BE101: All four frameworks

Agile projects

An HR oriented project strategy roughly corresponding to adhocracy. The original 12 principles of agile project are characterized by focus on meeting customer needs, motivating individuals, self-organization, and HR-aligned communication.

PESTEL

An analysis of the environment dimension. Politicial, Economic, Social, Technological, Environmental and Legal dimensions.

PERT chart

A graphical planning model akin to the Gantt chart, but with different work-divided stages and the logical sequence that they should follow.

Gantt chart

A graphical planning model. Horizontal bars represent a specific activity and the length of the bars illustrate the planned duration of the activity.

Internal efficiency

A measure of the amount of resources needed to achieve something.

Effectiveness (external efficiency)

A measure of the amount of resources needed to produce something in demand.

Acker's theory of bureaucratic control and society's gender systems

Describes how the late-modern bureaucracy is male in its strucutre in the the sense that it supports careerists who can display unlimited loyalty to their positions, which are traits normatively assigned to males. These workers require a support function which has been passed on to women, who are not expected nor encouraged to make a career in capitalist bureaucracies. This model can help explain careerism in general, and also the inequality that women face in the capitalist society in which we live.

Matrix organization

Dividing labor on the basis of two or more principles. E.g. function and product.

Combination (knowledge transfer)

Explicit knowledge is combinated with other explicit knowledge. Patterns are discovered, and methods and so called best practice can be written down.

Interorganizational/network relationships

Interorganizational relationships should be organized according to if the environment is stable or turbulent - in short, according to how uncertain the situation is. More uncertainty corresponds to a network relationship where organizations invest in their relationship through horizontal control to reduce transaction costs, and less uncertainty corresponds to market exchanges where organizations reduce transactions costs by pressing prices (vertical control) on a market.

Decision rationality versus action rationality

Brunsson says that most of what actually happens in an organization isn't preceded by a decision-making process - it is action rational action. Formal decisions are usually preceded by lots of data, evaluation and talk which leads to paralysis and decisions not actually being implemented. Decision rationality however does lead to legitimacy, and action rationality leads to efficiency, so they are both needed. Brunsson therefore proposes a decoupling between these processes.

Outsourcing

Buying something from external actors. Williamson says that activities should be outsourced only when the transaction costs for doing so are lower than to produce internally. This occurs when purchases can be made from many homogenous external actors in a certain environment with symmetric information.

Internal and external commitment (Argyris)

The theory that internal commitment - defining your own tasks, behaviour, and goals - is more important than external commitment - having tasks, behaviour and goals imposed upon oneself.

Development phases of high-performing teams

Tuckman (and Wheelan) describes team development in four phases, from the first time the team works together until it becomes high-performing. • Forming (Dependency) • Storming (Conflict) • Norming (Confidence) • Performing (Productivity)

Mimetic isomorphism

When an organization imitates another.

Coercive isomorphism

When an organization responds to external demands regarding how it should be designed and structured.

Inverted isomorphism

When an organization tries to be as different as other organizations as possible. Common in fields seen as outdated and inefficient.

Normative isomorphism

When people with similar experiences and educations bring the same kinds of changes to different organizations.

Strategies to manage narcissistic leadership

• Complement the narcissistic leader with a trustworthy 'side-kick' • Increase their self-reflective ability through therapy

Strategies for managing conflict (Pfeffer)

• Create homogeneity and concensus on goals and means • Create a surplus of resources • Reduce and downplay the significance of a decision

An organization's five growth phases (Greiner)

1. Creativity 2. Direction 3. Delegation 4. Coordination 5. Collaboration Used to analyze size and age of an organization.

Bolman and Deal's effective power strategy

1. Map the political landscape 2. Design and customize the agenda 3. Build networks and alliances 4. Bargain and negotiate 5. Co-opt and manipulate

Lukes' three dimensions of power

A definition of different dimensions or faces of power. • Decision-making power • Power over the agenda • Power over thought (manipulation)

Nonaka and Takeuchi's model for the creation of organizational knowledge

A description of how individuals develop new knowledge and how it is spread to other individuals. This is especially important in businesses that rely heavily on the competence of their employees. Involves ontological and epistemological dimensions. The ontological dimension is four stages of knowledge transfer, and the epistemological dimension is the kind of knowledge is involved in the transfer, tacit or explicit. The four (looping) stages are: • Socialization → • Externalization → • Combination → • Internalization →

The network model

A dynamic view on transaction costs. Networks can be seen as a combination between market and hierarchy. Resources are always heterogenous and the bonds between these create a network - either between or within organizations/units. Bonds between resources are continually adjusted to make them fit better, increasing coordination in relationships between organizations and/or resources. Bonds are: • Technological • Administrative • Knowledge-related • Social • Legal In sum there are three ways to organize in relation to heterogenous resources where the one with lowest transaction cost is picked: • Market-like exchanges with external actors, no relationships • Long-term network relationships • Internal resource production

Job characteristics model (Hackman and Oldham)

A model describing how the ideal workplace should be designed. Contains five key characteristics: • Skill variety • Task identity • Task significance • Task autonomy • Task feedback Core job characteristics → Critical psychological states → Personal and work outcomes

Self-Determination Theory (SDT model)

A model describing motivation. Laid out as a scale from amotivation (the individual does not know why they perform a task) to intrinisic motivation (the task itself brings joy to the individual) where different degrees of external regulation constituting the 'steps' between the two extremes. As an individual moves along the continuum of the SDT model they have greater and greater perceived autonomy. This is achieved by having them internalize the external regulation - a process which require the three basic human needs of: • Competence • Autonomy • Relatedness

Schein's three levels of culture

A model for analyzing corporate culture. • Artifacts - observable but meaningless in themselves • Espoused values - Partially conscious, can be asked about • Basic assumptions - Taken for granted, invisible, subconscious

Maslow's hierarchy of needs

A model for how people prioritize different needs. Lower-level and more fundamental needs must be satisfied before attempting to satisfy higher-level needs. Ignoring a certain need can only be done if that need has been satisfied earlier in the individuals life.

The waterfall model

A model for structuring projects. Everything in the project should be analyzed, planned and decided before being implemented.

The stage model

A model for structuring projects. The project is divided into clear and formal stages or phases. If one planned goal is achieved, then work to achieve the next one can begin. Decision-making and implentation takes places gradually over time.

Pfeffer's model for conflict and power struggle

A model outlining the causes of conflict and the conditions that enable conflict to flare up into an open power struggle. Conflict in general is present primarily because of differences - in environment, background, goals, beliefs, etc. - and can only flare up into an open power struggle if (1) the issue is important enough, and (2) if power is distributed such that two or more actors can challenge each other.

Herzberg's two factor theory of motivation

A model similar to Maslow's hierarchy of needs, but specifically concerns motivation among employees. The model states that people first will strive to satisfy hygiene factors - external aspects of work - before striving to satisfy motivators - internal aspects of work. Hygiene factors, such as salary, job security and leadership style, will remove dissatisfaction, while motivators, such as responsibility, attention and personal development, will create positive feelings and commitment.

Burawoy's labor process theory

A model that is critial to the current organization of societies and companies. It outlines the power relationship between employees, managers and owners - specifically how the hierarchical top can manufacture consent to work hard among the workers. This is mainly done in three ways: • Performance-based individual compensation • An internal, flexible labor market • Collective bargaining Through these measures, vertical conflict between employees and managers is converted into horizontal conflict among employees - a condition which paradoxically and falsely is perceived as personal freedom.

Kanter's structural explanation for power and influence

A theory concerning what effects come from a group being skewed - when a different kind of person is in minority or alone (a token). A common example is women in largely male management groups. The three main effects are: • Attention towards the token • Greater contrast between the majority and the token • The token adapting through assimilation and distancing Can be used to analyze minorities and majorities in general, but the effects of the skewed group are not always the same - it depends on who is in the minority.

The managerial grid

A variant of the distinction between managers and leader according to Blake and Mouton. Leaders are ranked on a three-degree scale (low/medium/high) on two dimensions - concern for people and concern for production - giving five different leadership styles. • Indifferent - cares neither about people nor production. • Accommodating - cares about people. • Dictatorial - cares about production • Status quo - Middle of the road, with risk of failing both. • Ideal - high concern for both people and production.

Espoused theories versus theories-in-use

According to Argyris and Schön, people are not fully aware of their own theories of action nor of the extent that is affects their behavior. This results in an individual's espoused theory - what we say we believe/act according to - most often not coinciding with their theory-in-use - that which we actually act upon, but not necessarily say we act upon.

Weick's pulsating organizational model

According to Weick, an organization can be said to be oscillating between the ideals of the structural framework and the HR framework. He says that all groups will eventually develop a certain degree of work division and specialization, increasingly lowering the need for interaction between members. (Generic subjectivity.) This will create a more heterogenous group where contradicting interests are likely to be present. This creates a need for interacting and working together to prevent the group from disbanding. (Intersubjectivity.) The oscillation between these two dichotomic states is always ongoing - organizations are never stable or unchanging.

Charismatic leadership

According to the symbolic framework, charisma is not something inherent to a specific person, but arises due to people's relationship to each other. We always strive to reduce uncertainty by associating ourselves with 'we-groups' and contrasting ourselves against 'they-groups'. If we perceive a member of our 'we-group' to be more powerful and influential, it is likely that we seek support from this person - regardless if this person actually has more power or influence.

Espoused values

All kinds of explicit value statements. How we should be and should behave. Ideals, goals and strategies.

Artifacts

All kinds of objects that people have created and which our minds can perceive. Technology, art, machines, building, infrastructure, behaviours.

Mapping the political landscape

An effective method to analyze power in an organisation is mapping the political landscape. This is done by: 1. Listing actors and their interests 2. Determining how much power each actor has using power bases 3. Making a generic stakeholder matrix with all relevant actors and their power

Institutional environment (Scott)

An environment in which organizations are under normative pressure regarding how organizational processes should be designed. If an organization does not adapt to this cultural pressure it will lose legitimacy.

Technical environment (Scott)

An environment in which organizations are under pressure to produce goods and services as efficiently as possible due to known causal relationships regarding how to design efficient processes.

Institutional isomorphism

An explanation by Powell and DiMaggio regarding why organizations are so similar in a given 'organizational field'. Instituational isomorphism can increase the sucess, attractiveness, predictability and legitimacy of an organization solely due to the fact that the organization in question is similar to other organizations. Includes: • Coercive isomorphism • Mimetic isomorphism • Normative isomorphism • (Inverted isomorphism)

Williamson's transaction cost approach

An explanation for why some exchanges occur in a market (bought and sold) and others in hierarchies (within organization). Opportunistic and utility-maximizing humans, as we are, will choose the approach with low transaction costs. Many actors, homogenous market offerings and no informational disadvantage leads to market exchanges, while opposite conditions lead to hierarchical production of the given good/service.

Groupthink (Janis)

An explanation for why strong cultures can emerge very fast and why they can be detrimental. It details why fully competent groups can make completely insane and irrational decisions. Symptoms of groupthink are: • Overestimation of the group • Close-mindedness • Illusion of unanimity Groupthink is more likely to arise when the following is true: • High group cohesion • Structural shortcomings • Pressing external conditions

Model 1 and 2 communication

Argyris' model for different kinds of communication. Model 1 is ineffective and characterized by vertical control, perusasion and giving orders. The ideal Model 2 is more exploratory and collaborative, emphasizing horizontal coordination.

Rational and normative grounds for organizing

Barley and Kunda describes different managerial discourses where management, organization and leadership shift between expressing a rational and a normative ideology - rational meaning centralization and formalization, and normative meaning horizontal, decentralized and intrinsically motivated.

Single- and double-loop learning

Blindness to one's theories-in-use can lead to self-protecting and self-reinforcing learning - single-loop learning. The opposite and preferred kind is double-loop learning, which is challenging and perspective-breaking.

Lean production

Continuous improvement - identifying bottlenecks and creating flow. A more dynamic model than traditional structural models. Improvement takes places quickly and efficiently in the operational core. Flow efficiency is an important aspect.

Strives for plausibility over accuracy and precision (principle of sensemaking)

Creating a precise and accurate interpretation of every stimuli would completely overwhelm and paralyze us. When in doubt, it is important for us humans to shake of that doubt and move forward. To to this, our sensemaking strives go give a plausible interpretation rather than a completely precise one, enabling us to keep going. This is usually both effective and successful. Compare with action rationality.

Sub-cultures

Culture can exist on different aggregated levels. In any culture, it is likely that there are sub-cultures that share artifacts and even espoused values, but differ completely in the basic assumptions. This is often the case when companies merge. There are also cross-organizational cultures - management cultures, national cultures, professional cultures.

Internalization (knowledge transfer)

Employees have the possibility to use the explicit (and therefore always somehwat incomplete) knowledge they gained during their training in a practical situation. Through real-life, hands-on experience explicit knowledge is converted into tacit knowledge.

Socialization (knowledge transfer)

Employees make and share experiences, enabling them to create and transfer tacit knowledge among them. New hires can observe and imitate more experienced employees.

Foucault's theory of structuring and self-discipline

Foucault argues, like Weber, Michels and Acker, that the increased structuring of society imposes demand on the individual. However, he disagrees that power is exercised by certain groups superordinating themselves, but rather that power exists in the subject (ourselves) and that each individual disciplines themselves, no matter their 'outside' power. This disciplining occurs due to the increased amount of panopticon-like structures in our everyday life. All these measurements make us act in accordance to what is important to be evalutated in a positive and/or advantageous way. We create and reproduce these structures, and even want to participate in these evaluations due to the high-degree of self-discipline already internalized from a young age.

Traits of successful leaders (structural framework)

Generally said to be 'the right person in the right place'. Yukl's list of traits: • High energy level • Thinks the world can be controlled • Emotionally competent • Great self-confidence • Great integrity • Great need for power • Moderate need to belong

Differences between the HR and structural frameworks regarding explanations for efficiency

HR → Commitment Structural → Economies of scale

Situational leadership

Hersey and Blanchard's model for situational leadership prescribes different leadership styles for different situation, one of which is an ideal situation and corresponding leadership style. The model has two dimensions which vary according to the situation - directive behaviors and supportive behaviors. • Employees are motivated but have low competence→ telling/directing • Employees are not motivated and have some competence → selling/coaching • Employees are not motivated but are competent → participating/supporting • Employees are motivated and competent → delegating (the ideal situation)

The four operational states (Modig and Åhlström)

High or low flow efficiency (external) and resource efficiency (internal). • Desert (low flow, low resource) • Efficient ocean (high flow, low resource - adhocracy/simple structure) • Efficient islands (low flow, high resource - machine bureaucracy) • The perfect state (high flow, high resource)

Hofstede's model for comparing and describing culture

Hofstede provides six dimension to explain and compare cultures: • Power distance - relation between subordinates and powerful people. • Individualism versus collectivism - identifying with 'I' or 'we'. • Femininity versus masculinity - stereotypically feminine or masculine. • Uncertainty avoidance - comfortability with taking risk. • Long-term versus short-term orientation - how one associates with the future. • Indulgence versus restraint - how much room there is for fun.

System efficiency

How quickly and efficiently activites can be adjusted if/when demand changes.

IQ versus EQ

IQ is a measure of people's intelligence, but focusing only on cognitive, rational and logical aspects. Emotional intelligence (EQ) both complements and criticizes IQ, primarily concerning itself with basic emotional talent. These skills can be categorized as: • Self-awareness • Self-regulation • Social skills • Empathy • Motivation

Dynamic change projects

If one wants to achieve real change, a project should not be structured according to the ideals of the structural or HR frameworks. Instead, Weick's micro-sociological model and Brunsson's model for action rationality should be used. The most important steps are: • Define a project as extraordinary • Recruit gurus and less experienced members • Attract those who identify with the project • Groupthink is created • Focus on 'our project' will delimit and decouple

Enacting (principle of sensemaking)

It is not the case that sensemaking precedes action, or that sensemaking is a selection, filtering and interpretation of stimuli. Rather, sensemaking is a creative and enacting process where identities, stimuli and actions continuously are created. Stimuli are not 'out there', but created by sensemaking.

The wall of self-evidence

Language - words, texts, descriptions of the world - is never neutral, like a lot of other aspects of organizations and our life in general. By analyzing taken-for-granted descriptions and norms, hidden power and influence can be identified. Gustafsson describes this phenomenon as the wall of self-evidence - customs, solutions, problem descriptions and norms that are so natural, real and good we take them completely for granted. These kinds of norms can of course be good, since they reduce uncertainty about the world, but seen through a more pessimistic lens they also illustrate our subordination to language use and our blindness to the power therein, which is continually exercised against us. Even the most innocent use of language includes the exercising of power.

Structural leadership

Leaders can be identified by the position they have in the hierarchy of the organization since bureaucracies should be meritocracies. The structural leader makes rational decisions based on objective, formal, material and measureable facts.

Transformative leadership

Leadership that causes followers to want to achieve goals beyond their self-realization. This type of leadership is bold, visionary and ideological.

Effective communiation in management teams

Losada and Heapy complements Argyris' Model 1 and 2 communcation models with their own model which has three dimensions: • Degree of connectivity • Self-focus versus other-focus • Advocative versus investigative communcation style Focus on self/others was the most important dimension. High-performance teams were characterized by balancing the dimensions in terms of time spent.

Leadership theory X and Y

McGregor's model for leaders' assumptions and relationships with their subordinates. Theory X assumes that the employees is lazy and must be controlled and forced to do their job, either through rewards or punishment. Theory Y assumes that employees will shoulder any responsibility given to them, and that allowing them to self-actualize will enable them to perform. Both theories are believed to be self-fulfilling, meaning that if a leader has a given assumption about his employees, they will mould to fit that assumption.

Michels' theory of the iron law of oligarchy

Michels describes bureaucracy as a tool for a new ruling class - an oligarchy - which consists of the upper echelons of powerful organizations. This is due to the fact that as companies grow, the knowledge gap between upper and lower hierarchical levels grows. This unites and rectifies senior leaders and constitutes as form of knowledge monopoly. The ruling elite can thus collaborate and superordinate themselves instead of competing.

Challenging

One of Hansson's four pure competence strategies. Employees are actors in a competence-driven environment. The commitment and competence of employees are at the very core of the business. Strategy is not only based upon customer needs and market demand, but more on the competence of the employees and what potential benefit new and risky projects may entail.

Matching

One of Hansson's four pure competence strategies. Employees are actors in a customer-driven environment. Involves taking employees ambitions and competences into account as well as the needs of the customer.

Buying

One of Hansson's four pure competence strategies. Employees are recipients in a competence-driven environment. Involves recruiting employees to meet specific competence requirements, often temporarily. Competence is valued but successive learning is not.

Molding

One of Hansson's four pure competence strategies. Employees are recipients in a customer-driven environment. Employees are adapted to an already decided business strategy. Their competence and learning is governed by what is perceived as important for customers.

Adhocracy

One of Mintzberg's five structural configurations. Characterized by a clear lack of vertical coordination. In the pure adhocracy, there are no mangers, technostructures, or hierarchical levels. Coordination is achieved horizontally - employees decide what do to face-to-face, amongst themselves. The opposite of machine bureaucracy. A typical adhocratically structured activity is research and development.

Simple structure

One of Mintzberg's five structural configurations. Characterized by clear vertical coordination but very few hierarchical levels. A strong manager close to the operational core makes sure activites are coordinated and micro-manages day-to-day operations. Few or no formalized processes and no support structures and techostructure. Common in young companies run by the founders.

Machine bureaucracy

One of Mintzberg's five structural configurations. Characterized by maximized labor divison, vertical control and coordination, many hierarchical levels, a developed technostructure and many support functions. Closest to Weber's formal-rational bureaucracy. Maximizes economies of scale, predictability and repetition in a stable environment where core technology is relatively simple. A common example is a factory manufacturing standardized goods. The opposite of adhocracy.

Professional bureaucracy

One of Mintzberg's five structural configurations. Characterized by more decentralization than the machine bureaucracy in the face of more complex activities taking place. Labor is less specialized and vertically coordinated. Rather, coordination is achieved not by a developed technostructure but through the profession itself. Similar education and experience among employees facilitate coordination. An example is brain surgery, and hospitals overall.

Divisionalized form

One of Mintzberg's five structural configurations. Describes large organizations containting several different businesses or clearly defined divisions. These indivdual divisions can be strucutured according to different configurations. The technostructure and support functions in the divisionalized form constitute common business systems and centralized resources.

Generic subjectivity

One of the two states in Weick's pulsating organizational model. Characterized by: • Divison of labor • No direct interaction • Different knowledge, perspectives and interests

Intersubjectivity

One of the two states in Weick's pulsating organizational model. Characterized by: • Working together • Horizontal coordination • Face-to-face interaction • Shared knowledge, perspectives interests and ideas

Sensemaking

People are constantly trying to make sense of the world and are co-creators of the stimuli that create actions and responses. Stimuli isn't 'out there', but is something that the actor generates in interaction with their environment as they are trying to make sense of it. For an event to stimulate us it needs to be perceived as important, and sensemaking is that which makes it meaningful to us.

Projects in the symbolic framework

Projects, as organizations, do not exist according to the symbolic framework, they are made and enacted. This means that any activity can be called a project, which will affect the involved actors' sensemaking of the situation. All symbolic phenomena identified within an organization can also be found within a project. This means that projects, as any activity within an organization, can be both 'talk' and 'action'. Some projects may only exist with the purpose of creating legitimacy, not actual change. According to Brunsson (organizational hypocrisy and decoupling) and Weick (sensemaking) this is not a problem if legitimacy is created.

Neo-institutional theory of organization

Scott outlines a model which distinguishes between the two dimensions of technical efficiency and institutional legitimacy, both of which are needed (in different degrees) for all organizations.

Identity (principle of sensemaking)

Sensemaking is always based on the actors identity. If a person cannot create a meaningful identity, they cannot create a meaningful world either. That self-image/identity is always situational and may change depending on the environment. Keeping our identity intact is part of making sense of the world, which leads to us interpreting the environment in such a way that our identity is 'true' and fits in.

Based on cues (principle of sensemaking)

Sensemaking is part of the consequences of the 'cognitive economy' - not wasting energy on cognitive processes that aren't necessary. Interpreting and reacitng to everything is not possible, so we instead pick up bits and pieces - cues - from the world and construct meaningful stimuli from them. We give these hints and clues to each other constantly, thus helping fellow actors to make sense of us as well as the world. Not participating in this processes is frowned upon.

Constantly ongoing (principle of sensemaking)

Sensemaking is rarely conscious or even noticed by the actor. We do not reflect on the fact that we are rational, functional people, nor do we question our ability to communicate with and make sense of other people. Sensemaking only becomes visible when it fails - when we interpreted something and realized that our interpretation was incorrect. However, humans are excellent at smoothing over this, creating meaningful explanations for why our sensemaking failed.

Retrospective (principle of sensemaking)

Sensemaking is retrospective, regardless of what we are trying to make sense of - the world, ourselves, the past, the future. No matter what the subject of our analysis is, we must always create a picture of it, then make sense of it. This focus → reflect relationship transforms the present into a 'just now', showing that sensemaking is retrospective. Even a future issue must be transformed into a picture to reflect upon.

Social (principle of sensemaking)

Sensemaking processes always involve several people. One's identity and actions are constantly evaluated and made in relation the the identities and actions of others. This does not necessarily mean that people have to be present for sensemaking to take place - even inanimate objects such as rocks and trees are perceived and conceptualized in and thanks to a social world.

Post-heroic leadership

Svenningsson defines this type of leadership as reproducing the myth about heroic leadership when the actual leadership exercised is quite unremarkable. Paradoxically, both managers and their subordinates are part of creating this sensemaking process in which only the managers receive more influence. Manager identity will more often than not be built on leadership myths rather than leadership practice.

Models for explaining human action

The behavioural psychology model — stimuli → response The cognitive psychology model — stimuli → filter → response The micro-sociological model — actor (mind and body) ↔ action (thoughts and physical acts)

Basic assumptions

The essence of organizational culture. Do not always align with the artifacts and espoused values. These assumptions can often shed light on unexplained conflicts and contradictions given by the other frameworks. Schein provides five dimensions to describe the basic assumptions: 1. us and them 2. human nature 3. time and space 4. work and leisure 5. feminine and masculine

Organizational hypocrisy

The hypocrisy of senior management producing lots of decision rational talk and lower level employees taking action rational action that does not correspond with the decisions taken. Sometimes this is a deliberate decoupling, but it is often unconscious and occurs due to the inherently contradicting interest present in large organizations.

Competence strategies - views on business development and on employees (Hansson)

The model says that an organizations business strategy must be in line with its competence strategy. Views on business development: • Customer-driven • Relationship-driven • Competence-driven Views on employees: • Actors - co-creators of business and activities • Recipients - performers of well defined tasks Combining these yields four different competence strategies: matching, moulding, challenging and buying.

Flow efficiency

The ratio between value-adding time and lead time. Buffers and inventories should be reduced. Non-value adding time should be minimized. Responsibility should be decentralized to the operational core.

Symbolic leadership

This type of leadership is all about influencing how subordinates interpret and experience their surroundings and themselves. Instead of influencing what people do, a symbolic leader influences how they think. This is often seen as desireable, but it should be noted that it is essentially the same thing as Lukes' third face of power, manipulation. Bolman and Deal says that symbolic leadership is characterized by: • Using symbols to get attention • Framing and fomulating perspectives for the experience of others • Formulating and communicating visions • Telling compelling stories

Externalization (knowledge transfer)

Translating tacit lessons learned by employees into metaphors, models and analogies in writing, such as manuals, rules, descriptions and other texts. This makes tacit knowledge explicit and allows others to take part in it through reading, studying and other training.

Weber's three types of legitimate authority

Weber defines authority as power accepted as legitimate by those who are exposed to it. • Charismatic authority - based on personal qualities and individual strengths. • Traditional authority - derived from traditions, customs and history, not necessarily merit. • Formal-rational authority - based on position, which in a formal-rational organisation should be based on merit.

Management versus leadership

Zaleznik, Kotter and Lunenburg make the distinction between management and leadership. A common way to put it is to say that management is what leaders to according to the structural framework, while leadership is what leaders do according to the HR framework. Can be compared to Theory X and Y, and model 1 and 2 communication.

The steps of the continuum of the SDT model

• (Amotivation) • External regulation • Introjected regulation • Identified regulation • Integrated regulation • (Intrinsic motivation) Items in parentheses are extremes, the rest are degrees of external regulation.

The basic assumptions of the symbolic framework

• All people are unique • Norms and cultures reduce uncertainty • Norms and cultures are created and reproduced through everything we do • The meaning and interpretation of things and events are more important than 'the things themselves'. • Management, organization and leadership are about creating meaning and interpretations.

Four questions to ask oneself in a high-performing team (HR)

• Am I willing to listen and can I adapt to others? • Do I dare to talk and take a more prominent role than I usually do? • What competence does each group member have? • What are our common goals?

Causes of conflict (Pfeffer)

• Differentation/specialization • Interdependence • Different goals • Different environments • Different beliefs about cause-effect relations • Scarce resources

The three most basic concepts of the structural framework

• Efficiency • Division of labor • Coordination

Maccoby's Freud-based leader types

• Erotic leaders - HR-aligned and emotionally intelligent. Supports subordinates and has emotional ties to them. • Obsessive leaders - structurally aligned, do not need social approval and likes to immerse themselves in data to make decisions. • Narcissistic leaders - driven by will for power and influence, and does not need social approval or data to perform. Risk-taking.

According to which qualitative principles can labor be divided?

• Function • Product • Customer and market • Location • Time • Process

Conditions for an open power struggle

• Importance of the issue • The distribution of power

Mintzberg's five pure structural configurations

• Machine bureaucracy • Professional bureaucracy • Simple structure • Adhocracy • Divisionalized form

Fromm's marketing personality

• Motivated by a constant anxiety about not fitting in • Experts at presenting themselves as attractive people • Bad in a crisis

The basic assumptions of the HR framework

• Organizations should satisfy human needs • The needs of people and organizations must coincide • The human being is a complez (and social) psychological being

Process complexity - three types of dependencies

• Pooled dependencies - activities in one unit have no influence on what is done in another unit • Sequential dependencies - activities of one unit cannot continue without the completion of the acitivites of another unit • Mutual dependencies - one unit's activities must be continuously adapted to another unit's activities, and vice versa. (Approximately in order of increasing complexity.)

Weaknesses of the narcissistic leader type

• Poor contact and control over their own feelings • An indoctrinating and manipulative personality • Bad team player • Competitive, and bad listeners

Power bases

• Position of power • Control of rewards • Information and expertise • Coercive power • Alliances and networks • Access and control of agendas • Control of symbols and meaning • Personal power and charisma

Principled negotiation (Ury)

• Separate people from the problem • Focus on the interests of the counterpart • Generate more options • Refer to 'objective' evaluation criteria

Mintzberg's six dimensions (and situational dependencies)

• Size and age • Central processes and core technology • Environment • Strategy • Information technology • Labor force The three first are the most important, but the choice of strategy can sometimes outweigh them.

The basic parts of a structural configuration

• Strategic apex (top management) • Middle management • Technostructure • Support functions • Operative core

Strengths of the narcissistic leader type

• The ideal leader according to the idea of what a leader should be, according to Maccoby • Has a great, appealing vision • The ability to attract followers • Creates energy and dares to take risks

Cialdini's six principles of persuasion

• The liking principle • The authority principle • The scarcity principle • The consistency principle • The reciprocity principle • The principle of social proof

The basic assumptions of the power framework

• There are always contradicting interests and thus, always conflict in any organization. • There is no solution that is best for everyone. • All structures and processes are an expression of power. • Conflicts cannot be resolved, only managed more or less efficiently.

Weick's seven properties of sensemaking

• based on identity • retrospective • enacting • social • constantly ongoing • based on cues • striving for plausability over accuracy and precision