution of 1898 had guaranteed U.S. respect for Cuba's sovereignty as an independent nation.

In New Mexico and Arizona (Native Americans)

Pueblo groups such as the Hopi and Zuni lived in permanent settlements as farmers raising corn and livestock.

Civil Rights Organizations

Racial discrimination during the Progressive era prompted black leaders to found three powerful civil rights organizations in a span of just six years.

Western Railroads

Railroads not only promoted settlement on the Great Plains, but they linked the West with the East to create one great national market

Fifteenth Amendment

Republican majorities in Congress acted quickly in 1869 to secure the vote for African Americans. Adding one more Reconstruction amendment to those already adopted (the 13th Amendment in 1865 and the 14th Amendment in 1868), Congress passed the 15th Amendment, which prohibited any state from denying or abridging a citizen's right to vote "on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude." It was ratified in 1870.

Economic and Social Mobility

Real wages improved for most urban workers in the early 1800s, but the gap between the very wealthy and the very poor increased. Social mobility (moving upward in income level and social status) did occur from one generation to the next, and economic opportunities in the United States were greater than in Europe. Extreme examples of poor, hard-working people becoming millionaires, however, were rare.

Blaine and the Pan-American Conference (1889)

Representatives from various nations of the Western Hemisphere decided to create a permanent organization for international cooperation on trade and other issues. Blaine had hoped to bring about reductions in tariff rates. Although this goal was not achieved, the foundation was established for the larger goal of hemispheric cooperation on both economic and political issues. The Pan-American Union continues today as part of the Organization of the American States, which was established in 1948.

State Reform (WI)

Robert La Follette established a strong personal following as the governor (1900-1904) who won passage of the "Wisconsin Idea

Trust-Busting

Roosevelt further increased his popularity by being the first president since the passage of the Sherman Antitrust Act in 1890 to enforce that poorly written law.

Great White Fleet

Roosevelt sent a fleet of battleships on an around-the-world cruise (1907-1909). The great white ships made an impressive sight, and the Japanese government warmly welcomed their arrival in Tokyo Bay

Three Types of Colonies

Royal Colonies Proprietary Colonies Charter Colonies

The Professions

Scientific theory and methodology also influenced the work of doctors, educators, social workers, and lawyers.

Dred Scott v. Sandford (1857)

Scott had been held in slavery in Missouri and then taken to the free territory of Wisconsin where he lived for two years before returning to Missouri. Arguing that his residence on free soil made him a free citizen, Scott sued for his freedom in Missouri in 1846. The case worked its way through the court system. It finally reached the Supreme Court, which rendered its decision in March 1857, only two days after Buchanan was sworn in as president.

Two large mail-order companies,

Sears, Roebuck and Montgomery Ward, used the improved rail system to ship to rural customers everything from hats to houses ordered from their thick catalogs, which were known to millions of Americans as the "wish book."

Federalists

Supporters of the Constitution and its strong federal government, were most common along the Atlantic Coast and in the large cities

Root-Takahira Agreement (1908

Secretary of State Elihu Root and Japanese Ambassador Takahira exchanged notes pledging mutual respect for each nation's Pacific possessions and support for the Open Door policy in China.

Federalist Conspiracy

Secretly forming a political pact with some radical New England Federalists, Burr planned to win the governorship of New York in 1804, unite that state with the New England states, and then lead this group of states to secede from the nation. Most Federalists followed Alexander Hamilton in opposing Burr, who was defeated in the New York election. The conspiracy then disintegrated.

Environmental Damage

Settlers had little understanding of the fragile nature of land and wildlife. As settlers moved into an area, they would clear entire forests and after only two generations exhaust the soil with poor farming methods. At the same time, trappers and hunters brought the beaver and the buffalo to the brink of extinction.

Party Patronage

Since neither party had an active legislative agenda, politics in this era was chiefly a game of winning elections, holding office, and providing government jobs to the party faithful.

Annexation of Hawaii

Since the mid-1800s, American missionaries and entrepreneurs had settled in the Pacific islands of Hawaii. Expansionists coveted the islands and, in 1893, American settlers aided in the overthrow of the Hawaiian monarch, Queen Liliuokalani. However, President Cleveland opposed imperialism and blocked Republican efforts to annex Hawaii. Then the outbreak of war in the Philippines gave Congress and President McKinley the pretext to complete annexation in July 1898. The Hawaiian islands became a territory of the United States in 1900 and the fiftieth state in the Union in August 1959.

Popular Press

Stories in the popular press increased public interest and stimulated demands for a larger U.S. role in world affairs.

Thomas Gallaudet

Studied techniques for instructing hearing impaired people and established the first american school for the hearing impaired.

Dollar Diplomacy in East Asia and Latin America

Taft believed that private American financial investment in China and Central America would lead to greater stability there, while at the same time promoting U.S. business interests. His policy, however, was thwarted by one major obstacle: growing anti-imperialism both in the United States and overseas.

More Trust-Busting and Conservation

Taft continued Roosevelt's Progressive policies. As a trustbuster, Taft ordered the prosecution of almost twice the number of antitrust cases as his predecessor. Among these cases was one against U.S. Steel, which included a merger approved by then President Theodore Roosevelt.

Insular Cases

The Court ruled that constitutional rights were not automatically extended to territorial possessions and that the power to decide whether or not to grant such rights belonged to Congress

Rise of Third Parties

The Anti-Masonic party and the Workingmen's party, for example, reached out to groups of people who previously had shown little interest in politics. The Anti-Masons attacked the secret societies of Masons and accused them of belonging to a privileged, antidemocratic elite.

Civil Rights Act of 1866

The Civil Rights Act pronounced all African Americans to be U.S. citizens (thereby repudiating the decision in the Dred Scott case) and also attempted to provide a legal shield against the operation of the Southern states' Black Codes. Republicans feared, however, that the law could be repealed if the Democrats ever won control of Congress. They therefore looked for a more permanent solution in the form of a constitutional amendment.

Military (Confederacy)

The Confederacy entered the war with the advantage of having to fight only a defensive war to win, while the Union had to conquer an area as large as Western Europe. The Confederates had to move troops and supplies to shorter distances than the Union. It had a long, indented coastline that was difficult to blockade and, most important, experienced military leaders and high troop morale

The Confederate States of America

The Confederate constitution was modeled after the U.S. Constitution, except that it provided a single six-year term for the president and gave the president an item veto (the power to veto only part of a bill). Its constitution denied the Confederate congress the powers to levy a protective tariff and to appropriate funds for internal improvements, but it did prohibit the foreign slave trade. President Jefferson Davis tried to increase his executive powers during the war, but Southern governors resisted attempts at centralization, some holding back troops and resources to protect their own states. At one point, Vice President

Surrender at Appomattox

The Confederate government tried to negotiate for peace, but Lincoln would accept nothing short of restoration of the Union, and Jefferson Davis still demanded nothing less than independence. Lee retreated from Richmond with an army of less than 30,000 men. He tried to escape to the mountains, only to be cut off and forced to surrender to Grant at Appomattox Court House on April 9, 1865. The Union general treated his longtime enemy with respect and allowed Lee's men to return to their homes with their horses.

Confederate Raiders

The Confederates were able to gain enough recogmt10n as a belligerent to purchase warships from British shipyards. Confederate commerce-raiders did serious harm to U.S. merchant ships. One of them, the Alabama, captured more than 60 vessels before being sunk off the coast of France by a Union warship. After the war, Great Britain eventually agreed to pay the United States $15.5 million for damages caused by the South's commerce-raiders.

Political (Confederacy)

The Confederates were struggling for independence while, The irony was that in order to win the war, the Confederates needed a strong central government with strong public support. The Confederates had neither,The ultimate hope of the Confederates was that the people of the Union would tum against Lincoln and the Republicans and quit the war because it was too costly.

The Alien and Sedition Acts

The Federalists took advantage of their victory by enacting laws to restrict their political opponents, the Democratic-Republicans.

First Continental Congress

The Intolerable acts drove all of the colonies except Georgia to send delegates to a convention in Phili in 1774. - Purpose was to respond to what the delegates viewed Britain's alarming threats to their liberties. Most Americans had no desire for independence. They wanted to protest parliamentary infringements of their rights and restore the relationship with the crown that had existed before the Seven Years War.

Extremists and Violence

The Kansas-Nebraska Act, in effect, repealed the Missouri Compromise that had kept a lid on regional tensions for more than three decades

The Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions

The Kentucky legislature adopted a resolution that had been written by Thomas Jefferson, and the Virginia legislature adopted a resolution introduced by James Madison. Both resolutions declared that the states had entered into a "compact" in forming the national government, and, therefore, if any act of the federal government broke the compact, a state could nullify the federal law. Although only Kentucky and Virginia adopted nullifying resolutions in 1799, they set forth an argument and rationale that would be widely used in the nullification controversy of the 1830s

American Antislavery Society

The Liberator, an event that marks the beginning of the radical abolitionist movement. The uncompromising Garrison advocated immediate abolition of slavery in every state and territory without compensating the slaveowners.

The Election of 1864

The Lincoln-Johnson ticket won 212 electoral votes to the Democrats' 21. The popular vote, however, was much closer, for McClellan took 45 percent of the total votes cast.

Consequences

The Louisiana Purchase more than doubled the size of the United States, removed a European presence from the nation's borders, and extended the western frontier to lands beyond the Mississippi. Furthermore, the acquisition of millions of acres of land strengthened Jefferson's hopes that his country's future would be based on an agrarian society of independent farmers rather than Hamilton's vision of an urban and industrial society. In political terms, the Louisiana Purchase increased Jefferson's popularity and showed the Federalists to be a weak, sectionalist (New England-based) party that could do little more than complain about Democratic-Republican policies.

Aftermath-

The Missouri Compromise preserved sectional balance for more than 30 years and provided time for the nation to mature.

National Grange Movement

The National Grange of Patrons of Husbandry was organized in 1868 by Oliver H. Kelley primarily as a social and educational organization for farmers and their families. Within five years, Granges existed in almost every state, with the most in the Midwest. As the Grange expanded, it became active in economics and politics to defend members against middlemen, trusts, and railroads. For example, Grangers established cooperatives

Nonintercourse Act of 1809-

The Nonintercourse Act of 1809 provided that Americans could now trade with all nations except Britain and France.

The North During Reconstruction

The North's economy in the postwar years continued to be driven by the Industrial Revolution and the pro-business policies of the Republicans. As the South struggled to reorganize its labor system. Northerners focused on railroads, steel, labor problems, and money.

Populist Demise

The Populist party declined after 1896 and soon ceased to be a national party. In the South, Thomas Watson and other Populist leaders gave up trying to unite poor whites and blacks, having discovered the hard lesson that racism was stronger than common economic interests.

British Actions and Colonial Reactions

The Proclamation of 1763 was the first of a series of acts by the British government that angered colonists. From the British point of view, each act was justified as a proper method for protecting its colonial empire and making the colonies pay their share of costs for such protection. From the colonists' point of view, each act represented an alarming threat to their cherished liberties and long-established practice of representative government.

Pinchot-Ballinger Controversy

The Progressives respected the chief of the Forest Service, Gifford Pinchot, as a dedicated conservationist. On the other hand, they distrusted Taft's secretary of the interior, Richard Ballinger, especially after he opened public lands in Alaska for private development. In 1910, when Pinchot criticized Ballinger, Taft stood by his cabinet member and fired Pinchot for insubordination. Conservatives applauded; Progressives protested.

Birth of the Republican Party

The Republican party was founded in Wisconsin in 1854 as a direct reaction to the passage of the Kansas-Nebraska Act. Composed of a coalition of Free-Soilers and antislavery Whigs and Democrats, its overriding purpose was to oppose the spread of slavery in the territoriesnot to end slavery itself. Its first platform of 1854 called for the repeal of both the Kansas-Nebraska Act and the Fugitive Slave Law. It was soon the second largest party in the country. But because it remained in these years strictly a Northern or sectional party, its success alienated and threatened the South.

Black Codes

The Republicans became further disillusioned with Johnson as Southern state legislatures adopted Black Codes that restricted the rights and movements of the former slaves. (1) prohibited blacks from either renting land or borrowing money to buy land; (2) placed freedmen into a form of semi bondage by forcing them, as "vagrants" and "apprentices," to sign work contracts; and (3) prohibited blacks from testifying against whites in court. The contract-labor system, in which blacks worked cotton fields under white supervision for deferred wages, seemed little different from slavery.

Secession of the Deep South

The Republicans controlled neither the Congress nor the Supreme Court. Even so, the election of Lincoln was all that Southern secessionists needed to call for immediate disunion. In December 1860, a special convention in South Carolina voted unanimously to secede. Within the next six weeks, other state conventions in Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Texas did the same

Election of 1900

The Republicans renominated President McKinley, along with war hero and New York Governor Theodore Roosevelt for vice president. The Democrats, as they had in 1896, nominated William Jennings Bryan. He again argued for free silver and vigorously attacked the growth of American imperialism. However, most Americans accepted the recently enacted gold standard and saw the new territory, including the Philippines, acquired during the war as an accomplished fact. With growing national economic prosperity, the electorate gave McKinley a larger margin of victory than in 1896.

Rush-Bagot Agreement (1817)

The Rush-Bagot Agreement strictly limited naval armament on the Great Lakes. In time the agreement was extended to place limits on border fortifications as well. Ultimately, the border between the United States and Canada was to become the longest unfortified border in the world.

Socialist Party of America

The Socialist platform called for more radical reforms than the Progressives favored: public ownership of the railroads, utilities, and even of major industries such as oil and steel.

Southern Governments of 1865-

The Southern states drew up constitutions that repudiated secession, negated the debts of the Confederate government, and ratified the 13th Amendment abolishing slavery. none of the new constitutions extended voting rights to blacks. Furthermore, to the dismay of Republicans, former leaders of the Confederacy won seats in Congress

Martin v. Hunter's Lease (1816)

The Supreme Court established that it had jurisdiction over state courts in cases involving constitutional rights.

Cherokee Nation v. Georgia (1831)

The Supreme Court ruled that Indians were not independent nations but dependent domestic nations which could be regulated by the federal government. From then until 1871, treaties were formalities with the terms dictated by the federal government.

Looking Backward, 2000-1887

was written by Edward Bellamy in 1888. It envisioned a future era in which a cooperative society had eliminated poverty, greed, and crime.

The Election of 1872

The regular Republicans countered by merely "waving the bloody shirt" again-and it worked. Grant was reelected in a landslide. Just days before the counting of the electoral vote, the luckless Horace Greeley died

Economic (Union)

The Union dominated the nation's economy, controlling most of the banking and capital of the country, more than 85 percent of the factories, more than 70 percent of the railroads, and even 65 percent of the farmland. The skills of Northern clerks and bookkeepers proved valuable in the logistical support of large military operations

Military (Union)

The Union hoped that its population of 22 million against the Confederate's population of only 5.5 million free whites would work to its favor in a war of attrition. The North's population advantage was enhanced during the war by 800,000 immigrants. Emancipation also brought 180,000 African Americans into the Union army in the critical final years of the war. The Union could also count on a loyal U.S. Navy, which ultimately gave it command of the rivers and territorial waters.

Monitor vs. Merrimac

The Union's hopes for winning the war depended upon its ability to maximize its economic and naval advantages by an effective blockade of Confederate ports (the Anaconda plan). During McClellan's Peninsula campaign, the Union's blockade strategy was placed in jeopardy by the Confederate ironclad ship the Merrimack (a former Union ship, rebuilt and renamed the Virginia) that attacked and sunk several Union wooden ships on March 8, 1862, near Hampton Roads, Virginia.the Union's own ironclad, the Monitor, engaged the Merrimac in a five-hour duel. Although the battle ended in a draw, the Monitor prevented the Confederate's formidable new weapon from challenging the U.S. naval blockade. More broadly, the Monitor and the Merrimac marked a turning point in naval warfare, with vulnerable wooden ships being replaced by far more formidable ironclad ones

Dawes Severalty Act (1887)

The act was designed to break up tribal organizations, which many felt kept American Indians from becoming "civilized" and law-abiding citizens. The Dawes Act divided the tribal lands into plots of up to 160 acres, depending on family size. U.S. citizenship was granted to those who stayed on the land for 25 years and "adopted the habits of civilized life." the government distributed 47 million acres of land to American Indians. However, 90 million acres of former reservation land-often the best land-was sold over the years to white settlers by the government, speculators, or American Indians themselves. The new policy proved a failure. By the turn of the century, disease and poverty had reduced the American Indian population to just 200,000 persons, most of whom lived as wards of the federal government.

Tallmadge Amendment

The amendment called for, (1) prohibiting the further introduction of slaves into Missouri and (2) requiring the children of Missouri slaves to be emancipated at the age of 25. If adopted, the Tallmadge Amendment would have led to the gradual elimination of slavery in Missouri. The amendment was defeated in the Senate as enraged southerners saw it as the first step in a northern effort to abolish slavery in all states.

Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803-1882)

The best-known transcendentalist, Ralph Waldo Emerson, was a very popular American speaker. His essays and lectures expressed the individualistic and nationalistic spirit of Americans by urging them not to imitate European culture but to create a distinctive American culture. He argued for self-reliance, independent thinking, and the primacy of spiritual matters over material ones. A northerner who lived in Concord, Massachusetts, Emerson became a leading critic of slavery in the 1850s and then an ardent supporter of the Union during the Civil War.

Freedmen's Bureau

The bureau acted as an early welfare agency, providing food, shelter, and medical aid for those made destitute by the war-both blacks (chiefly freed slaves) and homeless whites. At first, the Freedmen's Bureau had authority to resettle freed blacks on confiscated farmlands in the South. Its efforts at resettlement, however, were later frustrated when President Johnson pardoned Confederate owners of the confiscated lands, and courts then restored most of the lands to their original owners.

Canals

The completion of the Erie Canal in New York State in 1825 was a major event in linking the economies of western farms and eastern cities. The success of this canal in stimulating economic growth touched off a frenzy of canal-building in other states. In little more than a decade, canals joined together all of the major lakes and rivers east of the Mississippi. Improved transportation meant lower food prices in the East, more immigrants settling in the West, and stronger economic ties between the two sections.

Spanish Exploration and Conquest

The conquistadors sent ships loaded with gold and silver back to Spain from Mexico and Peru. They increased the gold supply by more than 500 percent, making Spain the richest and most powerful nation in Europe.

Higher Education

The religious enthusiasm of the Second Great Awakening helped fuel the growth of private colleges. Mount Holyoke College in Massachusetts (founded by Mary Lyon in 1837) Oberlin College in Ohio, began to admit women.

Turning Point in American Politics: 1896

The repeal of the Silver Purchase Act and Cleveland's handling of the depression thoroughly discredited the conservative leadership of the Democratic party. The Democrats were buried in the congressional elections of 1894 by the Republicans.

Lodge Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine

The resolution stated that non-European powers (such as Japan) would be excluded from owning territory in the Western Hemisphere. President Taft opposed the corollary, which also offended Japan and angered Latin American countries.

Empires at War

The stakes were high, since the winner of the struggle stood to gain supremacy in the West Indies and Canada and to dominate the lucrative colonial trade.

Urban Middle Class

The urban middle class had steadily grown in the final decades of the 19th century. In addition to doctors, lawyers, ministers, and storekeepers (the heart of the middle class in an earlier era), thousands of whitecollar office workers and middle managers employed in banks, manufacturing firms, and other businesses formed a key segment of the economy.

Farmers

The vast majority of slaveholders owned fewer than 20 slaves and worked only several hundred acres. Southern white farmers produced the bulk of the cotton crop, worked in the fields with their slaves, and lived as modestly as farmers of the North.

The End of the War

The effects of the Union blockade, combined with Sherman's march of destruction, spread hunger through much of the South in the winter of 1864-1865. On the battlefront in Virginia, Grant continued to outflank Lee's lines until they collapsed around Petersburg, resulting in the fall of Richmond on April 3, 1865. Everyone knew that the end was near.

Economic Change

The costs of the war in both money and men were staggering and called for extraordinary measures by both the Union and Confederate legislatures.

Campaign (1912)

The election came down to a battle between Theodore Roosevelt and Woodrow Wilson. Roosevelt called for a New Nationalism, with more government regulation of business and unions, women's suffrage, and more social welfare programs. Wilson pledged a New Freedom, which would limit both big business and big government, bring about reform by ending corruption, and revive competition by supporting small business.

Square Deal

The crisis involved a strike of anthracite coal miners through much of 1902. If the strike continued, many Americans feared that without coal-they would freeze to death when winter came. Roosevelt took the unusual step of trying to mediate the labor dispute by calling a union leader and coal mine owners to the White House

Political Parties

The debates between Federalists and Anti-Federalists in 1787 and 1788 were the first indication that a two-party system would emerge as a core feature of American politics.

Recognition of U.S. Power

The decisive U.S. victory in the war filled Americans with national pride. Southerners shared in this pride and became more attached to the Union after their bitter experience in the 1860s. At the same time, France, Great Britain, and other European nations recognized that the United States was the first-class power with a strong navy and a new willingness to take an active role in international affairs.

Significance of the Election of 1896

The election of 1896 had significant short-term and long-term consequences on American politics. It marked the end of the stalemate and stagnation that had characterized politics in the Gilded Age. In addition, the defeat of Bryan and the Populist free-silver movement initiated an era of Republican dominance of the presidency (seven of the next nine elections) and of both houses of Congress (17 of the next 20 sessions). Once the party of "free soil, free labor, and free men," the Republicans had become the party of business and industry, though it continued to advocate for a strong national government.

Urban Dominance

The election of 1896 was a clear victory for big business, urban centers, conservative economics, and moderate, middle-class values. It proved to be the last hope of rural America to reclaim its former dominance in American politics.

The Delegates

The delegates were a diverse group whose views about the criss ranged from radical to conservative Radical Delegates (Demanded the greatest concessions from Britain)- Patrick Henry (Virginia), Samuel Adams (Virginia) and John Adams (Massachuesteests). Moderate Delegates- George Washington (Virgina) and John Dickinson (Pennsylvania) Conservate Delegate ( Wanted a mild settlement protest)- John Jay (New York) and Joseph Galloway (Pennsylvania) Underrepresented -Loyal colonists who didn't want to challenge the King's Government

Arts and literature

The democratic and reforming impulses of the Age of Jackson expressed themselves in painting, architecture, and literature.

Economic Pressures-

The economic difficulties in the Northeast from the embargo and the war caused people from this region to seek a new future across the Appalachians. In the South, tobacco planters needed new land to replace the soil exhausted by years of poor farming methods. They found good land for planting cotton in Alabama, Mississippi, and Arkansas.

Effects of the Market Revolution

The farmers fed the workers in the cities, who in turn provided farm families with an array of mass-produced goods. For most Americans, the standard of living increased. At the same time, however, adapting to an impersonal, fast-changing economy presented challenges and problems

Kanagawa, Treaty of (1854)

The federal government expanded U.S. trade by sending Commodore Matthew C. Perry and a small fleet of naval ships to Japan, which had been closed to most foreigners for over two centuries. In 1854, Perry pressured Japan's government to sign the Kanagawa Treaty, which allowed U.S. vessels to enter two Japanese ports to take on coal. This treaty soon lead to a commercial agreement on trade

W. E. B. Du Bois

The first African American to receive a doctorate from Harvard, Du Bois was the leading black intellectual of the era. He advocated for equality for blacks, integrated schools, and equal access to higher education for the "talented tenth" of African Americans.

Seneca Falls Convention (1848)-

The leading feminists met at Seneca Falls, New York, in 1848. At the conclusion of their convention-the first woman's rights convention in American history-they issued a document closely modeled after the Declaration of Independence. --Following the Seneca Falls Convention, Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony led the campaign for equal voting, legal, and property rights for women. In the 1850s, however, the issue of women's rights was overshadowed by the crisis over slavery.

Case of Marbury v. Madison (1803)

The first major case decided by Marshall put him in direct conflict with President Jefferson. Upon taking office, Jefferson wanted to block the Federalist judges appointed by his predecessor, President John Adams. He ordered Secretary of State James Madison not to deliver the commissions to those Federalists judges. One of Adams' "midnight appointments," William Marbury, sued for his commission. The case of Marbury v. Madison went to the Supreme Court in 1803. Marshall ruled that Marbury had a right to his commission according to the Judiciary Act passed by Congress in 1789. However, Marshall said the Judiciary Act of 1789 had given to the Court greater power than the Constitution allowed. Therefore, the law was unconstitutional, and Marbury would not receive his commission.

Physicians

The first medical college in the colonies was begun in 1765 as part of Franklin's idea for the College of Philadelphia.

Fighting the War

The first shots of the Spanish-American War were fired in Manila Bay in the Philippines, thousands of miles from Cuba. The last shots were fired only a few months later in August.

The First Three Wars

The first three wars were named after the British king or queen under whose reign they occurred.

Union Strategy Affects

The first two parts of the strategy proved easier to achieve than the third, but ultimately all three were important in achieving Northern victory. After the Union's defeat at Bull Run, federal armies experienced a succession of crushing defeats as they attempted various campaigns in Virginia. Each was less successful than the one before.

Taft's Presidency

The good-natured William Howard Taft had served in Roosevelt's cabinet as secretary of war. Honoring the two-term tradition, Roosevelt refused to seek reelection and picked Taft to be his successor.

Foreign Commerce

The growth in manufactured goods as well as in agricultural products (both Western grains and Southern cotton) caused a large growth of exports and imports.

Impact of Industrialization

The growth of the American industry raised the standard of living for most people. However, growth also created sharper economic and class divisions among the rich, the middle class, and the poor.

Temperance

The high rate of alcohol consumption (five gallons of hard liquor per person in 1820) prompted reformers to target alcohol as the cause of social ills, and explains why temperance became the most popular of the reform movements.

Laissez-Faire Capitalism

The idea of government regulation of business was alien to the prevailing economic, scientific, and religious beliefs of the late 19th century. Which means that the government leaves the people alone regarding all economic activities. It is the separation of economy and state. economies and businesses function best when there is no interference by the government

Civil Rights Act of 1875

The last civil rights reform enacted by Congress in Reconstruction was the Civil Rights Act of 1875. This law guaranteed equal accommodations in public places (hotels, railroads, and theaters) and prohibited courts from excluding African Americans from juries. However, the law was poorly enforced because moderate and conservative Republicans felt frustrated trying to reform an unwilling South-and feared losing white votes in the North. By 1877, Congress would abandon Reconstruction completely.

Industrial Empires

The late 19th century witnessed a major shift in the nature of industrial production. Early factories had concentrated on producing textiles, clothing, and leather products.

The Struggle of Organized Labor

The late 19th century witnessed the most deadly-and frequent-labor conflicts in the nation's history. Many feared the country was heading toward open warfare between capital and labor.

Panic of 1857

The midcentury economic boom ended in 1857 with a financial panic. Prices, especially for Midwestern farmers, dropped sharply, and unemployment in Northern cities increased. Since cotton prices remained high, the South was less affected. As a result, some Southerners believed that their plantation economy was superior and that continued union with the Northern economy was not needed.

Uncle Tom's Cabin

The most influential book of its day was a novel about the conflict between an enslaved man named Tom and the brutal white slave owner Simon Legree. The publication of Uncle Tom's Cabin in 1852 by the Northern writer Harriet Beecher Stowe moved a generation of Northerners as well as many Europeans to regard all slave owners as monstrously cruel and inhuman. Southerners condemned the "untruths" in the novel and looked upon it as one more proof of the North's incurable prejudice against the Southern way of life.

Federal Trade Commission

The new regulatory agency was empowered to investigate and take action against any "unfair trade practice" in every industry except banking and transportation.

John Marshall and the Supreme Court

The only power remaining to the Federalists was their control of the federal courts. The Federalist appointments to the courts, previously made by Washington and Adams, were not subject to recall or removal except by impeachment. Federalist judges therefore continued in office, much to the annoyance of the DemocraticRepublican president, Jefferson.

American Indians

The original settlers of the West-and the entire North American continent were various groups of American Indians. However, from the time of Columbus, American Indians were cajoled, pushed, or driven westward as white settlers encroached on their original homelands.

Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848)

The treaty negotiated in Mexico by American diplomat Nicholas Trist provided for the following: Mexico recognized the Rio Grande as the southern border of Texas. B. The United States took possession of the former Mexican provinces of California and New Mexico-the Mexican Cession. For these territories, the United States paid $15 million and assumed responsibility for any claims of American citizens against Mexico.

line of demarcation

The pope granted Spain all lands to the west of the line and Portugal all lands to the east

Corruption in Business and Government

The postwar years were notorious for the corrupt schemes devised by business bosses and political bosses to enrich themselves at the public's expense. For example, in 1869, Wall Street financiers Jay Gould and James Fisk obtained the help of President Grant's brother-in-law in a scheme to corner the gold market. The Treasury Department broke the scheme, but not before Gould had made a huge profit.

New Harmony-

The secular (nonreligious) experiment in New Harmony, Indiana, was the work of the Welsh industrialist and reformer Robert Owen. Owen hoped his utopian socialist community would provide an answer to the problems of inequity and alienation caused by the Industrial Revolution. The experiment failed, however, as a result of both financial problems and disagreements among members of the community.

Religion

The slavery question affected church membership. Partly because they preached biblical support for slavery, both Methodist and Baptist churches gained in membership in the South while splitting in the 1840s with their northern brethren. The Unitarians, who challenged slavery, faced declining membership and hostility. Catholics and Episcopalians took a neutral stand on slavery, and their numbers declined in the South.

American Temperance Society-

The temperance movement began by using moral exhortation. In 1826, Protestant ministers and others concerned with drinking and its effects founded the American Temperance Society. The society tried to persuade drinkers to take a pledge of total abstinence. In 1840, a group of recovering alcoholics formed the Washingtonians and argued that alcoholism was a disease that needed practical, helpful treatment. By the 1840s, various temperance societies together had more than a million members.

The Treaty of Ghent

The terms halted fighting, returned all conquered territory to the prewar claimant, and recognized the prewar boundary between Canada and the United States. promptly ratified by the Senate in 1815, said nothing at all about the grievances that led to war. Britain made no concessions concerning impressment, blockades, or other maritime differences. Thus, the war ended in stalemate with no gain for either side.

Caning of Senator Sumner

The violence in Kansas spilled over into the halls of the U.S. Congress. In 1856, Massachusetts Senator Charles Sumner verbally attacked the Democratic administration in a vitriolic speech, "The Crime Against Kansas." His intemperate remarks included personal charges against South Carolina Senator Andrew Butler. Butler's nephew, Congressman Preston Brooks, defended his absent uncle's honor by walking into the Senate chamber and beating Sumner over the head with a cane. (Brooks explained that dueling was too good for Sumner, but a cane was fit for a dog.) Sumner never fully recovered from the attack. The Sumner-Brooks incident was another sign of growing passions on both sides.

Treaty of Paris

The war had become unpopular in Britain, partly because it placed a heavy strain on the economy and the government's finances. Treaty of Paris- provided for the following: -Britain would recognize the existence of the United States as an independent nation.\ - The Mississippi River would be the western boundary of that nation. -Americans would have fishing rights off the coast of Canada -Americans would pay debts owed to British merchants and honor Loyalist claims for property confiscated during the war.

National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP)

Their mission was no less than to abolish all forms of segregation and to increase educational opportunities for African American children. By 1920, the NAACP was the nation's largest civil rights organization, with over 100,000 members.

About two-thirds of the western tribal groups lived on the Great Plains (Native Americans)

These nomadic tribes, such as the Sioux, Blackfoot, Cheyenne, Crow, and Comanche, had given up farming in colonial times after the introduction of the horse by the Spanish. By the 1700s, they had become skillful horse riders and developed a way of life centered on the hunting of buffalo. Although they belonged to tribes of several thousand, they lived in smaller bands of 300 to 500 members. In the late 19th century, their conflicts with the U.S. government were partly the result of white Americans having little understanding of the Plains people's loose tribal organization and nomadic lifestyle.

second Sioux War

These were spectacular clashes between the Sioux Indians and white men. They were spurred by gold-greedy miners rushing into Sioux land. The white men were breaking their treaty with the Indians. The Sioux Indians were led by Sitting Bull and they were pushed by Custer's forces.

Scotch Irish immigration

They had little respect for the British government, which had pressured them into leaving Ireland. Most settled along the frontier in the western parts of Pennsylvania, Virginia, the Carolinas, and Georgia. By 1775, they comprised 7 percent of the population.

The Colonial View

They were not impressed with British troops or their leadership, whose methods of warfare seemed badly suited to the densely wooded terrain of eastern America.

Sugar Act (1764)

This act (also known as the Revenue Act of 1764) placed duties on foreign sugar and certain luxuries. Its chief purpose was to raise money for the crown, and a companion law also provided for stricter enforcement of the Navigation Acts to stop smuggling. Those accused of smuggling were to be tried in admiralty courts by crown-appointed judges without juries.

Quartering Act (1765)

This act required the colonists to provide food and living quarters for British soldiers stationed in the colonies

Clayton Antitrust Act-

This act strengthened the provisions in the Sherman Antitrust Act for breaking up monopolies. Most important for organized labor, the new law contained a clause exempting unions from being prosecuted as trusts.

Dartmouth College v. Woodward (1819)

This case involved a law of New Hampshire that changed Dartmouth College from a privately chartered college into a public institution. The Marshall Court struck down the state law as unconstitutional, arguing that a contract for a private corporation could not be altered by the state.

Tenure of Office Act.

This law, which may have been an unconstitutional violation of executive authority, prohibited the president from removing a federal official or military commander without the approval of the Senate. The purpose of the law was strictly political. Congress wanted to protect the Radical Republicans in Johnson's cabinet, such as Secretary of War Edwin Stanton, who was in charge of the military governments in the South.

The Pinckney Treaty (1795)

Thomas Pinckney, the U.S. minister to Spain, negotiated a treaty in which Spain agreed to open the lower Mississippi River and New Orleans to American trade. The right of deposit was granted to Americans so that they could transfer cargoes in New Orleans without paying duties to the Spanish government. Spain further agreed to accept the U.S. claim that Florida's northern boundary should be at the 31st parallel (not north of that line, as Spain had formerly insisted).

Embargo Act (1807)

This measure prohibited American merchant ships from sailing to any foreign port. however, backfired and brought greater economic hardship to the United States than to Britain. The embargo's effect on the U.S. economy, however, was devastating, especially for the merchant marine and shipbuilders of New England. So bad was the depression that a movement developed in the New England states to secede from the Union. Recognizing that the Embargo Act had failed, Jefferson called for its repeal in 1809 during the final days of his presidency. Even after repeal, however, U.S. ships could trade legally with all nations except Britain and France.

Child Labor Act

This measure, long favored by settlement house workers and labor unions alike, was enacted in 1916. It prohibited the shipment in interstate commerce of products manufactured by children under 14 years old. However, the Supreme Court found this act to be unconstitutional in the 1918 case of Hammer v. Dagenhart.

the Supreme Order of the Star-Spangled Banner

This society turned to politics in the early 1850s, nominating candidates for office as the American party, or Know-Nothing party This society turned to politics in the early 1850s, nominating candidates for office as the American party, or Know-Nothing party

Treaty of Tordesillas

This treaty, together with Portuguese explorations, established Portugal's claim to Brazil. Spain claimed the rest of the Americas. However, other European countries soon challenged these claims.

New Zion

This was a religious community established by the Mormons on the banks of the Great Salt Lake in Utah.

Democratic-Republicans leaders

Thomas Jefferson and James Madison

"On Civil Disobedience,"

Thoreau established himself as an early advocate of nonviolent protest. The essay presented Thoreau's argument for disobeying unjust laws and accepting the penalty. The philosopher's own act of civil disobedience was to refuse to pay a tax that would support an action he considered immoral-the U.S. war with Mexico (1846-1848). For breaking the tax law, Thoreau spent one night in the Concord jail. In the next century, Thoreau's essay and actions would inspire the nonviolent movements of both Mohandas Gandhi in India and Martin Luther King Jr. in the United States.

Tories

Those who maintained their allegiance to the king were also called Tories (after the majority party in Parliament). Almost 60,000 American Tories fought next to British soldiers, supplied them with arms and food, and joined in raiding parties that pillaged Patriot homes and farms. range from 520,000 to 780,000 people-roughly 20 to 30 percent of the population. In New York, New Jersey, and Georgia, they were probably in the majority. Toward the end of the war, about 80,000 Loyalists emigrated from the states to settle in Canada or Britain rather than face persecution at the hands of the victorious Patriots.Although Loyalists came from all groups and classes, they tended to be wealthier and more conservative than the Patriots.

Poor Whites

Three-fourths of the South's white population owned no slaves. They could not afford the rich river-bottom farmland controlled by the planters, and many lived in the hills as subsistence farmers. These "hillbillies" or "poor white trash," as they were derisively called by the planters, defended the slave system, thinking that someday they too could own slaves and that at least they were superior on the social scale to someone (slaves).

0ld Immigrants and New Immigrants

Through the 1880s, the vast majority of immigrants came from northern and western Europe: the British Isles, Germany, and Scandinavia. -the national origins of most immigrants changed

Reconstruction Plans of Lincoln and Johnson

Throughout his presidency, Abraham Lincoln held firmly to the belief that the Southern states could not constitutionally leave the Union and therefore never did leave. He viewed the Confederates as only a disloyal minority. After Lincoln's assassination, Andrew Johnson attempted to carry out Lincoln's plan for the political Reconstruction of the 11 former states of the Confederacy.

Tampico Incident-

To aid revolutionaries fighting Huerta, Wilson called for an arms embargo against the Mexican government and sent a fleet to blockade the port of Vera Cruz. In 1914, several U.S. sailors went ashore at Tampico where they were arrested by Mexican authorities. They were soon released. However, Huerta refused to apologize, as demanded by a U.S. naval officer. Wilson retaliated by ordering the U.S. Navy to occupy Veracruz. War seemed imminent. It was averted, however, when South America's ABC powersArgentina, Brazil, and Chile-offered to mediate the dispute. This was the first dispute in the Americas to be settled through joint mediation.

Intervention in Nicaragua

To protect American investments, the United States intervened in Nicaragua's financial affairs in 1911, and sent in marines when a civil war broke out in 1912. The marines remained, except for a short period, until 1933.

Schools for Blind and Deaf Persons

Two other reformers founded special institutions to help people with physical disabilities.By the 1850s, special schools modeled after the work of these reformers had been established in many states of the Union.

The Influence of Sea Power Upon History (1890)

U.S. Navy Captain Alfred Thayer Mahan wrote an important book, in which he argued that a strong navy was crucial to a country's ambitions of securing foreign markets and becoming a world power. Mahan's book was widely read by prominent American citizens as well as by political leaders in Europe and Japan. Using arguments in Mahan's book, U.S. naval strategists persuaded Congress to finance the construction of modern steel ships and encouraged the acquisition of overseas islands, such as Samoa, that was desired as coaling and supply stations so that the new fleet could project its sea power around the world. By 1900, the United States had the third-largest navy in the world.

Conflicts Over Texas, Maine, and Oregon

U.S. interest in pushing its borders south into Texas (a Mexican province) and west into the Oregon Territory ( claimed by Britain) largely resulted from American pioneers migrating into these lands during the 1820s and 1830s.

Direct Election of U.S. Senators

U.S. senators had been chosen by the state legislatures rather than by direct vote of the people. Progressives believed this was a principal reason that the Senate had become a millionaires' club dominated by big business. Nevada in 1899 was the first state to give the voters the opportunity to elect U.S. senators directly. By 1912, a total of 30 states had adopted this reform, and in 1913, adoption of the 17th Amendment required that all U.S. senators be elected by popular vote.

Grant in the West

Ulysses S. Grant, who had joined up for the war after an unsuccessful civilian career. Striking south from Illinois in early 1862, Grant used a combination of gunboats and army maneuvers to capture Fort Henry and Fort Donelson on the Cumberland River (a branch of the Mississippi). These stunning victories, in which 14,000 Confederates were taken prisoner, opened up the state of Mississippi to Union attack.

Indentured Servants

Under contract with a master or landowner who paid for their passage, young people from the British Isles agreed to work for a specified period-usually between four to seven years in return for room and board. In effect, indentured servants were under the absolute rule of their masters until the end of their work period. At the expiration of that period, they gained their freedom and either worked for wages or obtained land of their own to farm. For landowners, the system provided laborers, but only temporarily.

Freedmen's Bureau ( effects)-

Under the able leadership of General Oliver 0. Howard, it established nearly 3,000 schools for freed blacks, including several colleges. Before federal funding was stopped in 1870, the bureau's schools taught an estimated 200,000 African Americans how to read.

Europe Moves Toward Exploration

Until the late 1400s, Americans and the people of Europe, Africa, and Asia had no knowledge of the people on the other side of the Atlantic Ocean.

Booker T. Washington/ Atlanta Exposition speech in 1895

Washington argued that blacks' needs for education and economic progress were of foremost importance, and that they should concentrate on learning industrial skills for better wages. Only after establishing a secure economic base, said Washington, could African Americans hope to realize their other goal of political and social equality

Organizing the Federal Government

Washington took the oath of office as the first U.S. president on April 30, 1789. Congress- the legislative branch executive branch,- president was head of the exhaustive branch Supreme Court- the top federal court in the judicial branch.

Foreign Affairs

Washington's first term as president (1789-1793) coincided with the outbreak of revolution in France, a cataclysmic event that was to touch off a series of wars between the new French Republic and the monarchies of Europe.

New Jersey

West New Jersey and the other East New Jersey. To attract settlers, both proprietors made generous land offers and allowed religious freedom and an assembly.

Urban Frontier

Western cities that arose as a result of railroads, mineral wealth, and farming attracted a number of professionals and business owners.

Universal Male Suffrage

Western states newly admitted to the Union-Indiana (1816), Illinois (1818), and Missouri (1821)-adopted state constitutions that allowed all white males to vote and hold office. These newer constitutions omitted any religious or property qualifications for voting. Most eastern states soon followed suit, eliminating such restrictions. As a result, throughout the country, all white males could vote regardless of their social class or religion.

dollar diplomacy.

William Howard Taft (1909-1913), did not carry a big stick. He adopted a foreign policy that was mildly expansionist but depended more on investors' dollars than on the navy's battleships. His policy of promoting U.S. trade by supporting American enterprises abroad

Conciliation Treaties

William Jennings Bryan. Bryan's pet project was to negotiate treaties in which nations pledged to (1) submit disputes to international commissions (2) observe a one-year cooling-off period before taking military action.

Wilson's Moral Diplomacy

Wilson had limited success applying a high moral standard to foreign relations. He and Secretary of State William Jennings Bryan hoped to demonstrate that the United States respected other nations' rights and would support the spread of democracy. Hoping to demonstrate that his presidency was opposed to self-interested imperialism, Wilson took steps to correct what he viewed as wrongful policies of

The Panama Canal

Wilson persuaded Congress in 1914 to repeal an act that had granted U.S. ships an exemption from paying the standard canal tolls charged other nations. Wilson's policy on Panama Canal tolls angered American nationalists such as Roosevelt and Lodge but pleased the British, who had strongly objected to the U.S. exemption.

Other Reforms

Wilson was at first opposed to any legislation that seemed to favor special interests, such as farmers' groups and labor unions. He was finally persuaded, however, to extend his reform program to include the following Progressive measures:

Henry David Thoreau (1817-1862)

a close friend of Emerson was Henry David Thoreau. Thoreau conducted a two-year experiment of living simply in a cabin in the woods outside town. He used observations of nature to discover essential truths about life and the universe. Thoreau's writings from these years were published in the book for which he is best known, Walden (1854). Because of this book, Thoreau is remembered today as a pioneer ecologist and conservationist.

Segregation

With the end of Reconstruction in 1877, the North withdrew its protection of the freedmen and left southerners to work out solutions to their own social and economic problems.

Social Mobility

With the major exception of the African Americans, all people in colonial society had an opportunity to improve their standard of living and social status by hard work.

Leadership

Without strong leadership, the diverse forces of reform could not have overcome conservatives' resistance to change.

Women's Rights

Women reformers, especially those involved in the antislavery movement, resented the way men relegated them to secondary roles in the movement and prevented them from taking part fully in policy discussions. Two sisters, Sarah and Angelina Grirnke, objected to male opposition to their antislavery activities. In protest, Sarah Grirnke wrote her Letter on the Condition of Women and the Equality of the Sexes (1837). Another pair of reformers, Lucretia Mott and Elizabeth Cady Stanton, began campaigning for women's rights after they had been barred from speaking at an antislavery convention.

The Gaspee

a British customs ship that had caught several smugglers. In 1772, it ran aground off the shore of Rhode Island. Seizing their opportunity to destroy the hated vessel, a group of colonists disguised as American Indians ordered the British crew ashore and then set fire to the ship.

William Holmes McGuffey (Moral Education)-

a Pennsylvania teacher, created a series of elementary textbooks that became widely used to teach reading and morality. The McGuffey readers extolled the virtues of hard work, punctuality, and sobriety-the kind of behaviors needed in an emerging industrial society.

George Ripley

a Protestant minister, launched a communal experiment at Brook Farm in Massachusetts. His goal was to achieve "a more natural union between intellectual and manual labor."

Clarence Darrow

a famous lawyer, argued that criminal behavior could be caused by a person's environment of poverty, neglect, and abuse

Dorothea Dix, (Mental Hospitals)

a former schoolteacher from Massachusetts, was horrified to find mentally ill persons locked up with convicted criminals in unsanitary cells. She launched a cross-country crusade, publicizing the awful treatment she had witnessed. In the 1840s one state legislature after another built new mental hospitals or improved existing institutions and mental patients began receiving professional treatment.

writ of assistance-

a general license to search anywhere) rather than a judge's warrant permitting a search only of a specifically named property

Boston Tea Party-

a group of Bostonians disguised themselves as American Indians, boarded the British ships, and dumped 342 chests of tea into the harbor. Colonial reaction to this incident (December 1773) was mixed. While many applauded the Boston Tea Party as a justifiable defense of liberty, others thought the destruction of private property was far too radical.

War Hawks

a group of new, young Democratic-Republicans to Congress, many of them from frontier states (Kentucky, Tennessee, and Ohio). Known as war hawks because of their eagerness for war with Britain, they quickly gained significant influence in the House of Representatives. e war-hawk members of Congress argued that war with Britain would be the only way to defend American honor, gain Canada, and destroy American Indian resistance on the frontier

Newlands Reclamation Act

a law providing money from the sale of public land for irrigation projects in western states.

the referendum

a method that allowed citizens to vote on proposed laws printed on their ballots.

Great Awakening,

a movement characterized by fervent expressions of religious feeling among masses of people. The movement was at its strongest during the 1730s and 1740s.

The Jungle

a muckraking book by Upton Sinclair, described in horrifying detail the conditions in the Chicago stockyards and meatpacking industry. The public outcry following the publication of Sinclair's novel caused Congress to enact two regulatory laws in 1906:

Social Gospel

a number of Protestant clergy espoused the cause of social justice for the poor-especially the urban poor

Iroquois Confederation

a political union of five independent tribes who lived in the Mohawk Valley of New York. The five tribes were the Seneca, Cayuga, Onondaga, Oneida, and Mohawk.

Stephen A. Douglas

a politically astute young senator from Illinois, engineered different coalitions to pass each part of the compromise separately. President Fillmore readily signed the bills into law.

phrenology

a pseudoscience that studied the bumps on an individual's skull to assess the person's character and ability

Sons and Daughters of Liberty

a secret society organized for the purpose of intimidating tax agents. Members of this society sometimes destroyed revenue stamps and tarred and feathered revenue officials.

Mayor Samuel M

a self-made millionaire with strong memories of his origins as a working man became the Republican mayor. Adopting "golden rule" as both his policy and his middle name,Jones delighted Toledo's citizens by introducing a comprehensive program of municipal reform, including free kindergartens, night schools, and public playgrounds.

"Wisconsin Idea"

a series of Progressive measures that included a direct primary law, tax reform, and state regulatory commissions to monitor railroads, utilities, and business such as insurance.

The Federalist Papers

a series of highly persuasive essays written for a New York newspaper by James Madison, Alexander Hamilton, and John Jay. The 85 essays, later published in book form as The Federalist Papers, presented cogent reasons for believing in the practicality of each major provision of the Constitution.

Clermont-

a steamboat developed by Robert Fulton. Commercially operated steamboat lines soon made round-trip shipping on the nation's great rivers both faster and cheaper

Capital was plentiful,

as Europeans with surplus wealth joined well-to-do Americans in investing in economic expansion.

Frank Lloyd Wright

an employee of Sullivan's in the 1890s, developed an "organic" style of architecture that was in harmony with its natural surroundings. Wright's vision is exemplified in the long, horizontal lines of his prairie-style houses. Wright became the most famous American architect of the 20th century.

Jingoism

an intense form of nationalism calling for an aggressive foreign policy

A growing population

and an advanced transportation network made the United States the largest market in the world for industrial goods.

political blunders

and extremism on both sides, which some historians conclude resulted in an unnecessary war.

Daniel Webster of Massachusetts

argued for compromise in order to save the Union, and in so doing alienated the Massachusetts abolitionists who formed the base of his support

Professor William Graham Sumner ( Yale University)

argued that helping the poor was misguided because it interfered with the laws of nature and would only weaken the evolution of the species by preserving the unfit.

. Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr.

argued that the law should evolve with the times in response to changing needs and not remain restricted by legal precedents and judicial decisions of the past.

The Monroe Doctrine

as a principle in which the rights and interests of the United States are involved, that the American continents, by the free and independent condition which they have assumed and maintain, are henceforth not to be considered as subjects for future colonization by any European powers. Monroe declared further that the United States opposed attempts by a European power to interfere in the affairs of any republic in the Western Hemisphere. Monroe's bold words of nationalistic purpose were applauded by the American public but soon forgotten, as most citizens were more concerned with domestic issues.had less significance at the time than in later decades, when it would be hailed by politicians and citizens alike as the cornerstone of U.S. foreign policy toward Latin America.

The Articles of Confederation-

as the document was called, was adopted by Congress in 1777 and submitted to the states for ratification. established a central government that consisted of just one body, a congress. In this unicameral (one-house) legislature, each state was given one vote, with at least 9 votes out of 13 required to pass important laws. Amending the Articles required a unanimous vote. A Committee of States, with one representative from each state, could make minor decisions when the full congress was not in session.

Hiram Revels

as the first African American to serve in the U.S. Congress

Edmund Randolph

attorney general.

The Pacific Railway Act (1862)

authorized the building of a transcontinental railroad over a northern route in order to link the economies of California and the western territories with the eastern states.

Incas

based in Peru developed a vast empire in South America.

, San Francisco and Denver

became instant cities created by the gold and silver rushes

Debtors, farmers, and start-up businesses wanted more "easy" or "soft" money in circulation, since this would enable them to

borrow money at lower interest rates pay off their loans more easily with inflated dollars.

John Sherman

brother of the famous Civil War general, was in Congress from 1855 to 1898 but did little other than allow his name to be attached to a number of bills, including the Sherman Antitrust Act of 1890.

Mayas

built remarkable cities in the rain forests of the Yucatan Peninsula (present-day Guatemala, Belize, and southern Mexico).

Adam Smith (n The Wealth of Nations)

business should be regulated, not by government, but by the "invisible hand" (impersonal economic forces) of the law of supply and demand. If the government kept its hands off, so the theory went, businesses would be motivated by their own self-interest to offer improved goods and services at low prices.

"new" immigrants

came from southern and eastern Europe. They were Italians, Greeks, Croats, Slovaks, Poles, and Russians. Many were poor and illiterate peasants who had left autocratic countries and therefore were unaccustomed to democratic traditions.s were largely Roman Catholic, Greek Orthodox, Russian Orthodox, and Jewish. most new immigrants crowded into poor ethnic neighborhoods in New York, Chicago, and other major U.S. cities.

Improvements in ship design

came just in time to speed goldseekers on their journey to the California gold fields. The development of the American clipper ship cut the six-month trip from New York around the Horn of South America to San Francisco to as little as 89 days. 4. Steamships took the place of clipper ships in the mid-l 850s because they had greater storage capacity, could be maintained at lower cost, and could more easily follow a regular schedule.

William Jennings Bryan of Nebraska

captured the hearts of the delegates with a speech that ended with these words: "We will answer their demands for a gold standard by saying to them: 'You shall not press down upon the brow of labor this crown of thorns, you shall not crucify mankind upon a cross of gold.' " So powerful was Bryan's "Cross of Gold" speech that it made him instantly the Democratic nominee for president. Bryan was only 36 years old.

Revolution of 1800

change from Federalist to Democratic-Republican control

Henry Hobson Richardson

changed the direction of American architecture. While earlier architects found inspiration in classical Greek and Roman styles, his designs were often based on the medieval Romanesque style of massive stone walls and rounded arches. Richardson gave a gravity and stateliness to functional commercial buildings

Nation-states

countries in which the majority of people shared both a common culture and common loyalty toward a central government.

obtaining

court injunctions against strikes

White Settlers on the Western Frontier

daily life for white settlers was similar to that of the early colonists. They worked hard from sunrise to sunset and lived in log cabins, sod huts, or other improvised shelters. Disease and malnutrition were far greater dangers than attacks by American Indians.

Union's first Conscription Act

dopted in March 1863, made all men between the ages of 20 and 45 liable for military service but allowed a draftee to avoid service by either finding a substitute to serve or paying a $300 exemption fee. The law provoked fierce opposition among poorer laborers, who feared that-if and when they returned to civilian life-their jobs would be taken by freed African Americans

nullification theory

each state had the right to decide whether to obey a federal law or to declare it null and void (of no effect).

Railroads-

early railroads were hampered at first by safety problems, but by the 1830s they were competing directly with canals as an alternative method for carrying passengers and freight. The combination of railroads with the other major improvements in transportation rapidly changed small western towns such as Cleveland, Cincinnati, Detroit, and Chicago into booming commercial centers of the expanding national economy.

Ida B. Wells

editor of the Memphis Free Speech, a black newspaper, campaigned against lynching and the Jim Crow laws. Death threats and the destruction of her printing press forced Wells to carry on her work from the North.

lower house, or assembly

elected by the eligible voters, voted for or against new taxes. Colonists thus became accustomed to paying taxes only if their chosen representatives approved.

Homestead Act of 1862

encouraged farming on the Great Plains by offering 160 acres of public land free to any family that settled on it for a period of five years. The promise of free land combined with the promotions of railroads and land speculators induced hundreds of thousands of native-born and immigrant families to attempt to farm the Great Plains between 1870 and 1900. About 500,000 families took advantage of the Homestead Act

The Morrill Land Grant Act (1862)

encouraged states to use the sale of federal land grants to maintain agricultural and technical colleges

Shipping firms

encouraged trade and travel across the Atlantic by having their sailing packets depart on a regular schedule (instead of the unscheduled departures that had been customary in the 18th century).

Indian Appropriation Act of 1871

ended recognition of tribes as independent nations by the federal government and nullified previous treaties made with the tribes

Benjamin Wade of Ohio

endorsed several liberal causes: women's suffrage, rights for labor unions, and civil rights for Northern African Americans. Although their program was never fully implemented, the Radical Republicans struggled to extend equal rights to all Americans.

Judiciary Act of 1789

established a Supreme Court with one chief justice and five associate justices. This highest court was empowered to rule on the constitutionality of decisions made by state courts. The act also provided for a system of 13 district courts and three circuit courts of appeals

Samuel Sidney McClure

founded McClure's Magazine in 1893, which became a major success by running a series of muckraking articles by Lincoln Steffens (Tweed Days in St. Louis, 1902) and another series by Ida Tarbell (The History of the Standard Oil Company, also in 1902). Combining careful research with sensationalism, these articles set a standard for the deluge of muckraking that followed. Popular 10- and 15-cent magazines such as McClure's, Collier's, and Cosmopolitan competed fiercely to outdo their rivals with shocking exposes of political and economic corruption.

the American Peace Society

founded in 1828 with the objective of abolishing war, which actively protested the war with Mexico in 1846

The Anti Saloon League,

founded in 1893, became a powerful political force and by 1916 had persuaded 21 states to close down all saloons and bars.

American Colonization Society

founded the American Colonization Society. This appealed to moderate antislavery reformers and politicians, in part because whites with racist attitudes hoped to remove free blacks from U.S. society. Society established an African-American settlement in Monrovia, Liberia. Colonization never proved a practical course. Between 1820 and 1860, only about 12,000 African Americans were settled in Africa, while the slave population grew by 2.5 million.

Thomas "Czar" Reed

from Maine, a sharp-tongued bully, became Speaker of the House in 1890 and instituted an autocratic rule over the House that took years to break.

Congress' Preemption Acts of the 1830s and 1840s

gave squatters the right to settle public lands and purchase them for low prices once the government put them up for sale. In addition, the government made it easier for settlers by offering parcels of land as small as 40 acres for sale.

The Mann-Elkins Act of 1910

gave the Interstate Commerce Commission the power to suspend new railroad rates and oversee telephone, telegraph, and cable companies

1901 (the Hay-Pauncefote Treaty)

gave the United States a free hand to build a canal without British participation.

Salt Lake City

grew because it offered fresh supplies to travelers on overland trails for the balance of their westward journey.

Frame of Government (1682-1683)-

guaranteed a representative assembly elected by landowners, and a written constitution, the Charter of Liberties (1701), which guaranteed freedom of worship for all and unrestricted immigration. Penn's attempt to treat the American Indians fairly and not to cheat them when purchasing their land.

Nineteenth Amendment in 1920

guaranteed women's right to vote in all elections at the local, state, and national levels. Following the victory of her cause,

James K. Polk of Tennessee

had been a protege of Andrew Jackson. Firmly committed to expansion and manifest destiny, Polk favored the annexation of Texas, the "reoccupation" of all of Oregon, and the acquisition of California.

John Marshall-

had been appointed Chief Justice of the Supreme Court during the final months of John Adams' presidency. He held his post for 34 years, in which time he exerted as strong an influence on the Supreme Court as Washington had exerted on the presidency. Marshall's decisions in many landmark cases generally strengthened the central government, often at the expense of states' rights.

Our Country: Its Possible Future and Present Crisis (1885)

he Reverend Josiah Strong wrote that people of Anglo-Saxon stock were "the fittest to survive." He believed that Protestant Americans had a religious duty to colonize other lands in order to spread Christianity and the benefits of their "superior" civilization (medicine, science, and technology) to less fortunate peoples of the world.

First ten amendments

he U.S. Bill of Rights. Originally, they provided protection against abuses of power by the central ( or federal) government. Since the ratification of the 14th Amendment in 1868, most of the protections have been extended to apply to abuses by state governments as well.

practice of primogeniture

he first born son's right to inherit his family's property

Sharecropping

he landlord provided the seed and other needed farm supplies in return for a share (usually half) of the harvest. While this system gave poor people of the rural South (whites as well as African Americans) the opportunity to work a piece of land for themselves, sharecroppers usually remained either dependent on the landowners or in debt to local merchants. By 1880, no more than 5 percent of Southern African Americans had become independent landowners. Sharecropping had evolved into a new form of servitude.

Henry Clay of Kentucky

he played a major role in formulating the three landmark sectional compromises of his day: the Missouri Compromise of 1820, the Tariff Compromise of 1833, and the Compromise of 1850

Architecture

nspired by the democracy of classical Athens, American architects adapted Greek styles to glorify the democratic spirit of the republic. Columned facades like those of ancient Greek temples graced the entryways to public buildings, banks, hotels, and even some private homes

Louis Sullivan

of Chicago went a step further by rejecting historical styles in his quest for a suitable style for the tall, steel-framed office buildings of the 1880s and 1890s. Sullivan's buildings achieved a much-admired aesthetic unity, in which the form of a building flowed from its function-a hallmark of the Chicago School of architecture

The country was a treasure-house

of raw materials essential to industrialization-coal, iron ore, copper, lead, timber, and oil.

John Brown's Raid at Harpers Ferry effects

of violence, but Southerners were not convinced by their words. Southern whites saw the raid as final proof of the North's true intentions-to use slave revolts to destroy the South. Because John Brown spoke with simple eloquence at his trial of his humanitarian motives in wanting to free the slaves, he was hailed as a martyr by many antislavery Northerners

Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882,

placed a ban on all new immigrants from China

"Olive Branch Petition" to King George III

pledged their loyalty and asked the king to intercede with Parliament to secure peace and the protection of colonial rights.

The Financier and The Titan

portrayed the avarice and ruthlessness of an industrialist.

Connecticut Plan or the Great Compromise

provided for a two-house Congress. In the Senate, states would have equal representation, but in the House of Representatives, each state would be represented according to the size of its population.

Treaty of Paris

provided for the following: -Britain would recognize the existence of the United States as an independent nation.\ - The Mississippi River would be the western boundary of that nation. -Americans would have fishing rights off the coast of Canada -Americans would pay debts owed to British merchants and honor Loyalist claims for property confiscated during the war.

The Meat Inspection Act

provided that federal inspectors visit meatpacking plants to ensure that they met minimum standards of sanitation.

The Alliance movement

provided the foundation of a new political party-the People's, or Populist, party. Delegates from different states met in Omaha, Nebraska, in 1892 to draft a political platform and nominate candidates for president and vice president for the new party. Populists were determined to do something about the concentration of economic power in the hands of trusts and bankers.

Plessy v. Ferguson (1896)

racial segregation had been the rule in the South and, unofficially, in much of the North. Ironically and tragically, the Progressive era coincided with years when thousands of blacks were lynched by racist mobs.

The McKinley Tariff of 1890

raised tariffs to the highest level they had ever been. Big business favored these tariffs because they protected U.S. businesses from foreign competition.

22nd Amendment

ratified in 1951, made the two-term limit (U.S. President) a part of the Constitution.

George Fitzhugh-

the boldest and best known of the proslavery authors, questioned the principle of equal rights for "unequal men" and attacked the capitalist wage system as worse than slavery. Among his works were Sociology for the South (1854) and Cannibals All! (1857).

Hepburn Act ( 1906),

the commission could fix "just and reasonable" rates for railroads.

The surge in immigration between 1830 and 1860 was chiefly the result of:

the development of inexpensive and relatively rapid ocean transportation, famines and revolutions in Europe that drove people from their homelands, the growing reputation of the United States as a country offering economic opportunities and political freedom

Webster-Ashburton Treaty of 1842

the disputed territory was split between Maine and British Canada. The treaty also settled the boundary of the Minnesota territory, leaving what proved to be the iron-rich Mesabi range on the U.S. side of the border.

Henry Grady-

the editor of the Atlanta Constitution. Grady spread the gospel of the New South with editorials that argued for economic diversity and laissez-faire capitalism. To attract businesses, local governments offered tax exemptions to investors and the promise of low-wage labor.

Underground Railroad-

the fabled network of "conductors" and "stations," was a loose network of Northern free blacks and courageous ex-slaves, with the help of some white abolitionists, who helped escaped slaves reach freedom in the North or in Canada. The most famous conductor was an escaped slave woman, Harriet Tubman, who made at least 19 trips into the South to help some 300 slaves escape. Free blacks in the North and abolitionists also organized vigilance committees to protect fugitive slaves from the slave catchers. Once the Civil War broke out, African American leaders such as Frederick Douglass, Harriet Tubman, and Sojourner Truth continued to work for the emancipation of slaves and to support black soldiers in the Union cause.

Changes in the 20th Century

the federal government granted U.S. citizenship to all American Indians, whether or not they had complied with the Dawes Act

The Panic of 1819-

the first major financial panic since the Constitution had been ratified. The economic disaster was largely the fault of the Second Bank of the United States, which had tightened credit in a belated effort to control inflation. Many state banks closed and unemployment, bankruptcies, and imprisonment for debt increased sharply. was most severe in the West, where many people were in debt because they speculated on land during the postwar euphoria.As a result of the bank panic and depression, nationalistic beliefs were shaken. In the West, the economic crisis changed many voters' political outlook. Westerners began calling for land reform and expressing strong opposition to both the national bank and debtors' prisons.

Thomas Edison

was a young telegraph operator and patented his first invention, a machine for recording votes in 1869. Income from his early inventions enabled Edison to establish a research laboratory in Menlo Park, New Jersey, in 1876. This was the world's first modern research laboratory. It ranks among Edison's most important contributions to science and industry because it introduced the concept of mechanics and engineers working on a project as a team rather than as lone inventors. Out of Edison's lab came more than a thousand patented inventions, including the phonograph, the improvement of the incandescent lamp in 1879 ( the first practical electric lightbulb ), the dynamo for generating electric power, the mimeograph machine, and the motion picture camera.

Mayflower Compact

was an early form of colonial self-government and a rudimentary written constitution and Pilgrims drew up and signed a document that pledged them to make decisions by the will of the majority.

James McN eill Whistler

was born in Massachusetts but spent most of his life in Paris and London. His most famous painting, Arrangement in Grey and Black (popularly known as "Whistler's Mother"), hangs in the Louvre. This study of color, rather than subject matter, influenced the development of modern art

The Confederate States of America (importance)

was chronically short of money. It tried loans, income taxes (including a 10 percent tax in-kind on farm produce), and even impressment of private property, but these revenues paid for only a small part of war costs. The government issued more than $1 billion in paper money, so much that it caused severe inflation. By the end of the war, the value of a Confederate dollar was less than two cents. The Confederate congress nationalized the railroads and encouraged industrial development. The Confederacy sustained nearly 1 million troops at its peak, but a war of attrition doomed its efforts.

The Woman's Christian Temperance Union (WCTU)

was formed in 1874. Advocating total abstinence from alcohol, the WCTU, under the leadership of Frances E. Willard of Evanston, Illinois, had 500,000 members by 1898.

the National Urban League,

was formed in 1911 to help people migrating from the South to northern cities. The league's motto, "Not Alms But Opportunity," reflected its emphasis on self-reliance and economic advancement.

Church of Jesus Christ of Later Day Saints

was founded by Joseph Smith in 1830. Smith based his religious thinking on a book of Scripture-the Book of Mormon-which traced a connection between the American Indians and the lost tribes of Israel. Smith gathered a following in New York and moved to Ohio, then Missouri, and finally, Illinois. There, the Mormon founder was murdered by a local mob.

Johns Hopkins University

was founded in Baltimore in 1876 as the first American institution to specialize in advanced graduate studies. Following the model of German universities, Johns Hopkins emphasized research and free inquiry. As a result of such innovations in the curriculum, the United States produced its first generation of scholars who could compete with the intellectual achievements of Europeans.

halfway covenant

was offered by some clergy. Under this, people could become partial church members even if they had not felt a conversion.

Eli Whitney

was only the most famous of hundreds of Americans whose long hours of tinkering in their workshops resulted in improved technology. Besides inventing the cotton gin in 1793, Whitney devised a system for making rifles out of interchangeable parts during the War of 1812. Interchangeable parts then became the basis for mass production methods in the new northern factories.

the Bland-Allison Act

was passed over Hayes's veto in 1878. It allowed only a limited coinage of between $2 million and $4 million in silver each month at the standard silver to-gold ratio of 16 to 1. Not satisfied, farmers, debtors, and western miners continued to press for the unlimited coinage of silver.

Hay-Pauncefote Treaty,

was signed in 1901. With the British agreement to let the United States build a canal alone, the young and activist President Roosevelt took charge.

most important innovations of the railroads

was the creation of the modern stockholder corporation and the development of complex structures in finance, business management, and the regulation of competition.

U.S. Steel Corporation

was the first billion-dollar company and also the largest enterprise in the world, employing 168,000 people and controlling more than three-fifths of the nation's steel business.

Horace Mann (Free Common Schools)

was the leading advocate of the common (public) school movement. As secretary of the newly founded Massachusetts Board of Education, Mann worked for compulsory attendance for all children, a longer school year, and increased teacher preparation. In the 1840s, the movement for public schools spread rapidly to other states.

Booker T. Washington

was to accommodate it. Washington, a former slave, had graduated from Hampton Institute in Virginia. In 1881, he established an industrial and agricultural school for African Americans in Tuskegee, Alabama. Washington argued that "the agitation of the questions of social equality is the extremist folly." In 1900. Washington's emphasis on racial harmony and economic cooperation won praise from many whites, including industrialist Andrew Carnegie and President Theodore Roosevelt.

old" immigrants

were Protestants, although many were Irish or German Catholics. Their language (mostly English-speaking) and high level of literacy and occupational skills made it relatively easy for these immigrants to blend into a mostly rural American society in the early decades of the 19th century.

Cooper's Leatherstocking Tales (The Derrslayer, The Last of the Mohicans, The pathfinder, The Pioneers, and The prairie)

were a series of novels written from 1824 to 1841 that glorified the frontiersman as nature's nobleman

upper house-or council

were appointed by the king or the proprietor. In the two self-governing colonies, both the upper and lower houses were elective bodies

Who Were the Progressives?

were extremely diverse. Protestant church leaders championed one set of reforms, African Americans proposed other reforms, union leaders sought public support for their goals, and feminists lobbied their state legislatures for votes for women. Loosely linking these reform efforts under a single label, Progressive, was a belief that society badly needed changes and that the government was the proper agency for correcting social and economic ills.

Frank Norris' The Octopus and The Pit

were more effective than many journalistic accounts in stirring up public demands for government regulations.

The Navajo and Apache peoples of the Southwest (Native Americans)

were nomadic hunter-gatherers who adapted a more settled way of life, not only raising crops and livestock but also producing arts and crafts.

William James and John Dewey

were two leading American advocates of this new philosophy. They defined "truth" in a way that many Progressives found appealing. James and Dewey argued that the "good" and the "true" could not be known in the abstract as fixed and changeless ideals. Rather, they said, people should take a pragmatic, or practical, approach to morals, ideals, and knowledge. They should experiment with ideas and laws and test them in action until they find something that would produce a well-functioning democratic society.

Peggy Eaton Affair

wife of Jackson's secretary of war, she was the target of malicious gossip by other cabinet wives, much as Jackson's recently deceased wife had been in the 1828 campaign. When Jackson tried to force the cabinet wives to accept Peggy Eaton socially, most of the cabinet resigned. This controversy contributed to the resignation of Jackson's vice president, John C. Calhoun, a year later. For remaining loyal during this crisis, Martin Van Buren of New York was chosen as vice president for Jackson's second term. For remaining loyal during this crisis, Martin Van Buren of New York was chosen as vice president for Jackson's second term.

English immigration

with fewer problems at home, their numbers were relatively small compared to others, especially the Germans and Scotch-Irish

encomienda system,

with the king of Spain giving grants of land and natives to individual Spaniards. These Indians had to farm or work in the mines. The fruits of their labors went to their Spanish masters, who in tum had to "care" for them.

Forest Management Act of 1897

withdrew federal timberlands from development and regulated their use.

Knights of Labor advocated a variety of reforms:

worker cooperatives "to make each man his own employer, abolition of child labor, abolition of trusts and monopolies.

yellow-dog contracts

workers being told, as a condition for employment, that they must sign an agreement not to join a union

Jelly Roll Morton and Buddy Bolden

xpanded the audience for jazz, a musical form that combined African rhythms with European instruments, and mixed improvisation with a structured format.

"birds of passage,"

young men contracted for unskilled factory, mining, and construction jobs, who would return to their native lands once they had saved a fair sum of money to bring back to their families.

creation of five new colleges between 1746 and 1769:

• College of New Jersey (Princeton), 1746, Presbyterian • King's College (Columbia), 1754, Anglican • Rhode Island College (Brown), 1764, Baptist • Queens College (Rutgers), 1766, Reformed • Dartmouth College, 1769, Congregationalist Only one nonsectarian college was founded during this period. The College of Philadelphia, which later became the University of Pennsylvania, had no religious sponsors