Behavioral Pharmacology Exam 3
SSRI effects on caffeine metabolism
Certain selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) antidepressants, such as fluoxetine and fluvoxamine (see Chapter 12), are potent inhibitors of CYP-1A2, and people taking these antidepressants can exhibit unexpected toxicity or intolerance to caffeine as plasma levels of caffeine rise
Cannabis withdrawal treatment
Little evidence for a good pharmacological cannabis withdrawal treatment, other than using an agonist substitution strategy and putting the person on dronabinol.
Can you develop a tolerance for nicotine?
Little tolerance develops, except to the nausea-inducing characteristics of nicotine.
teratogenic effects of cocaine
Children of women who use cocaine during pregnancy frequently show growth stunting and are prone to a variety of behavioral disturbances. It is hard to tell how much of this is directly caused by the drug and how much is caused by combined drug use and many other factors that tend to be associated with cocaine use during pregnancy.
Detoxification methods for opioids
Clonidine-assisted detox: acts on sympathetic NS to reduce physical effects of withdrawal. Buprenorphine-assisted detox: competes with a full agonist, preventing its full effect Rapid anesthesia-aided detox (RAAD): both clonidine and a pure opioid antagonist (like Naloxone) is administered while the patient is under anesthesia for the period of withdrawal symptoms (72 hours)
Is cannabis tolerance, addiction, and dependence possible?
Absolutely. It has a nonaddictive reputation, but 10% of users develop a dependence--which is only slightly lower to the percent of alcohol users who develop a dependence.
Pharmacokinetic properties of caffeine (time for absorption and typical half life range)
Absorption: Significant blood levels of caffeine are reached within 15 to 20 minutes after oral ingestion. 99% of it is absorbed within 45 minutes. Half life: varies from 2.5 to 10 hours (can be extended by alcohol, other medications, other environmental and physiological factors... its even shortened by smoking).
Pharmacokinetics of nicotine (absorption, dose range, metabolism)
Absorption: nicotine can be absorbed from any site of administration (lungs, buccal and nasal mucosa, skin, and gastrointestinal tract). (LOOK AT MORE INFORMATION REGARDING RATE OF ABSORPTION) Dose Range (cont'd): Characteristically, smokers wake in the morning in a state of nicotine deficiency, smoke one or more cigarettes fairly rapidly to achieve a blood level of about 15 milligrams per liter, and continue smoking through the day to maintain this level. Metabolism: nicotine can induce enzymes that also metabolize other drugs, which requires physicians to modify the dosage of certain drugs for smokers. Nicotine metabolite, cotinine, is used to measure smoking behavior and exposure to environmental smoke.
Why is it so difficult for drug addicts to quit smoking, as compared to other drugs that they may be treated for?
Abstinence symptoms include a severe craving for nicotine, irritability, anxiety, anger, difficulty in concentrating, restlessness, impatience, increased appetite, weight gain, and insomnia. Symptoms usually begin within about two hours after the last use of tobacco, peak within 24 to 48 hours, and gradually decline over the next 10 days to several weeks. Mild depression (dysphoria and anhedonia) and increased appetite may persist for months. Unlike other drugs that produce physical dependence, the severity of tobacco withdrawal does not seem to be related to the dose (heavy or light amount of smoking), the duration of the habit, previous attempts at quitting, sex, age, education, or alcohol and caffeine use
Alcohol distribution throughout the body, following absorption.
After absorption, alcohol is evenly distributed throughout all body fluids and tissues. The blood-brain barrier is freely permeable to alcohol, so when alcohol appears in the blood and reaches a person's brain, it crosses the blood-brain barrier almost immediately. Alcohol is also freely distributed across the placenta and easily enters the brain of a developing fetus. Fetal blood alcohol levels are essentially the same as those of the drinking mother.
Problem behaviors associated with alcohol usage
Alcohol intoxication plays a major role in a large percentage of violent crimes Increases concerns of power and dominance Increases sex drive but lack of performance and restraint, which can lead to sexual assault. Impairs problem solving abilities
Characteristics of alcoholism
Alcoholism is NOT associated with any particular pattern of drinking. It is different for everyone and can be individual. It is characterized by: - loss of control over drinking behavior -preoccupation with alcohol usage -alcohol-related problems intruding on social/familial/work life. -major loss of function of some kind -disabled by aftereffects -increased risk taking
amphetamine vs cocaine
Amphetamine: stimulant man-made smoking produces LONG LASTING high 50% of drug is removed from body in 12 hours Increases DA release and blocks re-uptake limited medical use Cocaine: stimulant and local anesthetic plant-derived smoking produces a brief high 50% of the drug is removed from the body in 1 hour Blocks DA reuptake Limited use a local anesthetic in some surgical practices
Approximate half-life of cocaine
Approximately 50 minutes for the blood, though it goes more slowly from the brain (up to 8 or 12 hours). One of the reasons for its frequent usage is its quick absorption and metabolism.
Pharmacological effects of amphetamines at low, moderate, and chronic high doses.
At low doses, all amphetamines increase blood pressure and heart rate, relax bronchial muscle, and produce a variety of other actions that follow from the body's alerting response. In the CNS, amphetamine is a potent stimulant, producing alertness; euphoria; excitement; wakefulness; a reduced sense of fatigue; loss of appetite; increased mood, motor and speech activity; and a feeling of power. Interestingly, some subjective effects of amphetamine, such as "arousal" and "euphoria," are related to personality traits, such as "impulsivity" At moderate doses (20 to 50 milligrams), additional effects of amphetamines include stimulation of respiration, slight tremors, restlessness, and a greater increase in motor activity, insomnia, and agitation. As doses increase, this reaction is accompanied by the worsening or de novo production of anxiety disorders, possibly progressing from restlessness and nonspecific anxiety to obsessive behaviors, panic disorders, paranoia, and eventually a paranoid psychosis. Chronic high doses produce additional effects. Stereotypical behaviors include continual, purposeless, repetitive acts; sudden outbursts of aggression and violence; paranoid delusions; and severe anorexia. Weight loss, skin sores, infections from neglected health care, and a variety of other consequences occur both because of the drug itself and because of poor eating habits, lack of sleep, or the use of unsterile equipment for intravenous injections. Most high-dose users show a progressive deterioration in their social, personal, and occupational affairs.
Describe teratogenic effects of alcohol
Fetal alcohol syndrome tends to occur in the fetuses of women who drink heavily during pregnancy. Alcohol related neurodevelopment disorder (ARND) can occur with people whose mother drank at lower doses during pregnancy. However, most of the data relating to ARND is correlational and could be a result of fetal alcohol exposure or the consequence of other variables that both promote drinking during pregnancy and promote behavioral disorders in the offspring. THE BEST WAY to make sure there is no alcohol harm done to the fetus, is to avoid exposing the fetus to alcohol.
Does alcohol effects vary with the user's expectations?
In low doses! As the dose increases, the user's expectations/mindset becomes less important to the effects of the drug.
describe the physiological effects of nicotine itself (not the same as the effects of cigarette smoke)
Increase in blood pressure, heart rate, release of epinephrine, cardiac contractility Can produce angine and heart attacks because of cardiac effects and effects on blood pressure. Reduces weight gain (reduced appetite and altered taste buds) Nausea and vomiting Bowel activity is stimulated Decreased muscle tone
nociceptive vs neuropathic pain
Nociceptive: pain receptors are activated Neuropathic: Damage to PNS or CNS
Which opioids are the most effective analgesics?
Ones that serve as agonists at MOP receptors. However, stimulation of this receptor, also produces the euphoric effects that make the abuse potential for these drugs so high. It also causes respiratory depression, which also makes these drugs lethal in overdose.
glutaminergic NMDA receptor antagonists
PCP and ketamine Pharmacological and psychological effects: both drugs powerfully reduce sensitivity to pain. induce a state called dissociative anesthesia, marked by catalepsy, amnesia, and analgesia. PCP is more apt to precipitate psychotic reactions in its users (risk is present for both drugs) Ketamine is often preferred in emergency uses because it depresses breathing less than others.
Pharmacological treatment approaches to nicotine dependence (describe each and explain the rationale)
Partial nicotinic agonists: By partially stimulating the receptor, they reduce withdrawal symptoms, but block access of nicotine to the receptor. Continued smoking is less satisfying and may help the person to quit and maintain abstinence. Definitely not the best method in maintaining abstinence. Nicotinic replacement therapies: To alleviate the symptoms of nicotine withdrawal while the smoker quits the smoking habit, NRT products offer nicotine exposure in the absence of tobacco. Vapor delivery devices (e-cigs and electronic nicotine devices): Laboratory studies suggest that e-cigarettes may be safer than tobacco products because they essentially contain fewer nonnicotinic toxic substances and they do not produce secondhand smoke. They also have the advantage of providing the behavioral stimuli that is often conditioned to smoking—the physical act of holding a cigarette and inhaling and exhaling a vapor. The presence of diethylene glycol, however, a toxic chemical found in antifreeze, raises safety concerns.
Why has the number of prescription painkiller abuse started to decrease?
People are actually turning to heroin, because it is more readily available and inexpensive compared to prescription drugs. This is because drug companies have been trying to heavily regulate their usage and abuse, and are trying to create drugs that are less easy to abuse.
teratogenic effects of nicotine
Pregnant smokers have an increased risk of underweight or preterm birth. IT IS, however, hard to sort out which effects might be due to nicotine itself and what are due to other components of cigarette smoke. For example, fetuses are exposed to hypoxic blood due to the level of CO2 in cigarette smoke, and this can have damaging effects on fetal development.
Characteristics of each class of opioids (and an example of each on the mu opioid receptors)
Pure agonist: (ex: methadone or morphine) attaches to and activates the receptors upon which our own endogenous opioids bind Partial agonist: (ex: buprenorphine--treatment for opiate addiction, another variant is Suboxone) binds to opioid receptor, but has a lower intrinsic activity/efficacy than a full agonist Mixed agonist-antagonist: (ex: Talwin) produces an agonistic effect at one opioid receptor and an antagonistic effect at another. Decreased efficacy compared to full agonists, in terms of pain relieving effects. Pure antagonist: (ex: Naloxone) they have affinity for an opioid receptor, but they elicit no change in cellular functioning. Compete with the agonist at the receptor, inhibiting its activity.
Symptoms of alcohol withdrawal
Rebound like symptoms: -anxiety -agitation -delirium -agitation -"the shakes" tremors -hallucinations -sweaty -SEIZURES -status epilepticus -paranoia and other delusions
Regulatory concerns about Caffeine
There are so many different forms of intaking caffeine, and there are concerns about the amount of energy drinks that are available and other fairly new caffeinated products
Health problems associated with second-hand smoke
These effects are the reason that public smoking is prohibited in many places -children whose parents smoke have a higher risk of sudden infant death syndrome, ear infections, pneumonia, bronchitis, and asthma. -Smoke exposure increased doctor visits, disturbed sleep, and impaired physical activity -increased risk in starting to smoke, as compared to people who are not frequently exposed to second-hand smoke
How difficult is opiate abstinence to achieve once addiction occurs?
They activate powerful reward systems in your brain. It's very difficult to achieve; very few people achieve it.
How is cocaine and amphetamine usage related?
They are inversely related! Stimulant abusers use the drugs more or less interchangeably and will go for whichever is cheaper and easier to obtain.
What are endocannabinoids?
They are retrograde signaling molecules released to activate cannabinoid receptors on nearby neurons. Examples of these include anandamide (AEA) and 2-AG. They inhibit neurotransmitter release from presynaptic terminals. Likely effect the action of GABA and glutamate, as they are the most common NTs released presynaptically. THC mimics this action.
Historically, what are opioids used for?
They have a long history of being used as sedatives, cough suppressants, anti-diarrhea agents, and analgesics. Very commonly used. There are still no better drugs out there for the control of pain, but there are for all of their other common treatments.
True or False: Is alcohol associated with the greatest number of drug-related crimes, accidents, etc.?
True! This is likely because it is the second most commonly used drug in our society, even though only 10-15% of alcohol users can be classified as abusers (of alcohol).
History of Amphetamines
Uses of amphetamines in the past: Treating asthma battle fatigue in the war Used to treat schizophrenia Mostly limited now to the clinical treatment of ADHD in the form of Adderall
Why are synthetic cannabinoids becoming less popular?
Very likely to induce harmful side effects, compared to the more natural cannabinoids. Synthetics can severely alter breathing and consciousness.
Psychological effects of cocaine when it wears off
When the acute effects wear off, depression, dysphoria, anxiety, somnolence, and drug craving follow the CNS activation.
Name one treatment for alcoholism that helps to treat the medically dangerous withdrawal period, and one that helps to prevent relapse once the person has passed through the withdrawal period.
Withdrawal period: anticonvulsant mood stabilizers (lamotragine is an example) Relapse: Disulfiram
Cannabis withdrawal symptoms
Withdrawal symptoms include irritability, anxiety, marijuana craving, disrupted sleep and strange dreams, anger and aggression, depressed mood, restlessness, decreased appetite, and weight loss. Less common symptoms include chills, headache, physical tension, sweating, stomach pain, and general physical discomfort
Can tolerance and dependence occur with amphetamines?
Yes
Can alcohol actually be beneficial to your body?
Yes! Low does have actually been associated with beneficial effects on on cardiovascular function. However, you should be aware that there is a very fine line between a dosage that could be considered beneficial or healthful, and one that can lead to toxic effects.
Can nicotine have positive cognition-enhancing and antidepressant effects?
Yes, potentially! There is minimal evidence that suggests these benefits. HOWEVER, this is combatted with the increased risk for other psychological disorders, such as schizophrenia.
Is it possible to develop a tolerance or dependence on caffeine?
Yes, simply.
Is problematic alcohol usage as an adolescent predictive of lifetime alcohol abuse?
Yes.
Is there genetic variation in opioid response?
Yes. Wide genetic variation in responsiveness to opioids.
How to go about prescribing antianxiety or antidepressant medications for people with alcohol abuse disorders? What else might you use to treat alcoholism?
You have to be careful because some drugs (like SSRIs) have negative drug interactions with alcohol. Alcoholism is often associated with other psychological disorders, such as depression or anxiety disorders. So the treatment of alcoholism often requires simultaneous treatment of the comorbid psychological problems. Psychotherapy should absolutely be a part of the treatment for alcohol abuse disorders, as with many of the other substance abuse disorders that we will talk about. It helps to reduce the chances of relapse, as it treats the comorbid psychological disorders that are associated with alcoholism.
Cocaine Specific mechanisms of action
behaviorally reinforcing doses of cocaine block reuptake of dopamine by the DAT transporter molecule that removes dopamine from the synapse. The end result is a higher concentration of dopamine within the synapse.
Opioid Receptors (and their pharmacological effects when acted on by opiates)
mu (MOP--beta endorphin is the natural agonist here): euphoria, pain relief, stress relief, respiratory depression, major addictive kappa (KOP): dysphoria, some pain relief delta (DOP): mild pain relief, antidepressant effects (full DOP agonists actually make the body cataleptic (rigid))
How do opioids help to reduce pain?
opioids can be involved in reducing the spinal cord's response to external stimuli, activating brain processes that reduce input from the spinal cord, and changing how pain is perceived, i.e. reducing both the intensity of the stimulus and the emotional response to the stimulus.
Mechanism of action for amphetamines (4)
(1) it binds to the presynaptic membrane of dopaminergic neurons and induces the release of dopamine from the nerve terminal (2) it binds to the dopamine reuptake transporter, causing it to not only block reuptake, but also to act in reverse and transport free dopamine out of the nerve terminal (3) at high doses, it interacts with dopamine containing synaptic storage vesicles, releasing free dopamine, perhaps into the nerve terminal, although exocytotic release has been questioned (Siciliano et al., 2014) (4) also at high doses, amphetamine binds to monoamine oxidase (MAO) in dopaminergic neurons and prevents the degradation of dopamine, leaving free dopamine in the nerve terminal.
Effects of cocaine
--increased heart rate --increased BP --dilated pupils --body temp rises subjective effects of low doses of cocaine (25 to 75 milligrams) include increased energy and alertness, with a decrease in fatigue, increased libido, and a general feeling of euphoria or elevation of mood. Appetite is reduced, activity is increased, and sleep is prevented. *acute toxicity* --seizures --stroke/heart attack --hemorrhage --death
Health problems associated with chronic tobacco use
-Cardiovascular disease -Increased risk of cancer (less from nicotine, and more from other things in cigarettes and cigarette smoke) -Loss of brain matter in cerebral hemisphere -Pulmonary disease (difficulty in breathing, wheezing, chest pain, lung congestion, emphysema (a form of irreversible lung damage), and increased susceptibility to infections of the respiratory tract) -Premature skin aging -Increase risk in Type 2 diabetes and insulin resistance
Treatments for alcohol withdrawal
-antiepileptics/mood stabilizers are really great for this -long acting benzodiazepines -MAYBE one of the longer acting barbiturates (though it is less likely) -rarely, antipsychotics for extreme agitation
Adenosine and Caffeine
-comes with release of catecholamines (DA, NE, EP) -neuromodulator that inhibits catecholamine release -when awake, continuously builds up causing sleepiness Caffeine inhibits all subtypes of adenosine receptors By blocking adenosine receptors, caffeine promotes wakefulness; it increases respiratory and heart rates, constricts blood vessels, and releases monoamines and acetylcholine.
Mechanism of Action for Nicotine
-nicotine acts at nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, first having an agonist effect, but then blocking them at higher doses, so that it ends up not acting as fully as acetylcholine itself -that there are different subtypes of nicotinic receptors -particular subtypes are the targets of various kinds of experimental medicines for neurodegenerative diseases.
What is the Blood Alcohol Concentration limit for intoxication for all states?
0.08% They're trying to lower it the DUI level to 0.05%
Describe the metabolism of alcohol, using the most significant enzyme?
1) Alcohol dehydrogenase functions to convert alcohol to acetaldehyde. A coenzyme called nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) is required for the activity of this enzyme. The availability of NAD is the rate-limiting step in this reaction; enough is present so that the maximum amount of alcohol that can be metabolized in 24 hours is about 170 grams. 2) The enzyme acetaldehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH) converts acetaldehyde to acetic acid. The drug disulfiram (Antabuse) irreversibly inhibits this enzyme and is one possible treatment for alcoholism. 3) Acetic acid is broken down into carbon dioxide and water, thus releasing energy (calories).
Gender differences in blood alcohol concentration
1) Women have about 50 percent less gastric metabolism of alcohol than men because women have a lower level of gastric ADH (alcohol dehydrogenase) enzyme. 2)Men may have a greater ratio of muscle to fat than do women. Therefore, alcohol is somewhat more diluted in men, because fat contains little blood supply. 3)Women may have higher body fat, so alcohol is concentrated in plasma, which raises the blood alcohol level.
How are opioids classified?
1. *By origin* (natural, semisynthetic, synthetic) 2. *By action* (pure agonist, partial agonists agonist-antagonist, pure antagonist)
Properties of anticholinergic psychedelics
A lot of amnesia, which made it a crappy psychedelic because you were not likely to remember your trip. Muscarinic receptor antagonist Used frequently as a poison, so you have to be careful when using it. Occurs in an enormous amount of plants (because of their toxicity--protects them from getting eaten)
Opiate abstinence syndrome
A period that can last up to six months post withdrawal. Depression, anxiety, drug craving, increased stress, High Risk of relapse.
Why is it so hard for police officers to arrest someone for DUI with cannabis?
Because much of the THC taken into the body is stored in body fat, from which it is slowly released, very low, clinically insignificant amounts of THC in blood may be maintained for a considerable time after drug use ceases
Beneficial and Adverse side effects of Caffeine
Beneficial: -caffeine in moderation is linked to lower rates of all cardiovascular disease. Improves cardiovascular function -reduced risk for type 2 diabetes for regular coffee drinkers -can reduce the risks of certain cancers (endometrial, prostate, etc.) -possibly an increase of memory and neurological function for college students Adverse: -Although caffeine reduces fatigue and improves attention, it disturbs sleep. Even when taken during the day and certainly before bedtime, caffeine may impair the duration and quality of sleep and cause repeated awakenings -high dosage can increase agitation, anxiety, and can induce mood changes.
Disorders that can occur along with cocaine dependence
Bipolar disorder, anxiety, depression, PTSD, and ADHD
Cannabis mechanism of action
CB1 (mostly found in CNS) and CB2 (mostly found outside of CNS) receptors. (CB=cannabanoid) THC is a partial agonists at these receptors. CBD is possibly a partial antagonist at CB receptors, but it also affects other neurotransmitters and neuromodulators that might enhance the function of endocannabinoids "THC is a partial agonist at CB1 and CB2 receptors. In contrast, CBD does not directly stimulate either receptor, although it may have indirect actions as a partial antagonist at CB1 receptors. It therefore can antagonize certain actions of THC."
Pharmacokinetic properties of cannabis
CBD info is really uncertain because it is under researched. We do not know much about its pharmacokinetic properties. Time of onset of action of edibles is longer and less predictable than the time course for smoked marijuana (because of the different absorption methods) Whatever the amount, absorption of THC from smoking is rapid and complete. Once absorbed, THC is distributed to the various organs of the body, especially those that have significant concentrations of fatty material, such as the brain. The behavioral effects occur almost immediately after smoking begins and correspond with the rapid attainment of peak concentrations in plasma. Because of its fast and thorough metabolism, only minor amounts of THC are ultimately eliminated.
What happens when cocaine and alcohol are used together?
Cocaethylene metabolite is present, which is pharmacologically active and could increase dependence on one or both of the precursor drugs
the difference in absorption between powder cocaine and crack cocaine
Cocaine hydrochloride crosses the mucosal membranes poorly because the drug is a potent vasoconstrictor (one of its defining pharmacological actions), constricting blood vessels and limiting its own absorption. In addition, anywhere from 70 to 80 percent of the amount absorbed may be biotransformed by the liver before it reaches the brain. As a consequence, only about 20 to 30 percent of the snorted drug is absorbed through the nasal mucosa into blood. When cocaine base is vaporized and smoked, absorption is rapid and quite complete; effects begin within seconds and peak at 5 minutes.
Properties of monoaminergic psychedelics
Drugs in this group affect monoamine neurotransmitters, and they vary in stimulatory and hallucinogenic effects. Two main categories are catecholaminergic psychedelics (more stimulatory) and the serotonergic psychedelics (more hallucinogenic).
When were the two cocaine epidemics?
Early 1900s and then the 80s and 90s. Its the oldest drug in this section, but people did not begin to see problems with addiction, until cocaine was refined to a more concentrated state.
General effects of psychostimulants
Elevate mood induce euphoria increase alertness reduce fatigue increase energy decrease appetite improve task performance relieve boredom anxiety and irratability as doses increase, anxiety and irritability become more intense, with a pattern of psychotic behavior possible insomnia
Alcohol mechanism of action
Ethanol is a potent inhibitor of the NMDA subtype of glutamate receptors (major excitatory NT). Suppresses the responsiveness of NDMA receptors to release glutamate. Binds to GABA-A receptor, having an agonistic effect on GABA neurotransmission, which results in sedation, muscle relaxation, and impairment of cognitive and motor skills. -indirectly activates DA neurons -evidence that suggests that, following alcohol use, opioid, serotonin, and cannabinoid function is elevated.
What are the particularly strong reasons that people are concerned about methamphetamine use?
Extreme deterioration of the body for chronic meth users. Vasoconstriction. Evidence of long term brain tissue loss Variety of toxicities, including strokes and psychosis
How do low dose effects of cannabis differ from high dose effects
It can vary a lot depending on the relative amounts of THC vs CBD in the strain of cannabis used (as CBD counteracts the effects of THC) However, low doses can make you feel relaxed and happy Very high doses can actually begin to make you anxious as heart rate increases
What effect does alcohol have on the Central Nervous System (CNS)?
It depresses the CNS, causing both motor and cognitive impairments. It depresses respiration. It's also technically an anticonvulsant, though it is not used as such. Can be an effective hypnotic agent, but its fast acting mechanism of action and metabolism, might make for an early wake up, not curing symptoms of insomnia. It also effects circulation and the heart--dilates the blood vessels in the skin, which creates a warm flush and decreases body temperature.
Does caffeine have teratogenic effects?
It has been associated with stunted fetal growth, but it has not been directly associated with clear birth defects.
Is nicotine a popular drug?
It is the third most popular drug behind caffeine and alcohol, though there are more public health costs associated with it.
How popular is marijuana use?
It seems to be the most frequently used illicit substance in the world.
What does nicotine do at reward associated brain regions?
It seems to increase the release of Dopamine (DA), which likely contributes to the high relapse rates.
Absorption process for intravenous cocaine
It skips the absorption phase completely. All of the administered dosage immediately enters the bloodstream.
Properties of serotonergic psychedelics
LSD is the most important one to know Pharmacological properties: A person who takes LSD may experience a slight increase in body temperature; dilation of the pupils; slightly increased heart rate and blood pressure; increased levels of glucose in the blood; and dizziness, drowsiness, nausea, and other effects that although noticeable, seldom interfere with the psychedelic experience. LSD has a low level of toxicity; the effective dose is about 50 micrograms, while the lethal dose is about 14,000 micrograms. These figures provide a therapeutic ratio of 280, making the drug a remarkably nonlethal compound The psychological effects of LSD are intense. Doses of 25 to 50 micrograms produce alterations in perception, thinking, emotion, arousal, and self-image. The sensory (or perceptual) phase is characterized by sensory distortions and pseudohallucinations, which are the effects desired by the drug user. Time is slowed or distorted. Sensory input is intensified, with enhanced visualization of previously seen or imagined objects and decreased vigilance and logical thought. Visual alterations are the most characteristic phenomena; they typically include colored lights, distorted perceptions, and vivid and fascinating images and shapes. Colors can be heard and sounds may be seen. Hallucinogen persisting perceptual disorder: long term consequence of LSD use, which potentially reflects some long term or permanent change in brain function. Some of the intoxication symptoms may return to you after the drug has left your system (flashbacks, potentially).
Three types of alcohol tolerance (name and describe)
Metabolic tolerance---liver increases its amount of drug-metabolizing enzyme. Tissue, or functional, tolerance--Drinkers who develop this type of tolerance characteristically display blood alcohol levels about twice those of nontolerant drinkers at a similar level of behavioral intoxication. Note, however, that despite behavioral adaptation, impairments in cognitive function are similar at similar blood levels in both tolerant and nontolerant drinkers. Associative tolerance---A variety of environmental manipulations can counter the effects of ethanol; counterresponses are a possible mechanism of tolerance.
What are methylphenidate and modafinil?
Modafinil treats narcolepsy Methylphenidate (Ritalin) treats ADHD
What is the effect of taking alcohol with a CNS depressant, like THC?
Since alcohol is already a CNS depressant, they work together in an additive fashion, so that the effects are worsened, making individuals more impaired (motor and cognitive) and sedated.
THC vs CBD
THC - euphoric high CBD - reduces euphoria and sedation Does not produce a high help with depression
How much alcohol is removed per hour using the major alcohol metabolism pathway?
The average person metabolized 10 to 14 milliliters of 100% alcohol per hour. So, it takes one hour to metabolize: 1 ounce of 40% ethanol whiskey 4 ounces of 12% wine 12 ounce bottle of 5% beer
Differences between Amphetamine and Cocaine pharmacokinetic properties
The differences are very slight, however, Amphetamine has a much longer half-life (of a couple hours, compared to cocaines 30-90 minutes). Individuals differ in their responses to amphetamine, though, which could lead to its abuse potential. There are early and late peak responders.
Nicotine dependence + Factors that promote addiction
The tendency for people to develop dependence on nicotine is the most problematic aspect of the drug, since this dependence causes them to use cigarettes and other forms of administration that can severely damage health. Factors promoting addiction - Rapid and frequent reinforcement (200 times a pack). - Rapid metabolism (clearance allows frequent and repeated use), plus rapid onset of withdrawal. - Complex direct pharmacological effects. - Social rewards of peer group - Smoking conditioned to other activities (e.g., eating, drinking, driving). - No performance impairment; might even be improvement in alertness, reaction time. - Relatively inexpensive (?) - No equipment other than match - Readily available (?) - Portable, easy to store - Legal for 18 and up
Typical range of time needed for alcohol absorption
The time from the last drink to maximal concentration in blood ranges from 15 to 60 minutes
Physiological damage associated with alcohol usage (alcohol toxicity)
There are many health problems associated with alcohol usage. Increased risk of cancer, pancreatitis, liver damage, just to name a few. -promotes cancer induced by other carcinogens -cardiac problems from fatty tissue -kidney problems -malnourishment, brain cell (neuronal) death
What is the most significant enzyme in alcohol metabolism?
alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH)
The forms of cocaine
coca paste (smoking:60-250mg) cocaine hydrochloride (oral:100-200mg, intranasal:5-30mg, intravenous:25-50mg) freebase (smoking:250-1000mg) crack cocaine (smoking:250-1000mg)
Withdrawal symptoms of amphetamines
fatigue, headaches, irritability, and depression and suicidality increased appetite, weight gain, decreased energy, and increased need for sleep.
Properties of catecholaminergic psychedelics (name the examples)
increases serotonin, norepinephrine, and DA by decreasing their reuptake Mescaline (peyote) -used religiously to talk to spirit world or gods, good for making otherworldly connections -prominent effects on the visual system -anxiety, hyperreflexia of the limbs, tremors, and visual hallucinations that consist of brightly colored lights, geometric designs, animals, and occasionally people; color and space perception is often concomitantly impaired MDMA (ecstasy) (derived from amphetamines) -helps with social interaction -less of a psychedelic -alters sensation -it can have potentially dangerous effects in the short-term, is likely a neurotoxin -this drug is most commonly associated with reports of "empathy," "insight," "enhanced communication," and "transcendent religious experiences." Most frequent adverse reactions are physiological, such as an increase in blood pressure and heart rate, muscle tension and jaw clenching, fatigue, insomnia, sweating, blurred vision, loss of motor coordination, and anxiety.
major effects of opiates
indifference to pain (analgesia) euphoria depression of respiration suppression of cough sedation and anxiolysis nausea and vomiting gastrointestinal symptoms (relieve diarrhea, so hardens stool)
effects of marijuana
pleasurable effects: enhanced sensation, relief of pain, distortion of time, relaxation. adverse (harmful) effects: impaired learning and memory, increased risk of psychological disorders, lung damage from smoke.
Therapeutic effects of monoaminergic hallucinogens
promising results in the potential treatment of alcohol and tobacco use disorders promising results in potentially treating depression, OCD, and other anxiety disorders
Withdrawal symptoms of opioids
rebound symptoms: flu-like aching -diarrhea -muscle-spasms -intense cravings -chills, fever, goosebumps -intensity continues to grow--gets worse and worse -duration about 72 hours -rapid breathing -pain and irritability -dysphoria and depression