APUSH Period 4

James Monroe And The Era Of Good Feelings A Surge Of Nationalism

James Monroe overwhelmed his Federalist opponent in the 1816 presidential election. He was then reelected in 1820 without opposition. Monroe's presidency began with a surge of nationalism. One newspaper captured the optimistic spirit when it proclaimed that Monroe's election marked the beginning of an "Era of Good Feelings."

Understanding Causation: The War Of 1812 Causes

Jefferson and Madison followed neutrality to avoid war with Britain or France. The British policy of forcing American seamen into the Navy outraged Americans. Led by Henry Clay and John C. Calhoun, War Hawks demanded war with Britain to defend their honor. The War Hawks also hoped to drive Britain from Canada and remove Indians from the frontier.

Revolutionary Changes In Commerce Understanding Causation: The Impact Of The Market Revolution Impact On The Midwest

Accelerated the migration of settlers into the Midwest. Transformed Chicago into an important rail-center and distributor of agricultural products and machines to the West. Increased the production of cash crops such as wheat and corn.

The End Of The Era Of Good Feelings The Disappointing Presidency Of John Q. Adams

Adams hoped to accomplish great projects. He championed a program of internal improvements and called upon Congress to establish a national university and build an astronomical observatory in Washington. Although brilliant, Adams lacked charm. His deal with Clay tarnished his presidency. Jackson's supporters in Congress voted down Adams' proposals. They looked forward to the election of 1828.

Aspects Of Life Among Slaves In The Old South Free Blacks

All blacks were not slaves. These "free persons of color" were descendants of people freed by idealistic owners following the Revolutionary War. Others successfully purchased their freedom. Free blacks occupied a precarious position in society. They were subject to laws that denied them property rights and forbade them from working in certain professions and testifying against whites in court.

The Jefferson Presidency, 1801-1809 The Embargo Of 1807

Although he was an ardent supporter of the French Revolution, Jefferson continued Washington's policy of neutrality. In 1807, Jefferson persuaded Congress to pass an Embargo Act stopping all exports of American goods to Europe. Jefferson hoped the embargo would enable the United States to avoid being drawn into the ongoing conflict between Great Britain and France. As in the Louisiana Purchase, Jefferson once again drew upon the loose constructionist doctrine of implied powers. He argued that the government's power to regulate commerce could be used to justify imposing an embargo. The embargo proved to be very unpopular with New England shippers. Ironically, it had the unforeseen effect of promoting manufacturing in the region.

Reform Movements Making Connections: Reform Movements

Antebellum reform featured a number of voluntary organizations. Inspired by the Second Great Awakening, many reformers strove to eradicate sin from American society. The reform impulse did not vanish from American life. Populists, Progressives, New Dealers, and advocates of the Great Society all sponsored programs designed to address social problems. The Progressives focused on the consequences of industrialization, urbanization, and immigration. They wanted the government to play an active role in solving social problems and improving life.

Turning Points In History: The Missouri Compromise "A Fire Bell In The Night"

Before the controversy many Southern leaders acknowledged slavery was a necessary evil. But a new generation of Southern leaders increasingly began to defend slavery as a positive good. Many in the North began to fear that the institution posed a threat to free labor and industrial expansion. A small but vocal group of critics also began to question the morality of slavery. The Missouri Compromise defused the crisis over slavery. The debate foreshadowed the controversies in the 1840s and 1850s. The struggle made "the North" and "the South" as rival political sections. An alarmed Thomas Jefferson sensed the future peril when he wrote, "This momentous question, like a fire bell in the night, awakened and filled me with terror."

Turning Points In History: The Second Great Awakening The Burned-Over District

Central and western New York became known as the "Burned-Over District" because of the particularly fervent revivals that crisscrossed the region. The Burned-Over District was the birthplace of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints, or the Mormons. Joseph Smith provided the initial leadership that galvanized this new faith.

Revolutionary Changes In Industry Lowell Changes

Conditions at Lowell soon changed as a new generation of owners stressed efficiency and profit margins. In 1834 and 1836, the owners cut wages without reducing working hours. The women responded by going out on strike. They unsuccessfully petitioned the Massachusetts legislature to pass a law enacting a 10-hour workday. The strike convinced owners that the female workers were too troublesome. Factory owners increasingly hired impoverished Irish immigrants who were pouring into Massachusetts.

Aspects Of Life Among Slaves In The Old South The Domestic Slave Trade

Congress outlawed the African slave trade in 1808. The cotton plantations in the black belt caused a change in slavery. Between 1800 and 1860, planters sold 1M slaves to planters in the Deep South. The domestic slave trade uprooted families. Despite separation and the living conditions, slaves maintained kinship networks while creating an African American culture. Religion played an important role.

The Cotton Kingdom Understanding Causation: The Impact Of The Cotton Economy

Cotton altered the South's attitude toward slavery. As the South became committed to a cotton economy, it became committed to slavery. Of the slaves in agriculture in 1850, 75% worked at cotton production. Slavery discouraged immigrants from moving to the South. In 1860 just 4.4 percent of the Southern population was foreign-born. Meanwhile, over 3 million immigrants went to the east. As the South were devoted to cotton, they lagged behind in manufacturing. While Northern factories produced goods, Southern farmers purchased goods under a system keeping them in debt. The South's commitment to cotton slowed urban growth. With the exception of New Orleans and Charleston, the South had few urban centers. Most Southerners lived on farms and plantations. The South's reliance upon cotton and slaves and its slow rate of urbanization removed it from the innovations in the North and West. The South became committed to preserving its regional identity.

Revolutionary Changes In Immigration Practices Making Comparisons: Irish And German Immigration The Irish

Desperate conditions in Ireland made immigration inevitable. In 1845, a blight destroyed three potato crops. One million Irish died from starvation and disease, while 1 million immigrated to America. Most Irish immigrants settled in Northeastern port cities. By 1860, the Irish comprised over one-third of the population of New York City and Boston. Most Irish immigrants were forced to work in the lowest-paying, demanding jobs. The percentage of Irish workers employed in the Lowell mills jumped from 8 percent in 1845 to 50 percent in 1860. Irish voters supported the Democrats as the party of the "common man." Irish bosses soon played a key role in the formation of big city political machines. The Irish played a major role in the growth of the Catholic Church in the United States. The number of Catholic churches in America increased from 700 in 1840 to over 2,500 in 1860.

Reform Movements Educational Reform

Horace Mann sponsored reforms in Massachusetts including a longer school year, high pay for teachers, and a large public school system. Mann is called the "Father of the Common School Movement." Emma Willard was an early advocate of women's education. She founded Troy Female Seminary, America's first woman's school of higher education. America's public school children learned about literature from textbooks called McGuffey Readers. The books featured stories illustrating the virtues of patriotism, hard work, and honesty.

Revolutionary Changes In Immigration Practices Context

Immigration to America slowed between the Revolutionary War and the War of 1812. The French Revolution and the prolonged war between Great Britain and France reduced immigration to a trickle. The first wave of immigration took place between 1820 and 1860. While many immigrants came from England and Scandinavia, most came from Ireland and Germany.

Turning Points In History: The Missouri Compromise "A Sacred Pact"

In 1819, Missouri applied to be a slave state. The Northern controlled House of Representatives passed the Tallmadge Amendment, prohibiting slaves into Missouri and the emancipation of slaves in Missouri. Southerners believed the Amendment threatened the plantation system while implying an attack on them. Although the Senate rejected the Amendment, the issue of slavery shattered the Era of Good Feelings. Henry Clay admitted Missouri as a slave state and Maine as a free state. The Missouri Compromise prohibited slavery in the remaining portion of the Louisiana Purchase. The line was "a sacred pact."

The Rise Of The Whigs The Election Of 1836

In 1836, the Democratic convention nominated Jackson's loyal Vice President, Martin Van Buren, for the presidency. The Whigs did not hold a convention. Instead, they ran three candidates, hoping to throw the election into the House of Representatives. The strategy failed as Van Buren won a solid electoral victory.

James Monroe And The Era Of Good Feelings The Monroe Doctrine

In his final message to Congress on December 2, 1823, Monroe announced a new American foreign policy toward Latin America. Monroe stated that as the protector of republican institutions, America would not tolerate the creation of new colonies in the Western Hemisphere. Monroe demanded European powers avoid internal affairs. In return, Monroe promised that the United States would not interfere with any established European colonies in the Western Hemisphere or in the internal affairs of any European nation. The Monroe Doctrine had little effect at the time. The European powers refrained from interfering in the New World because of the power of British warships, not the eloquence of Monroe's words.

Women And The First Stirrings Of Reform The Seneca Falls Convention

In the 1830s and 1840s women dedicated themselves to the abolition of slavery. Led by Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott, a group of feminists realized they were victims of injustice. Stanton and Mott issued a call for a convention to meet in Seneca Falls, New York. On July 19, 1848, 300 delegates including Douglass met to conduct America's first convention devoted to women's rights. The convention issued a "Declaration of Sentiments and Resolutions." Written by Stanton, the Declaration declared, "We hold these truths to be self-evident that all men and women are created equal." The convention passed resolutions calling for greater rights. A debate erupted over a resolution calling for the extension of the suffrage to women. Douglass' speech about government swayed the delegates.

Reform Movements The Temperance Movement

In the early 1800s, America had over 14,000 distilleries producing 25 million gallons of alcoholic beverages each year. By 1830, Americans drank 5 gallons of alcohol per capita. The temperance movement's goal was to convince Americans to consume less alcohol. The American Society for the Promotion of Temperance soon. boasted temperance groups. The campaign worked.

Jackson And Native Americans The Indian Removal Act, 1830

In the late 1820s, 125,000 Native Americans lived east of the Mississippi River. Although many Americans felt respect and admiration for the Indians, covetous white settlers surrounded their ancestral lands. In 1830, Congress passed the Indian Removal Act providing for the exchange of Indian lands in the East for government lands in the newly-established Indian Territory in what is today Oklahoma.

Romanticism And American Culture From Deism To Romanticism

Jefferson, Franklin, and others were Deists. "Deism" is the belief God created the world and allowed it to operate through the laws of nature. These could be discovered by reason and expressed with math. Artists began to rebel against Deism. Feelings became the guiding spirit of Romantic painters and poets. The emphasis on emotion reinforced the Second Great Awakening's emphasis on feelings.

Revolutionary Changes In Communications The Telegraph

Led by Franklin, electricity fascinated scientists and inventors. Several inventors made telegraph systems using wires carrying low-voltage currents. Samuel F. B. Morse tapped out the first telegraph message. The telegraph allowed communications over vast distances. Telegraph poles ran alongside railroad tracks. The railroads carried passengers and freight; the telegraph carried news, both at high speeds.

White Society In The Old South Planters

Planters comprised just 4 percent of the South's adult white male population. This small but powerful group owned more than half of all the slaves and harvested most of the region's cotton and tobacco. Planters dominated Southern life. The image of a paternalistic planter who lived in a white-columned mansion came to embody a distinctive way of life that valued tradition, honor, and genteel manners.

Revolutionary Changes In Immigration Practices Making Comparisons: Irish And German Immigration The Germans

Political instability and economic unrest prompted over 1.5 million Germans to immigrate to America between 1830 and 1860. German immigrants typically settled in rural areas in the Midwest rather than in East Coast port cities. German immigrants were a diverse group that included political refugees and displaced farmers. Although the majority were Protestants, one-third were Catholics and a significant number were Jewish.

Turning Points In History: The Second Great Awakening "Moral Free Agents"

Puritans accepted the belief that original sin doomed humanity to a predestined membership. Preachers like Charles Grandison Finney emphasized a "moral free agent" who could chart their spiritual course. The Second Great Awakening freed Protestants from the Calvinist doctrine of humanity's depravity. Instead, God granted people free will. The Second Great Awakening inspired a belief in perfectionism.

Making Comparisons: Attitudes Toward Slavery In The Old South Slavery As A Positive Good

Slaveholders advanced an argument to justify what they called "our peculiar institution." The word "peculiar" referred to something distinctive or characteristic of the Southern way of life. First expressed by Calhoun, the "positive good" insisted slaves benefitted from a benign institution. They argued that well-cared-for slaves had lives as good as the lives of wage slaves in New England. Proslavery advocates pointed to citations in the Bible condoning slavery. They used "scientific" theories of their day to create a false image of blacks as inferior people who required paternal white guardianship. Planters warned that slavery was vital to the South's and to the nation's economy. They vowed to resist any attempt to interfere with their "peculiar institution."

Aspects Of Life Among Slaves In The Old South Resistance

Slaves tried to escape when they could. For example, in 1841, slaves being shipped from Norfolk, Virginia, to New Orleans forced the captain to sail to the Bahamas where Britain had abolished slavery in 1833. Slave revolts were infrequent. With the exception of Nat Turner in 1831, planters successfully suppressed rebellions. Many slaves retaliated by being slow, damaging equipment, and feigning illness.

James Monroe And The Era Of Good Feelings The American System

Sponsored by Henry Clay, the American System supported the national bank for stability, called for a tariff to raise revenue, and endorsed federal support for improvements to unite the country. Clay's American System was similar to Alexander Hamilton's economic vision. Both programs favored a strong federal government to strengthen the Union by promoting commerce and stimulating economic growth.

The Tariff Of Abominations And The Nullification Crisis The Tariff Of Abominations

Tariffs raised revenue and protected American industry from European competitors. The 1816 tariff averaged 25 percent of value of goods. In 1828, Congress passed a tariff with rates over 50 percent. The Southern states branded the law the "Tariff of Abominations." Planters said that while the Northeast flourished, the South had to sell its cotton in an unprotected market and buy goods at high rates.

James Monroe And The Era Of Good Feelings Judicial Nationalism

The Marshall Court continued to render landmark decisions that opposed states' rights and strengthened the power of the federal government. In McCulloch v. Maryland, the Court decided to establish the supremacy of federal laws. The Bank was constitutional by confirming the right of Congress to utilize its implied powers. In Gibbons v. Ogden, the Court declared that only Congress has the power to regulate commerce. The decision established the commerce clause as a key mechanism for the expansion of federal power.

Women And The First Stirrings Of Reform The Cult Of Domesticity

The cult of domesticity idealized women in their roles as wives and mothers. As a mother and spouse, the wife created a home that was a haven. The home became a refuge from the world rather. The cult of domesticity created an ideal that applied to upper/middle-class white families that could afford to maintain spheres for their work and home home life. There was a gap between the ideals of the cult of domesticity and the realities faced by women working in factories and on the frontier. Enslaved women were excluded from participating in the COD.

Revolutionary Changes In Industry Industrialization And Urbanization

The factory system quickly spread from the textile industry to the production of shoes and guns. The rise of commerce and industry spurred the growth of cities as the population of places jumped. New York City became the first city in America to boast a population of more than a million people.

White Society In The Old South Yeoman Farmers

The majority of white families in the antebellum South were independent yeoman farmers who owned few, if any, slaves. Although the South's numerical majority, yeoman farmers did not set the region's political and social tone. They deferred to the large planters since many aspired to become large planters themselves.

Revolutionary Changes In Communications Making Connections: Communications Technology

The telegraph had little impact on most lives. Owned by companies like the Western Union, the telegraph enabled railroads to create schedules for their trains and businesses to obtain news about price of goods. Each new technology had a greater impact than the one before. The telephone, radio, and television all created a flow of voices and images around the world.

The Jefferson Presidency, 1801-1809 The Revolution Of 1800

Thomas Jefferson and James Madison organized and led the Democratic-Republican Party. Jefferson narrowly defeated John Adams in the election of 1800, thus ending the Federalist decade. The election of 1800 is often called "the Revolution of 1800" because there was a peaceful transfer of political power from the defeated Federalists to the victorious Democratic-Republicans. In his inaugural address, Jefferson stressed that the "essential principles" of American government were above party politics. Striking a conciliatory tone, he reminded his fellow countrymen, "We are all Republicans; we are all Federalists." The Democratic-Republicans dominated the First Party Era as Jefferson and his fellow Virginians, James Madison and James Monroe, won six consecutive presidential elections. The Federalists disappeared on the national level in 1816.

Revolutionary Changes In Communications Context

Throughout history messages had been limited by how fast messengers could travel. It took riders on horseback a week to deliver news of Washington's death in Arlington, Virginia, to New York City. Canals, steamboats, and railroads shortened travel times enabling news to travel quicker. For example, the Erie Canal reduced travel times from New York City to Ohio from 2 to 3 weeks to just one week.

The Rise Of The Whigs Making Connections: The Impact Of Hard Times

Van Buren's campaign benefitted from an economic boom during Jackson's second term. But two months after, a drop in cotton price/failure of wheat created a panic. Many pet banks failed. The financial panic settled into a deep depression as wages fell and unemployment rose. The economic depression doomed Van Buren's presidency. Hoover's campaign benefitted from an economic boom. Six months after, a collapse of prices created a panic. Banks closed, businesses failed, and unemployment soared.

The Cotton Kingdom The Cotton Gin

During the late 1700s, technological developments revolutionized the textile industry in Britain. The inventions enabled factories to turn cotton into a cloth. These advances created a demand for cotton. Southern farms could not meet the demand for cotton because of the difficulty of separating the cotton from its seeds. It required a full day for one laborer to remove the seeds from a pound of cotton. In 1793, Eli Whitney invented a machine that could perform this tedious chore. His cotton engine or "gin" enabled slaves to clean fifty times as much cotton as could be done by hand. The cotton gin revolutionized the Southern economy. Cotton production soared from 9,000 bales in 1791 to 4 million in 1860. Keep in mind, each bale contained 500 pounds of cotton!

The Crusade Against Slavery William Lloyd Garrison: "I Will Be Heard"

William Lloyd Garrison was a reformer who supported the ACS. But contact with slavery in Baltimore transformed him into an abolitionist who believed slavery was cruel, brutal, and sinful. Garrison moved to Boston and began The Liberator. Garrison published a letter denouncing slave owners as oppressors who defended an institution that contradicted the truth that all men are created equal. Garrison's call for emancipation helped galvanize anti-slavery sentiment in the Northeast., Garrison co-founded the American Anti-Slavery Society. Within five years, it claimed to have 250,000 members.

Women And The First Stirrings Of Reform Context

Women could not vote, hold office, or serve on juries. In addition, married women were denied rights to own and manage property, to form contracts, and to exercise legal control over children. As the Industrial Revolution gained momentum, it encouraged a division. While men held jobs in a competitive market economy, the home became the appropriate place or "sphere" for a woman.

Revolutionary Changes In Commerce Understanding Causation: The Impact Of The Market Revolution Impact On The South

Extended a plantation system based upon cotton and slavery southwestward into Alabama, Mississippi, and Louisiana. Slowed the pace of urbanization and industrialization. Created an economy dominated by wealthy planters.

The Rise Of The Whigs The Log Cabin Campaign Of 1840

Feeling that they had no other choice, the Democrats once again turned to Van Buren as their presidential standard bearer. The Whigs nominated William Henry Harrison. They emphasized his victory over the Indians in the Battle of Tippecanoe and blamed "Van Ruin" for the economy. Harrison and his running mate, John Tyler, won 234 electoral votes against 40 for Van Buren. Harrison's election marked a triumph for a new democratic style of running political campaigns. The Whigs adopted the log cabin and hard cider as campaign symbols to connect with the common man. Many historians consider the "log cabin and hard cider" campaign of 1840 the first "modern" election because both parties actively campaigned among the voting masses.

The Crusade Against Slavery The American Colonization Society

Founded in 1817, the American Colonization Society (ACS) advocated the abolition of slavery and returning freed slaves to Africa. Many were racist and believed blacks could not be integrated into society. The ACS was instrumental in founding the colony of Liberia. The Society's approach could never resolve slavery. The ACS helped 12,000 freed blacks migrate to Liberia. There were 4 million slaves in the South.

The Jefferson Presidency, 1801-1809 Jeffersonian Democracy

Jefferson replaced formal ceremonies that characterized the Federalist administration with what he called "republican simplicity." White House guests were encouraged to shake hands with the president rather than bowing as had been the Federalist practice. In his inaugural address, Jefferson promised "a wise and frugal government." Believing that the government governs best that governs least, Jefferson cut the budget, fired federal tax collectors, eliminated the tax on whiskey, and reduced the army and the navy. Jefferson wanted America to become an agrarian republic. He strongly believed that yeoman farmers exemplified virtue and independence from the corrupting influences of cities, bankers, financiers, and industrialists.

The Tariff Of Abominations And The Nullification Crisis Jackson And The Force Bill

Inspired by Calhoun, the South Carolina legislature adopted an ordinance of nullification repudiating the Tariff of Abominations. Jackson denounced nullification as an absurdity and warned South Carolina that disunion is treason. He demanded Congress pass a Force Bill authorizing him to use an army to enforce laws in South Carolina. As tensions mounted, Henry Clay proposed a new compromise tariff that would gradually reduce duties over the next ten years. The compromise worked and South Carolina rescinded its nullification ordinance.

Revolutionary Changes In Industry The Lowell Experiment

Inspired by the Waltham mill, Francis Lowell built a factory in a village renamed Lowell. Designed to avoid the conditions in English mill towns, Lowell featured clean redbrick factories and dormitories. Lowell hired New England farm women to work in his town. The women lived in boarding houses under the eyes of older women who enforced mandatory church attendance and strict evening curfews. The Lowell experiment worked well at first. By the early 1830s, young unmarried women from New England comprised the majority of the workers in Massachusetts' textile mills.

Jackson And Native Americans The Trail Of Tears

Jackson defied the Court's decision and pushed forward with his policy of moving the remaining eastern tribes west of the Mississippi. In 1838, 7,000 troops led by General Winfield Scott began the evacuation of Cherokee from their homes. About 1/4 of Cherokees died from disease and exhaustion on a route known as the Trail of Tears.

Revolutionary Changes In Commerce Understanding Causation: The Impact Of The Market Revolution Impact On The Northeast

Accelerated the rate of industrial growth beginning with textile mills in New England. Created a close trading relationship between the Northeast and the Midwest. Created a wealthy class of urban capitalists.

The Jefferson Presidency, 1801-1809 Marbury v. Madison

As Chief Justice of the Supreme Court from 1801 to 1835, John Marshall issued a number of decisions that strengthened the power of the federal government, upheld the supremacy of federal law over state legislatures, and promoted business enterprise. Marshall established the principle of judicial review in the famous case of Marbury v. Madison . Judicial review gave the Supreme Court the power to declare unconstitutional a governmental action found to violate some provision of the Constitution.

Revolutionary Changes In Agriculture Context

As ambitious planters and their slaves poured into the Deep South, a second wave of settlers pushed into the Ohio Valley and the Great Lakes region. In 1800, just 387,000 settlers lived in the trans-Allegheny region. Twenty years later the number swelled to 2.4 million.

The Key Tenets Of Jacksonian Democracy Opposition To Privileged Elites

As champions of the common man, the Jacksonians despised the special privileges of the Eastern elites. Special privileges were anathema to a government dedicated to promoting and protecting the common man.

White Society In The Old South Poor Whites

As many as 25 to 40 percent of white Southerners were laborers who owned no land and no slaves. These "poor whites" lived in the backwoods where they scratched out a meager living doing odd jobs. Although they did not own slaves and resented the planters, poor whites supported the social structure. The existence of slavery enabled them to feel power over blacks. They shared a sense of white supremacy.

Revolutionary Changes In Transportation Understanding Causation: The Impact Of The Erie Canal

Because of the difficulties, Midwestern farmers used a route that took their produce down the Ohio and Mississippi rivers to New Orleans where it was then loaded onto ships headed for East Coast port cities. DeWitt Clinton, governor of New York, had a plan that reshaped commerce. Crews began the construction of a canal connecting Albany with Buffalo. When it opened, the Erie Canal created an all-water route that cut travel time from NYC to Buffalo from 20 days to 6. Barges cut the cost of moving freight between these two cities from $100.00 to $5.00. The Erie Canal enabled farmers in New York and Ohio to send their wheat to New York harbor. These farmers could now import clocks, mattresses, etc. at a fraction of their former cost. The Erie Canal transformed New York City into America's foremost commercial center. It tightened economic bonds between the North and Northwest. The Erie Canal inspired a mania for building canals.

The Tariff Of Abominations And The Nullification Crisis Making Connections: Nullification And Secession

Calhoun did not advocate secession. Instead, he saw nullification as a viable option that would prevent disunion. Jackson sensed he had not gone far in suppressing nullification. On his deathbed he regretted that he had not executed Calhoun for treason. Jackson's intuition was prescient. During the 1850s, South Carolina "fire eaters" abandoned nullification and increasingly embraced the doctrine of secession as the best way to remedy their grievances.

The Cotton Kingdom King Cotton

Cotton quickly became America's most valuable cash crop. By the 1840s, cotton production accounted for over half the value of all American exports. The cultivation of tobacco depleted soil in Chesapeake states. Planters found new land in a region from Georgia to Louisiana. Known as the black belt, this region produced two-thirds of the cotton.

The Bank War Consequences

Jackson's war against the bank played a role in the creation of the two-party system. Now known as the Democrats, Jackson's party opposed the bank. In contrast, a new party, the Whigs, supported the bank. Without the bank's policies, state-chartered banks flourished. Often poorly managed, these "pet banks" flooded the country with paper currency, promoting a speculative bubble in western lands.

Reform Movements The Mentally Ill

Dorothea Dix launched a crusade to create special hospitals for the mentally ill. An indefatigable champion of reform, Dix travelled more than 10,000 miles and visited almost every state. Dix and other reformers created the first generation of American mental asylums. By the 1850s there were special hospitals in 28 states.

The Crusade Against Slavery Frederick Douglass: "I Stole This Head"

Douglass escaped from bondage. Recruited by William Lloyd Garrison, Douglass became an orator who captivated anti-slavery audiences with his authentic stories about the horrors of slavery. Douglass was a writer. He published his Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass describing his fight with a slave driver and escape to the North. He founded the North Star, an anti-slavery newspaper. Douglass's eloquent speeches and writings played an important role in persuading a growing number of Northerners that slavery was evil and that its further spread into the western lands should be halted.

Revolutionary Changes In Commerce The Market Revolution

During the Era of Good Feelings, most Americans bought or bartered goods from friends and neighbors in a local economy. The new roads and canals enabled merchants, farmers, and planters to reach consumers. The market revolution refers to the creation of an economy that linked regions/people across America.

Making Comparisons: Attitudes Toward Slavery In The Old South Slavery As A Necessary Evil

During the late 1700s, many Southern leaders referred to slavery as a "necessary evil" inherited from their colonial past. Leading Southern statesmen such as Thomas Jefferson and James Monroe advocated a policy of gradually emancipating slaves while at the same time compensating their owners.

Romanticism And American Culture The Hudson River School

The Hudson River School was America's first native school of art. Its members concentrated on painting landscapes that portrayed America's natural beauty. For two famous examples of Hudson River School art, see The Oxbow by Thomas Cole and The Rocky Mountains, Lander's Peak by Albert Bierstadt.

The Key Tenets Of Jacksonian Democracy Expanded Suffrage

The Jacksonians enthusiastically supported the expansion of White male suffrage. During the Federalist Era, caucuses of party leaders selected candidates. During the Jackson administration, nominating conventions replaced legislative caucuses.

The Key Tenets Of Jacksonian Democracy Belief In The Common Man

The Jacksonians had great respect for the common sense and abilities of the common man. Admirers saw Jackson as a common man who represented the interests of the people.

The Key Tenets Of Jacksonian Democracy Patronage

The Jacksonians supported patronage—the policy of rewarding political supporters with government positions. Many Jacksonians believed that victorious candidates had a duty to reward their supporters and punish their opponents.

Revolutionary Changes In Transportation Steamboats

The Ohio River was a route to Mississippi and New Orleans. While going there was straightforward, returning was not. Most people chose to ride back up the Mississippi on safe but slow-moving keelboats. In 1807, Robert Fulton proved steam could propel a ship. His steamship Clermont puffed up the Hudson River from NYC to Albany. Steamboats became a common sight in harbors. Steamboats revolutionized trade. The steamboat New Orleans went up the Mississippi to Natchez. By the 1840s, more than 1K steamboats were carrying freight on the Mississippi and its tributaries. New Orleans and St. Louis became great ports while Pittsburgh, Cincinnati, and Louisville became major cities along the Ohio River.

James Monroe And The Era Of Good Feelings Making Connections: U.S. Policy Toward Latin America

Monroe's declaration was a sign of America's self-confidence. First called the Monroe Doctrine in 1852, the principles became the cornerstone of American foreign policy in the Western Hemisphere. Roosevelt worried about European intervention in Latin America. Roosevelt updated the Monroe Doctrine saying wrongdoings in Central America may force America to exercise a foreign police power. Known as the Roosevelt Corollary, this changed the Monroe Doctrine from a statement against the intervention of European powers to a justification of the American right to regulate affairs in the Caribbean.

Revolutionary Changes In Agriculture Technological Advances

Soil awaited farmers. They discovered that iron plows were unable to clear the soil. John Deere's new plow solved the problem. Durable, Deere's plow enabled farmers to efficiently till their fields. Farmers found their land supported wheat crops. They used sickles that limited them to harvesting a half-acre a day. Cyrus McCormick invented a horse-drawn reaper that could harvest twelve acres a day. Like the cotton gin, the reaper revolutionized agriculture. Farmers could harvest and sell their crop to East Coast consumers. But first they had to get their produce to these distant markets.

Jackson And Native Americans Worcester v. Georgia, 1832

The Cherokee legally challenged President Jackson's removal order. In Worcester v. Georgia , Chief Justice John Marshall upheld the Cherokee Nation's legal right to their land. The Supreme Court is dependent upon the President to enforce decisions. Jackson harbored an animosity toward Natives. He responded to the decision by saying Marshall made his decision, let him enforce it.

Making Comparisons: The Whigs And The Democrats The Democrats

The Democrats supported states' rights, a strict construction of the Constitution, Indian removal, and western expansion. The Democrats opposed the Second National Bank and federal support for Clay's American System. Key leaders included Jackson and Van Buren. The Democrats drew their support from Irish immigrants, farmers in the North and Midwest, planters in the South, workers in cities, and the "common man."

The End Of The Era Of Good Feelings The Election Of 1824

The Era of Good Feelings was brief. The debate over slavery and return of political factions within the Democratic-Republican Party eroded that consensus on national goals was the hallmark of Monroe. Four candidates vied for the presidency. Jackson received more votes than Adams, Crawford, and Clay. Since Jackson did not receive electoral votes, the election went to the House of Representatives. As Speaker of the House, Clay chose the president. Clay despised Jackson. Clay and Adams were nationalists who supported the American System. Clay's influence prevailed, Adams won the presidency. Shortly after winning, Adams named Clay his new Secretary of State. Jackson's supporters accused them of a "corrupt bargain" that thwarted the will of the people by cheating Jackson out of the presidency.

The Rise Of Jackson The Election Of 1828

The First Party System provided stability by allowing transfers of power from one set to another. Because of property qualifications, very few white males—and no women, Africans, or Native Americans—actually voted. In the 1820s, state legislatures eliminated qualifications enabling more white males to vote. Led by Martin Van Buren, Jackson's supporters launched campaigning that included parades, rallies, and kissing babies. The 1828 presidential election featured a rematch between Jackson and Adams. Jackson swept the South and West and crushed Adams. His victory began a new era in American history.

The Bank War Jackson's Veto

The Second Bank of the United States included an office in Philadelphia and 25 branches in cities. Jackson assailed the bank as a "monster" that concentrated advantages in the hands of a few. The bank's charter was scheduled to expire in 1836. In 1832, Jackson vetoed a bill that would have rechartered it. He denounced the bank as a vehicle used by the rich and powerful.

Turning Points In History: The Second Great Awakening Importance Of The Second Great Awakening

The Second Great Awakening was a movement that altered the religious landscape of America. Congregationalists in New England and Anglicans in Virginia dominated life in colonial America. During the Second Great Awakening these faiths receded. Energized by passionate itinerant ministers, membership in the Baptist and Methodist churches surged. The Second Great Awakening witnessed the birth of a black church in America. Most Africans gravitated to the Baptist and Methodist faiths. White and black Baptists/Methodists were two-thirds of Protestants. The Awakening inspired converts to believe in improving their lives. It was a short step from the Second Great Awakening's emphasis upon spiritual progress to a belief in social progress. The belief Christians have an obligation to improve society generated reform movements. Many women found they could champion social change. Reformers improved education mentally ill, alcohol, slavery.

Women And The First Stirrings Of Reform Making Connections: Feminism

The Seneca Falls Convention started the women's rights movement. The resolutions at Seneca Falls formed first-wave feminism. The agenda was fulfilled when Congress gave women the right to vote. A second wave of feminism began in the United States in the 1960s. Sparked by Betty Friedan's book The Feminist Mystique, the movement focused on discrimination, violence, and reproductive rights.

The Rise Of The Whigs "King Andrew The First"

The South Carolina nullification crisis, the Indian Removal Act, and the battle over the national bank all provoked contentious national disputes. Political opponents led by Clay hated Jackson. They derisively called him "King Andrew the First" pointing to his dubious distinction of using the veto power more than all the previous presidents combined. Jackson's rival left the Democratic Party and drew together in the newly-formed

Romanticism And American Culture Transcendentalism

The Transcendentalists were a small group of writers and thinkers in Boston. The leading Transcendentalists included Ralph Waldo Emerson, Henry David Thoreau, and Margaret Fuller. The Transcendentalists believed that God lived within each individual. Each person possessed an inner soul or spirit and thus a capacity to find spiritual truth. The Transcendentalists believed truth could be found in nature. They viewed communion with nature as an experience that enlightened them. Thoreau turned away from "civilized" life and lived in a cabin.

Understanding Causation: The War Of 1812 Consequences

The War of 1812 restored American pride and reaffirmed the young republic's independence. It also ensured Canada's independence from the United States. The British defeat dealt a severe blow to Indians living in the Midwest by depriving them of their strongest ally. On January 8, 1815, American forces led by General Andrew Jackson won a decisive battle defending New Orleans from British attack. The victory transformed Jackson into a national hero. While Jackson was preparing to defend New Orleans, Federalists were meeting in Connecticut to discuss ways of limiting the federal government. The Hartford made its leaders appear to be unpatriotic. The War of 1812 interrupted trade thus contributing to the process of industrialization begun by the Embargo Act of 1807. The War of 1812 intensified nationalism. A newly "federalized" President Madison now supported re-chartering the National Bank and increasing tariffs to protect America's industries from foreign competition.

Making Comparisons: The Whigs And The Democrats The Whigs

The Whigs supported a strong federal government, a loose construction of the Constitution, the Second National Bank, and Clay's American System. The Whigs opposed Andrew Jackson, the spoils system, Indian removal, and western expansion. Key leaders included Henry Clay and Daniel Webster. The Whigs drew their greatest support from small businessmen, professionals, manufacturers, and some Southern planters.

Revolutionary Changes In Industry The Beginning Of The Factory System

The cotton gin, reaper, and use of steamships and railroads created an agricultural revolution in the South and Midwest. New technologies spurred the rise of the factory system in New England. In 1790, Moses Brown built America's first textile mill in Rhode Island. The pace of textile production remained slow until the Embargo Act of 1807 and the War of 1812 stimulated domestic production. In 1813, Francis Cabot Lowell and the Boston Associates constructed a factory in Massachusetts. The new mill used spinning machines and looms to produce cloth. Investors earned a 20 percent profit.

Revolutionary Changes In Transportation Roads

The government began to finance construction of the National Road in 1811. When finally completed in 1837, the 620-mile road stretched from western Maryland to Vandalia in Illinois. Although an improvement, land travel was difficult. Wagons proved to be an inefficient and expensive way to transport wheat, corn, and other products across the mountains.

Turning Points In History: The Second Great Awakening Context

The religious fervor from the First Great Awakening declined as colonial rebellion led to revolution and the eventual ratification and inauguration of the new Constitution dominated American public life. During the 1800s, a wave of religious feeling called the Second Great Awakening swept across the country. Thousands attended meetings featuring appeals to faith and conversion by preachers.

Turning Points In History: The Missouri Compromise Context

The spirit of nationalism brought Americans together. But a debate over the extension of slavery into the Louisiana Territory sparked a divisive spirit of sectionalism. When Washington took office, the North and South were equa. However, the North outgained the South in population. By 1819, the North had 105 representatives compared with just 81 representatives for the South. While the North controlled a solid majority of votes in the House, the Senate was evenly but precariously balanced between 11 free and 11 slave states.

Revolutionary Changes In Transportation Railroads

The use of steam power also revolutionized land travel. During the 1820s, British engineers successfully built a railroad line connecting the port of Liverpool with the industrial city of Manchester. The Liverpool-Manchester Railway inspired business leaders in Baltimore to finance a pioneering railroad line. By 1832, the Baltimore and Ohio (B&O) Railroad extended seventy-two miles west of Baltimore. The B&O demonstrated that railroads were a cheaper means of moving passengers and freight than canals. As "railroad fever" swept the country, new lines connected major cities especially across the North. The impact of the railroad can be seen in the presidency of Jackson. Jackson traveled to his inauguration in 1829 in a horse-drawn carriage. Eight years later he left Washington on a train.

Revolutionary Changes In Immigration Practices Making Connections: Nativism

The wave of Irish immigration sparked a nativist reaction. Employers posted "No Irish Need Apply" signs, while Protestant leaders complained that Iris schools would undermine support for education. Convinced Irish wouldn't assimilate, nativists formed groups to restrict immigration. A party known as the Know-Nothings demanded laws that would allow only native-born Americans to hold political office. The Know-Nothings marked the beginning of a pattern of opposition to immigration. During the late 1890s and early 1900s, a wave of "New Immigrants" sparked a new outburst of nativism. Members of the Immigrant Restriction League believed the New Immigrants posed a threat to the American way of life. Opposition was so strong that in 1924 Congress passed a law cutting immigration.

The Rise Of Jackson Context

To his legion of admirers, Andrew Jackson provided an example of what an able and ambitious man born without privileges might become. Jackson was born to a family of poor Scotch-Irish immigrants living in North Carolina. Forced to make his own way in life, Jackson moved to Tennessee where he became a lawyer and a successful land speculator. Although he was a man of uncommon ability, Jackson nonetheless projected a common touch. He became Tennessee's first representative in Congress and also served the state in the Senate. Jackson won his acclaim as a military hero. He defeated the Creek Indians and British at the Battle of New Orleans. He earned the nickname "Old Hickory" because he seemed as tough as trees.

The Tariff Of Abominations And The Nullification Crisis John C. Calhoun And The Doctrine Of Nullification

Vice President John C. Calhoun anonymously responded to the Tariff of Abominations by writing the "South Carolina Exposition and Protest." Calhoun drew upon arguments from Jefferson and Madison in the Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions. Calhoun said that when a law exceeded the powers of Congress, a state could declare it null and void.

The Jefferson Presidency, 1801-1809 The Louisiana Purchase, 1803

Westerners depended upon the Mississippi River to ship their goods to New Orleans where they were reloaded aboard oceangoing vessels for shipment to the East Coast or to foreign ports. In 1803, the French leader, Napoleon Bonaparte, offered to sell the entire Louisiana Territory, including New Orleans, to the U.S. for just $15 million. Jefferson now faced a dilemma. He recognized that Napoleon's offer was too good to refuse. However, as a strict constructionist Jefferson worried that the Constitution did not give Congress the power to purchase new territory. Jefferson's advisors argued that the president's power to make treaties gave him the implied power to purchase territory. Fearing that Napoleon might change his mind, Jefferson relented and the Senate overwhelmingly approved the Louisiana Purchase. The Louisiana Purchase doubled the U.S. Jefferson believed it would make America an agrarian republic that would become an Empire of Liberty. The lands acquired in the Louisiana Purchase sparked a dispute over the spread of slavery into the western territories. Jefferson sponsored the Lewis and Clark expedition to explore the Louisiana Territory. The expedition mapped the Missouri and Columbia River, strengthened America's claim to the Oregon Territory, and increased knowledge about Northwest America.