Aristotle Exam Review
Happiness
" human good turns out to be activity of the soul in accordance with virtue, and if there are more than one virtues, in accordance with the best and most complete" (1098a17-19)
What are the three ways of life that people tend to choose in pursuit of the ultimate good?
A life of pleasure The political life The contemplative life.
What are the six types of circumstances that an act may have? How does this relate to the discussion of ignorance and responsibility?
A man that is ignorant will have these circumstances: he may be ignorant of 1. Who he is, 2. What he is doing, 3. What or whom he is acting on, 4. What he is doing it with, 5. To what end, and 6. How he is doing it. This related to ignorance because it is the man who is ignorant of these things. It relates to responsibility because, presumably, it is a man responsibility to knows his circumstances.
What kinds of actions do not have a mean? Give some examples of such actions.
Actions that are always wrong and wrong in themselves: murder, an adulterous affair.....
In this chapter, five excellences of the rational part of the soul are described. For each one, identify a definition from the text.
All are perfected through practice and are a state (unchanging): Scientific knowledge (epistēmē) Figures out constant truths by either deduction or induction Art (technē) - production of craft with respect to reason??? Practical wisdom (phronēsis) General help in pursuing the good life, things that are good or bad for man Intuitive reason (nous) Grasps first principles, relative to philosophic wisdom and an application of scientific knowledge Philosophic Wisdom (sophia) Combination of intuitive reason and scientific knowledge with a special object or the highest objects
What do pleasure and pain have to do with acquiring moral excellence or virtue?
An appropriate attitude towards both pleasure and pain is important in the process of acquiring a moral virtue
Why does Aristotle say that "we call neither a horse nor an ox nor any other animal happy"? (1099b33) Could we call a child happy, in his view?
Animals are not happy because they cannot rationalize. Anyone know about kids? - he says that kids cannot be happy because they cannot rationalize yet or something along the lines of that. Yes he says that children cannot be called happy because their age does not yet allow them to reason, thereby preventing them from truly accomplishing virtuous acts. (Remember, a "complete life" is what leads to a happy one)
Is the courageous man without fear? Explain.
Aristotle does say that a brave man is without fear. Then he goes one to say, "he will be called brave who is fearless in face of a noble death, and of all emergencies that involve death"
Why does a discussion of friendship belong as part of the Ethics?
Aristotle says that friendship "is a virtue or implies virtue." This is because the discussion of ethics directly relates to interaction with others. Since friendship is about interaction with others it makes sense that friendship would be a part of the Ethics.
Is happiness actually attainable during one's life? Why or why not?
Aristotle says that happiness is attainable in one's life, but it only truly occurs with a "multitude of great events." This includes bearing misfortunes with resignation, which is difficult to do. But if the conditions are right, and the man has lived a long life of virtuous actions, a man can rightfully be called "happy." (i'm not sure about this one but i think the answer is in chapter 10)
What does Aristotle say about acts done "by reason of ignorance"? Are such acts involuntary? Explain.
Aristotle says, "everything that is done by reason of ignorance is not voluntary; it is only what produces pain and repentance is is involuntary" (1110B18-19). So basically when someone acts with ignorance they are not completing a voluntary act because he did not know what he was doing. This is also where the drunk example is used: "for the man who is drunk or in a rage is thought to act as a result not of ignorance but of one of the causes mentioned, yet not knowingly but in ignorance"(1110B25-27)
Why does Aristotle suggest there must be some best or final good?
Aristotle suggests that there must be some best or final good that we desire for its own sake, or else our desire would go on to infinity, which would make our desire "empty and vain" (1094a20).
Can perfect friendship exist between bad persons? Between a good person and a bad person? Why is perfect friendship rare but long-lived?
Bad men can be friends with one another for the sake of utility or pleasure (1157a 17) A good person and a bad person may be friends for the sake of utility or pleasure as well "But for their own sake clearly only good med can be friends; for bad men do not delight in each other unless some advantage come of the relation." (1157a 19-21)
Why does Aristotle say that in ethics "we must be satisfied to indicate the truth with a rough and general sketch"? (1094b19)
Because what is best for one person may not necessarily be the best for someone else. Hence why political science is challenging in practice, because it tries to find what is best for the majority of the people
Distinguish between wish, deliberation, and choice, describing the different acts according to the objects with which they are concerned.
Choice is more closely bound to virtue and it seems to be voluntary but it is not the same thing because it is more widely extended. Acts done on the spur of the moment are voluntary but are not chosen. Choice is only common with rational creatures, so no animals have the power of choice. Appetite is contrary to choice because appetite relates to the pleasant and painful while choice does not. Choice seems to relate to things that are in our own power. Wish relate to things that could in no way be brought about by someone's own efforts. Wishes relate to ends while choice relates to the means- we wish to be healthy but we choose the acts that will make us healthy. We deliberate about things that are in our power and can be done, and these are in fact the only things that are left. We only consider what a sensible man would deliberate about subjects of deliberation. We deliberate about means and not ends- someone will assume that the end is going to happen no matter what and only deliberate on the means that will get them to that end.
With respect to what emotion or emotions is courage a mean? [Every virtue has a matter, some emotion or action that it is about.]
Courage is a mean to the feelings of confidence and of fear.
There are five qualities named in c. 8 that can easily be mistaken for courage. Describe them each in brief. How can we tell if it is really courage?
Courge of the citizen soldier- it is due to shame and desire of noble objects and avoidance of disgrace Experience with regard to particular facts- professional soldiers exhibit it in the dangers of war, they seem brave because they do not know the nature of the facts Passion- passion above all things is eager to rush on danger, brave men act for honor's sake and passion helps them, so they rush on the dangers without seeing the consequences Sanguine people- they are confident in danger because they have conquered often and against many foes, they think they are the strongest and can suffer nothing Ignorant of danger- they also appear brave, they have no self-reliance
Distinguish between the two subspecies of the specific kind of justice (justice in distribution and justice in rectification), as described in chapters 3 and 4.
Distributive- distribution of goods to community Each person receives what is proportional to his merit (good peeps receive more than bad ones) Corrective/justice in rectification- interaction between people, remedies unequal distribution of things
What does Aristotle mean by "equity" in chap. 10? Is there a conflict between equity and law? Between equity and justice?
Equity is: Doing what is just when the law fails (generally returned borrowed items), intention of the law but not letter of the law
What defines friendship in general for Aristotle? Is friendship better described as an emotion or a characteristic? Why?
Friendship to Aristotle implies virtue and he says that "without friends no one would choose to live, though he had all other goods." (1155a 5-6) Friendship is needed to preserve and guard prosperity (1155a 9-10) Helps the young to keep from error and helps the old by ministering to their needs and supplementing the activities that are failing from weakness (1155a 12-14) With friends, people are more able to think and to act (1155a 15-16)
What IS the ultimate good? This ultimate good provides the archē (first principle, beginning) in the science of ethics. Why would this be?
Happiness is the ultimate good. It is the beginning of the science of ethics because happiness is an activity of the rational part of the soul that comes about when virtue is exercised.
Carefully note Aristotle's definition of happiness, which he arrives at in chapter 7. Write this out in full and then explain it in your own words. (For the exam you will be expected to give this definition and be able to explain it.)
Human good turns out to be activity of the soul in accordance with virtue, and if there are more than one virtue, in accordance with the best and most complete." (1098a17-19) Basically happiness is the highest activity of the soul that results from the practice of virtue. The more virtues that are practiced, the happier someone is
Describe the difference between intellectual and moral virtue. Which one is ethics about?
Intellectual virtue owes both its birth and growth to teaching while moral virtue comes as a result of habit and is concerned with choice. Ethics is a branch of knowledge that deals with moral principles that govern a person's behaviors and so pertains to moral virtues
How are the moral virtues interconnected, and how are they all connected with practical wisdom?
Intellecutual virtues help us to know the right thing, while moral helps us to do the right thing. Intellectual virtues -> happiness, so end in self
Why is it so difficult to act well, according to Aristotle? What advice does he give at the end of Book II on how to acquire virtue?
It is difficult to act well because the mean is sometimes hard to find. Therefore aim for what is most contrary to the evil (choose the lesser evil), and you are less likely to go astray.
What does it mean to say that virtues "are preserved by the mean" (1104a26)? Give an example
It is kind of the average of the deficiency and of the excess. Some virtues are closer to one extreme than another
In chapter 1, Aristotle talks about two meanings of justice and injustice, a general and a specific. Describe these two meanings.
Justice is fairness, injustice is unfairness. Justice deals with interactions, while virtue deals with moral state
Chapter 7 describes another distinction in justice: explain this distinction between natural justice and legal justice.
Legal justice-rule of law, mostly based on natural justice Natural justice -virtuous disposition, same for all peeps
Your friends are going on a mountain-climbing trip and invite you. You decline the offer, even though you would really like to spend the time with them, because you have a terrible fear of heights.
Mixed action- voluntary (chosen)
Moral Virtue
Moral virtue comes as a result of habit and is concerned with choice.
Does a person with this virtue experience less pleasure than a self-indulgent person?
No, a self indulgent person only has no control over their pleasures while a self controlled person controls their pleasure while still participating in them.
What is the difference between an end that is final and one that is not final (called an instrumental end)? Give examples of each. [Note that we can also distinguish an ultimate good, which would be the final final good.]
Ok my best guess: an end that is final is something that doesn't carry further motives with it. Once you achieve happiness you're content and that's it. But for something like acquiring money you probably want to do something with it so it's not a final end, but rather the means to some other end. Someone double check this though. So I see in the first chapter, when the end of one action is a subcategory of another end to which other ends also tend, the subends are the instrumental ends and the final ends are the higher ends.
The description of the state of incontinence or moral weakness is an important development in ethical thought. How does this compare with Plato's view of why the soul does wrong?
Plato's view held that if a soul knew what was right, he would do it. Whereas Aristotle's view says that is possible to know the good but still not do it. This is called incontinence, or moral weakness.
What is the proper role of political science, according to Aristotle? What good does it seek?
Proper role is the study of the requirements for human happiness/perfection. The political art seeks happiness and human good. It seeks the overall good of the people, for people as individuals and as a community, even though at times things may not be perfect for everyone
What are the two extremes opposed to self-control? Why does Aristotle say that only one of them has a name?
Self indulgence and indifference are the two extremes concerning self control.
Aristotle returns here to the division of the human soul discussed in I.13. He further subdivides the rational element of the human soul into two parts. Describe each of these.
Soul has a rational and an irrational part. For more on the irrational part, check out the answer to one of the questions on chapter one. For the rational part: The rational part is divided into the contemplative part (which deals with science and math) and the calculative part (which deals with practical things. Correct reasoning in regards to the contemplative part leads to truth, while correct reasoning with regards to the calculative part leads to making the right choice.
What is the virtue of self-control (temperance)? Of what emotion or emotions is self-control a mean?
Temperance is a mean with regard to pleasures.
In chapter 2, he distinguishes between two forms of just action (according to the specific meaning of justice). What does he call these two forms?
That which is manifested in distributions of honour or money or the other things that fall divided along those who have a share in the constitution (voluntary transactions) That which plays a rectifying part in transaction between man and man (involuntary transactions)
Describe the deficiency and the excess with regard to courage.
The deficiency is rashness- they do not hold their ground against what is really terrible. Cowardice is the excess- for he fears both what he ought not and as he ought not, and he is lacking in confidence. (1115b30-35ish)
The final chapter of Book I gives an overview of Aristotle's psychology (teaching on the soul) insofar as it is necessary for ethics. Compare and contrast his division of the soul with Plato's tripartite division in the Republic.
The soul has an irrational and a rational part to it. The irrational part has the vegetative and the appetitive part (the part that determines our desire). The rational part of the soul holds the appetitive part in check. The vegetative element controls reproduction/fertility, nutrition/strength and health, and growth/proportionate size Appetitive element controls senses, passions, and seeing Rational element- theoretical/wisdom and science, productive/arts, and practical/prudence or practical wisdom
Does ignorance about what is good and evil ("ignorance in moral choice") make an act involuntary? Explain.
The term involuntary is not used when a person is ignorant of what is to his advantage (because it leads to wickedness) or when the blame is universal, but when it is ignorance of particulars. This means that a person will make an act involuntary when he is not aware of the circumstances of the action and the objects that that actions is concerned with.
There are two sorts of mixed acts, or two causes of acts being mixed: what are they?
The two causes of mixed actions are the moving principle and compulsory clauses. The moving principle is the principle that the parts of the body move in accordance with what is in a man that allows him to have the power to do so. Compulsory clauses are when someone is forced to do something.
Not every virtuous action indicates that the agent possesses virtue. (E.g. Just because Sue refuses a third piece of chocolate pie, we cannot automatically assume that she has the virtue of moderation.) Explain why this is the case. What else does a virtuous act need in order to be true virtue?
The virtuous act needs to be conscientious. That is, the person making the virtuous choice must know their choice to be virtuous. Second, they act virtuously for the sake of acting virtuously, and not for the sake of praise or anything else (Assuming I'm understanding this correctly). Third, the virtuous act is consistent with a person's behaviour -- they act virtuously all the time.
What kind of good is happiness, according to Aristotle, and why?
There are two kinds of goods: (1) Goods in themselves. (2) Goods in reference of the good. Since happiness is desired for its own sake, it is a good in itself. (1096b10-ff)
Chap. 11 asks whether one can be unjust to oneself. Why is Aristotle inclined to say 'no'? In what sense does he admit that one can be unjust to oneself (or in oneself)?
Things pertaining to justice are always between at least two people. Therefore, injustice also must be between at least two people for it to be actual injustice. Injustice is always at someone else's expense, and may include the doer's as well (ie suicide).
Describe the three kinds of friendship: the useful, the pleasurable, and the perfect.
Useful: it is useful if some good or pleasure comes out of it (1155b 18-20) Pleasurable: based on pleasant good Perfect: the friendship of men who are good and alike in virtue, they wish well for one another and are good in themselves (1156b 7-9) Their friendship lasts as long as they are good "Those who wish well to their friends for their sake are most truly friends" (1156b 9-10) As good as these friendships are, they are not common
Do virtue and vice depend on us (that is, are we responsible for our virtues and vices)? Explain.
Virtue and vice are in our power because "for where it is in our power to act it is also in our power not to act". So it is in our power to be virtuous or vicious.
Identify and explain the definition of virtue in general (1106a15-18) and of moral virtue in particular (1106b36-1107a3).
Virtue is not a feeling, it is a disposition nor is it a faculty. Feelings move us to act in a certain manner, but virtue is more of an inclination. And faculties are capacities for feelings
Why do we praise virtue but not happiness?
Virtue leads to happiness, but happiness does not lead to virtue. We honor happiness because it is a good in itself and divine. We praise virtue
You are at the Capp Bar about to take your first sip of coffee, when you glance down and notice a cockroach swimming in the frothy brown liquid. You throw the coffee out in disgust
Voluntary
How does Aristotle distinguish between voluntary acts, involuntary acts, and mixed acts? Give a definition and an example of each.
Voluntary actions are actions that have praise and blame bestowed, and are something that is chosen to be done. Involuntary actions take place under compulsion or they are owing to ignorance. Mixed actions are actions that abstractly involuntary in that no one would willing complete this action but do it under duress. These actions are more like voluntary actions.
Are we responsible for actions done in a state of ignorance, such as drunkenness?
Yes, "Indeed, we punish a man for his very ignorance, if he is thought responsible for the ignorance, as when penalties are doubled in the case of drunkenness for the moving principle is in the man himself, since he had the power of not getting drunk and his getting drunk was the cause of his ignorance."
Can unequal persons (e.g. a child and an adult) be friends? Explain.
Yes, a child and an adult can be friends Different inequalities differ in their friendship In unequal friendships, the love should be proportional to the inequality "The better should be more loved than he loves, and so should the more useful, and similarly in each of the other cases." (1158b 25-27)
Are we responsible for our state of character, in Aristotle's view? Explain.
Yes, because our state of character is defined by the habitual choices that we make, which we are responsible for. Unless, of course, we did not choose our state of character, such as in the case of brutishness (which would be an exception because it lacks reason).
Does Aristotle see a possibility of person moving from one state of character to another? In other words, can we change our character? If so, does he see limits to how much we can change? What would be the means of changing one's character?
Yes, one can change their state of character. There are limits though, the two on the end: superhuman virtue and brutishness. It is probably impossible to leave these states once one is in them. The most switching would most likely occur between the middle states, especially among continence and incontinence. The means of changing one's character would probably include changing one's desires first. Also external forces, or consequences, may affect one's move toward a different state of character.
This book describes six different states of character. Identify a definition or description of each (they are listed below in order from worst to best). Pay particular attention to the difference between vice and incontinence, and between continence and virtue.
a. Brutishness - Usually produced by madness or disease. A lack of rational capacity, Desiring what is unnatural as pleasant / Desiring what is not naturally pleasant to a human b. Vice - More culpable than brutishness, because it involves choice, brutishness does not. A viscous man will do much more evil than a brute. Does wrong, and "stands by his choice." No repentance. c. Incontinence - Moral weakness. Knows the good, but does not do it. Two kinds: impetuosity, and weakness. The person can repent (1150b30). 1.. impetuosity - fail to stand by the conclusions of their deliberations 2. Weakness - easily gives in, peer pressure d. Continence - Self-control (opposed to incontinence). Does the right thing, but sometimes has appetites/inclinations for the wrong thing. e. Virtue - (opposed to vice) Does the right thing, has inclinations toward the right thing, and experiences pleasure doing good. No bad appetites. f. Superhuman virtue - (opposed to brutishness) - a heroic and divine kind of nature that is beyond human capacity. Higher than virtue, an "excess of it." Incapable of anything less than virtue.
You are a supervisor at a department store. One of the people for whom you are responsible is discovered to have been taking home cash from the register. She pleads for another chance saying I didn't know it was wrong.
ignorance of a universal (not blamed)
As you leave work, you grab what you think is the black umbrella you brought with you in the morning. When you get hom eyou discover someone's name on it. You return the umbrella to work the next morning, find its owner, and apologize for having it.
involuntary- reason of ignorance