BIBL 480 Hermeneutics Final exam 2022
Guidelines for interpreting "apocalyptic" passages
(1) Acquaint yourself with the characteristics of apocalypse(2) Note the historical and literary contexts(3) Extricate symbols, themes, and figurative language(4) Determine authorial intent behind apocalyptic features(5) Place yourself in the setting of the original oral audience(6) In teaching, emphasize spiritual content and teleology
Prophetic narratives (narrative in prophetic books
)Vocation reportsInvolve prophetic calling, commissionBolster authenticity of prophetic office to hearersExamples: Jeremiah 1:4-19, Amos 7:14-17Biographical/autobiographical detailsExamples: Jeremiah 26-29; 34-45; Ezekiel 24:15-27Narrative in the book of DanielDramatization of message via symbolic actsExamples: Isaiah's nakedness, Jeremiah's yoke, Hosea's wife
Finally, Proverbs tends to focus on general truths, not specific promises or guarantees from God. When applied, the general point taught in a proverb is likely to hold true, but in a fallen world, exceptions will confound even the wisest of individuals.
. Indeed, the exceptions are considered in detail in the book of Ecclesiastes, but the book of Proverbs is not so concerned with the inevitable exceptions; its concern is with the more likely outcome.
SatireFour basic elements
1) Object of attack (thing, position, person, societal ills, etc.)(2) Satiric vehicle (metaphor, full story, etc.)(3) Satiric tone (author's attitude toward object of attack)(4) Satiric norm (the standard by which criticism is applied)
Chiasm -
A common structural characteristic found in Hebrew poetry is the use of chiasm. Chiasm is a thematic "criss-crossing" between adjacent lines of poetry, sometimes occurring in extended passages of poetic literature.
Variations in the Wording of Quotations
Adaptation/Omission: Mt 15:8 --> Isa 29:13 Substitution/Extension: Eph 4:8 --> Ps 68:18 Paraphrase: Rom 15:12 --> Isa 11:10 Septuagint: Heb 10:5 --> Ps 40:6
Roughly 10% of the NT is made up of quotations or clear allusions to the OT.
Additionally, numerous OT verses are quoted multiple times in the NT (Ps 110:1-- Mt 22:44; Mk 12:36; Lk 20:42-43; Acts 2:34-35; Heb 1:13, 10:13). The NT writers were obviously familiar with the OT and considered it as an authority from God (attributing these as Scripture from the Holy Spirit).
There are roughly 295 quotations in the New Testament from Old Testament verses and passages.
Among those, 224 are introduced with a formula indicating that a quotation is being made ("It is written"), while 45 quotations are made in full but without introduction. The balance are paraphrases or partial quotations.
Acrostics -
An acrostic occurs when each line of poetry begins with a successive letter of the alphabet. This stylistic method is much like alliteration in modern day preaching, a tool used primarily for the sake of memory. While acrostics are found throughout the Old Testament, they are lost to the English reader through the necessary means of translation.
Biblical narratives are not allegories, nor are they always meant to function as analogies.
Be cautious to not read too much into them, especially in seeking to apply OT narrative to the Christian life.
Narratives are stories, stories about real people and real places which have their basis in historical reality.
Biblical narratives are not fables or myths which must be allegorized to find meaning, but rather, they provide for us a historical record of what God has done to and through his people in the past. In this sense, God is the foremost character in Old Testament narrative.
Apocalyptic literature & Scripture
Books/passages considered apocalyptic by some scholars Daniel Isaiah 24-27 Ezekiel 38-39 Joel 2:28-32; 3:9-17 Zechariah 1-6; 12-14True apocalypses appear after the Old Testament period Hebrew in origin; based on Old Testament precedentsProminent from 2nd century B.C. to 2nd century A.D.Apocalypses written in prose, not poetryFound in non-canonical books, Revelation
Kingdom oracles
Characteristics Eschatological nature Final incarnation of Israel's kingdom Return to the land, use of new exodus motif Universal judgment(s)—last in series ushers in eternal state Distinguished by universality of events Example: Joel 3:9-21 Example: "day of the LORD" motif in Zephaniah
Disputation speeches
Common elementsDeclarationDiscussionRefutation Examples: Ezekiel 18; Malachi Disputation between God and His peopleSatirical tone
Covenant lawsuit
Common elementsGod's people summoned to appear for covenant violationsWitnesses summonedIndictmentSentencingExample: Micah 6:1-16
Promise of deliverance
Concerns God's deliverance after judgmentCommon pattern: sin, judgment, repentance, restorationExample: Ezekiel 11:14-21Example: Jeremiah 16:14-15Promise of Israel returning from dispersion—a new exodus (cf. Isaiah 43:16-21; 48:20-21)
When reading narrative, keep an observant eye on the following:
Contrast and comparison between figures and elements within the narrative. Interchange between adjacent narrative pericope. Escalation in plot development. Ironic turns and twists that convey the theological points of the narrative. The voice of the narrator (parenthetical commentary).
When reading narrative, keep an observant eye on the following:
Contrast and comparison between figures and elements within the narrative. Interchange between adjacent narrative pericope. Escalation in plot development. Ironic turns and twists that convey the theological points of the narrative. The voice of the narrator (parenthetical commentary).
Wisdom is meant to be applied, not just studied or memorized.
Correct application, however, is always dependent upon accurate interpretation, and as with other unique literary forms in scripture, certain guidelines prove helpful when applied to the reading of Hebrew wisdom literature.
No biblical narrative was written specifically about you!
Don't expect God to deal with you in exactly the same way that he dealt with narrative characters. Additionally, the reader must be discerning about when to follow the example of characters and their actions in OT historical narrative.
The epilogue of Job makes it clear that the strict retribution theology of the three friends was wrong in Job's case, and this certainly holds true in many cases of suffering experienced throughout history.
Elihu's suggestion that suffering can be used as a preventative measure against sin is certainly possible, and scripture clearly affirms that suffering can be chastisement for sin (Heb 12:7-11). But in the end, the main point in the book of Job is that God is just however the circumstances may appear to man, and thus man is called to trust in God, "for the just shall live by his faith" (Hab 2:4).
First, Proverbs concentrates primarily on practical issues, not theological issues. This is not to suggest that theological questions were not of interest to the wisdom sages in Israel; indeed, books like Job and Ecclesiastes wrestle with significant questions regarding divine justice in this world and the next.
Even in the book of Proverbs the fear of the Lord is prominent in defining wisdom, and reflections on the mysteries of divine sovereignty are present (16:9; 19:21). However, the bulk of content in Proverbs has a decidedly practical orientation, and as such, is meant to be applied to the daily tasks of life.
Prophetic confessions
Example: Daniel's intercessory confession (Daniel 9:4-6) Historical narratives telling of outstanding public events Involves events during the prophet's time of ministry Subtypes of instructional accounts for God's servants
Satire present in virtually every prophetic book
Example: Jonah (e.g. 1, 4)Example: Amos (e.g. 2:14-16)Example: Malachi (e.g. 1:6-14, 2:7-9, 13-14, 17, 3:13-
Prophetic Allegory
Extended metaphor with a primary point and subsidiary supporting points. Examples include Isaiah 5:1-7; Ezekiel 16 and Ezekiel 23.
Jesus came "not to abolish the Law and the Prophets, but to fulfill them" (Matt 5:17). But does this mean that Christians are still under the law? I would suggest not...
First, Jesus was the fulfillment of various prophetic elements of the law (and of course the prophets). The book of Hebrews makes it quite clear that the ceremony of the law functioned to typify Christ. The entire argument from Hebrews 7 through 10 is built around the idea that the law was a shadow of things to come. Second, the New Testament is quite clear regarding the two-fold purpose of the law as it applies beyond the regulation of the Mosaic Covenant.Within the broader scope of salvation history, the law functioned to make sinners aware that they indeed are sinners, "for by the law is the knowledge of sin" (Rom 3:20). Furthermore, it does no good for sinners to simply be made aware of their guilt, but it is a necessary first step. So with that in mind, the law functions to lead the "poor in spirit" to the Savior - or as Paul states in Galatians 3:24, "The law was put in charge to lead us to Christ." Finally, there is clear evidence in the New Testament that the principles of the law are quite transferable in application between covenantal contexts. This may be most easily seen in relation to the "moral" aspects of the law, but even in "civil" and "ceremonial" aspects principles can be derived. For instance, Paul quotes Deuteronomy 25:4, "You shall not muzzle an ox while it treads out the grain" as justification to support church leaders financially. Even more interesting is Paul's quotation of Exodus 20:12 and his adaptation of the promise from "the land" to "the earth."
Qohelet reaches a two-fold wisdom based conclusion to living wisely in a fallen world.
First, in light of the fact that life is fleeting, death is inevitable, and the circumstances of one's future lie outside of the realm of man's control, the wise will enjoy life as a gift from God.
Old Testament law - Hermeneutical Considerations
First, the text itself does not make any such distinction between moral, civil, and ceremonial laws. Second, the narrative and covenant contexts suggest that the whole law had theological significance. Third, classifying various laws in an "either/or" fashion between these three distinct categories is difficult and arbitrary. The laws often overlap by exhibiting elements of moral, civil, and ceremonial application.
Prophetic prayers
Habakkuk 3 considered prayer; set to music for liturgy Examples: Isaiah 37:14-20, Daniel 9:4-19, Jonah 2:1-9
Exhortation/warning speeches
Hearers exhorted to repent or reform, motivated to action Motive may be positive (reward) or negative (consequences)
Figurative Language -
Hebrew poetry is rich in its use of figurative language. Nearly every verse of Old Testament poetry contains figures of speech, and thus the ability to recognize various figures of speech greatly enhances the reader's ability to understand and appreciate the text. Common figures of speech include simile, metaphor, metonymy, personification, anthropomorphism and hyperbole.
To Instruct in Wisdom -
Hebrew wisdom literature is a certain kind of poetic literature that was used to instruct the young person in the ways of wisdom. Hebrew wisdom tends to be very practical, and was meant to be applied to the many aspects of everyday secular life. While wisdom dealt with the practical, it did not leave out the recognition of God in the daily affairs of life. Indeed, Hebrew wisdom teaches the reader not only how to live a good life, but how to live a good and godly life.
While it is helpful to understand the role of the law in the context of ancient Israel, the key question that most Christians ask nevertheless remains...
How does the Old Testament Law relate to Christians today? Are Christians obligated to keep the Law, especially the Ten Commandments? Is there any way to distinguish when a law applies, and when it does not?
Others suggest that the Law of Moses be obeyed in its entirety by the Christian today, at least so much as is reasonable (not withstanding issues of cultural relativity).
However, the very fact that this is unreasonable and even impossible mitigates against this being a realistic option. Furthermore, the New Testament clearly states that Christians are "not under the law, but under grace" (Rom 6:14) and no longer under the supervision of the law (Gal 3:25).
Still others suggest that the Law has no application to the Christian today. I
In a technical sense, it is true that the Christian is not under the Mosaic Covenant and therefore is not regulated by the stipulations of the covenant. However, to quote Fee and Stuart, "All of the Old Testament law is still the Word of God for us even though it is not still the command of God to us." The question then is to understand how the law does function as the word of God for us today.
Life is full of choices. No one can get through life without being faced with choices, and bad decisions can often result in harmful consequences.
In ancient society the ability to make wise decisions in all of life's practical matters was highly esteemed. Ancient Near Eastern wisdom shares the same basic emphasis on practical matters and success in life that one finds in the wisdom of the Hebrew Bible. However, the Jews expanded beyond the merely practical by infusing their literature with an understanding that all wisdom begins with the fear of the Lord (1:7). Therefore, Hebrew wisdom literature taught people not only how to make good choices in life, but also how to make godly choices in life.
Wisdom sayings
Instruction taking the form of proverbial wisdom Example: Isaiah 10:15Common motif of the "two ways" Example: Hosea 14:9 (compare with Proverbs 10:29) Wisdom sayings interwoven with exhortation speeches
General characteristics
Majority of Old Testament prophecy Interwoven with other subgenres Two essential elements Accusation, stating God's charges Announcement of a specific judgment Example: Amos 4:1-3 Other features Plea for repentance, promise of reward (e.g. Joel 2:12-27) Messages of judgment for other nations (e.g. Obadiah, Nahum, Amos 1 - 2:3; Jeremiah 46-51; Isaiah 13-23; Ezekiel 25-32)
Narratives in the Bible record what happened, not necessarily what should have happened.
Many characters in biblical narratives are far from perfect examples for us today. Therefore, we should learn from their mistakes, not imitate them.
Subgenres of biblical prophecy
Many subgenres, significant fluidity & overlap Determination of subgenre(1) Form of the text(2) Identification of author's intention in full context Prominent subgenres of prophetic proclamation Announcements of judgment Salvation oraclesOthers: instructional accounts, calls to
It has been said before that history, as seen through the lens of a biblical worldview, is in reality His-story. This could not be any truer than in Old Testament historical narrative.
Most of the historical books of the Old Testament are comprised of narrative, and thus narrative must be understood to correctly interpret and apply the historical books. The following list of principles and guidelines are intended to provide an introductory framework for the study of OT historical narratives. In addition, suggestions are made concerning the best way to approach narrative literature
Narratives do not usually teach doctrine directly, but rather they tend to teach indirectly.
Narratives are often illustrating (in large segments) what is directly taught elsewhere in Scripture.
Some suggest that a distinction be made between moral law, civil law, and ceremonial law. The moral laws are those that pertain to God's intention for human behavior, and would therefore be for today.
On the other hand, the civil laws pertain to the governance of Israel as a nation, and would only apply to the citizens of ancient Israel. Also, the ceremonial laws were those which regulated the practice and procedure of the religious life of ancient Israel, and therefore do not apply to Christians today. While on the surface this seems like a helpful approach, in reality, it does present its own set of problems...
Prophetic hymns/songs
Poetic pieces found all throughout the prophetic books Some comprise entire chapters (e.g. Habakkuk 3) Examples: Isaiah 5:1-2, Jeremiah 20:13, Amos 4:13
To Facilitate Worship
Poetry is easy to memorize and put to music, and often took on the role of lyrical expression in the psalms.
To Express Emotion
Poetry is intended to appeal to the emotions, to evoke feelings rather than propositional thinking, and to stimulate a response on the part of the reader.
General patterns
Positive exhortation (e.g. Isaiah 55:1-3) (1) Call, (2) exhortation, (3) call, (4) motive Negative Exhortation (e.g. Jeremiah 44:24-25) (1) Call, (2) exhortation Reward and warning exhortation (e.g. Jeremiah 7:2-7a) (1) Call, (2) exhortation, (3) motive (combines positive and negative)
Vision/dream reports
Prophet receives message to be proclaimed via visionThree discernible typesKingdom oracles with apocalyptic elements (e.g. Daniel 7)Predictions of near future with instruction (e.g. Daniel 8; Zechariah 1-6; Amos 7:1-6; 7:7-9; Jeremiah 42:7-12)Calls to prophetical ministry (e.g. Isaiah 6, Ezekiel 1-3), sometimes via angel(s) (e.g. Daniel 8:13-27; Zechariah 2-6)
Ecclesiastes deals with the limitations of wisdom in a fallen world, especially in light of the sovereignty of God and the imposition of limitation upon mortal mankind. Although the wise sage Qohelet never finds a solution to the dilemma of man's fallen condition, he does espouse wisdom as a means to find "what is good" for a man in the life which God has given him "under the sun."
Qohelet affirms the application of probabilistic wisdom to a wide variety of affairs, and in this sense, the wisdom of Ecclesiastes suggests ways in which a person might make the most of every opportunity given by God throughout the years of one's life (7:1-29; 10:1-20; 11:1-8).
Prophetic letters
Some prophetic books contain records of letters Must be interpreted like regular epistolary literature Example: Jeremiah 29:24-28, 29-32
As wisdom literature, Job functions to address one of wisdom's most perplexing theological challenges: "why do the righteous suffer"? While the reader of Job gets a glimpse into the affairs of the supernatural realm, the question of suffering remains one of life's mysteries. Suggestions are made throughout the book to explain human suffering, some with greater merit than others.
The Old Testament teaches as a general principle retribution theology, the idea that God will exalt the righteous and cut-down the sinner (Ps 1). However, wisdom literature observes that there are many exceptions to this general rule (Eccl 8:14), and as such, Hebrew wisdom sought to address the complexities of failed justice in a world governed by an omnipotent God.
The Song of Songs fits well into the category of wisdom literature. Hebrew wisdom literature teaches people how to make good and godly choices.
The Song of Songs teaches us who to love and how to love. The ability to make the right choices in these crucial areas concerns every one of God's people. Perhaps the greatest benefit that the believer can gain by studying the Song of Songs is the fact that love is a gift from God, and should be enjoyed as a gift.
Parallelism -
The essential characteristic of Hebrew poetry is parallelism. Parallelism is the practice of balancing one thought or phrase by a corresponding thought or phrase containing approximately the same number of words or a correspondence of ideas. Although translation can lose some of the significance of parallelism, most modern English translations do seek to retain as much parallelism as possible by translating into poetic lines instead of prose. Although many types of parallelism have been recognized, the following three are the most common.
With the exception of Philemon, Revelation, and the Epistles of John, every NT book quotes the OT.
The highest concentration of quotations are found in Matthew, Acts, Romans, and Hebrews. The only OT books not quoted in the NT are Ruth, Ezra, Nehemiah, Esther, Ecclesiastes, and Song of Songs. When allusions and echoes are accounted for, the entire Old and New Testaments are included.
The Old Testament law not only has a historical/literary context within scripture, it also is set within a theological/covenant context.
The law essentially functioned for ancient Israel as the stipulations of the Covenant made between God and Israel and mediated through Moses (Ex 19:5; 24:3, 8). The Law provided Israel with terms of behavior enabling them to live a sanctified existence before God and among the nations. The Law included regulations regarding the civil governance of the nation and the ceremonial rituals of the religion of Israel.
When reading the "laws" with the "Law," it is critical to read them within the broader narrative context in which they are found.
The laws as found within the Pentateuch are set within a narrative context and do not stand alone. The function of the Old Testament laws, at least as applied to Israel, will only be understood when considered within the narrative context of exodus, wandering, and conquest. Also, the fulfillment and the historical outworking of the law continues within the narrative history of the rest of the Old Testament.
To Draw Attention --
The message of the prophets is not just found in what they said, but also, in how they said it. In this sense, the prophets masterfully use poetic form to craft their messages in such a way to draw the attention of the people in a manner that prose is incapable of matching. In other words, poetry adds shock value to the prophetic message!
Synthetic parallelism -
The primary thought in the first line is developed and enriched by the corresponding second line. With synthetic parallelism, the correspondence of ideas is not always as clear as in other forms.
Antithetical parallelism
The thoughts in each line are contrasting by way of correspondence. The conjunction "but" is an important clue in recognizing this type of parallelism.
Synonymous parallelism
The thoughts in each line correspond synonymously (saying the same thing with different words). The degree of similarity may vary between examples.
Old Testament history must be understood within the context of "deuteronomic" theology.
The whole history of Israel traces the outworking of the covenant promises of blessing and cursing as laid out before the nation in Deuteronomy 28:1-68 and 30:1-10. Without understanding this covenant background, the narratives of the Old Testament often seem arbitrary. The covenantal context of all Old Testament historical narrative should always be kept in mind by the reader. The greatest lessons for God's people will always be gleaned with this perspective guiding a discerning reader of narrative
Old Testament history must be understood within the context of "deuteronomic" theology.
The whole history of Israel traces the outworking of the covenant promises of blessing and cursing as laid out before the nation in Deuteronomy 28:1-68 and 30:1-10. Without understanding this covenant background, the narratives of the Old Testament often seem arbitrary. The covenantal context of all Old Testament historical narrative should always be kept in mind by the reader. The greatest lessons for God's people will always be gleaned with this perspective guiding a discerning reader of narrative.
This is the wisdom of Ecclesiastes.
Therefore, the wise man or woman will enjoy life but not enjoy sin, living each day to its fullest, but also living in sobriety, knowing that for all his actions there is a coming judgment.
It has been said before that history, as seen through the lens of a biblical worldview, is in reality His-story.
This could not be any truer than in Old Testament historical narrative. Most of the historical books of the Old Testament are comprised of narrative, and thus narrative must be understood to correctly interpret and apply the historical books. The following list of principles and guidelines are intended to provide an introductory framework for the study of OT historical narratives. In addition, suggestions are made concerning the best way to approach narrative
All narratives are selective, and we might not be given all the information our curiosity desires.
This includes our desire to know "what happened," but it also infers the idea that each narrative will speak to a limited number of issues, and these may not be the issues that we are dealing with in our own personal circumstances.
Six books of the Bible have been classified as poetic: Job, Lamentations, Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes and Song of Solomon.
This, however, is not to exclude other portions of scripture from the poetic genre. The prophetic books rely heavily upon the poetic mode of expression to communicate their timeless message, as do smaller portions of the historical books and the Pentateuch.
Woe oracle
Three main elementsInvective (the pronouncement of woe)Threat (the details of coming judgment)Criticism (the reason for the coming judgment)Example: Habakkuk 2:6-20; Isaiah 5:8-24Not always arranged in same order (c.f. Micah 2:1-5)
One must recognize that in regard to form, most wisdom in the Bible is communicated through poetry, not prose.
Thus one must think in terms of parallel lines as the primary means by with thoughts relate to one another in wisdom literature. Additionally, with the rich use of figurative language in Hebrew poetry, it is always necessary to carefully contemplate the point of comparison, substitution, sarcasm, or exaggeration in the figures of speech employed within proverbs, sayings, reflection speeches, and discourse.
Second, the book of Proverbs continually presents a sharp contrast between the life of wisdom and the life of folly; however this contrast has little to do with book knowledge or "street smarts," but rather, orientation to God.
Thus the contrast between wisdom and folly is often a contrast between righteousness and wickedness, a point clearly drawn out in the prologue (1:1-7) and the instructive discourses (1:8 - 9:18).
Purposes of OT Quotations
To Verify the Fulfillment or Realization of OT Prophecy (Mt 1:22-23 --> Isa 7:14) To Support a Point of Teaching in a NT Passage (Rom 1:17; Gal 3:11 --> Hab 2:4) To Simply Use OT Terminology in Drawing Parallels between OT and NT Situations (Rom 8:36 --> Ps 44:22) To Draw Analogy to Christ (Mt 2:15 --> Hos 11:1)
Do not look for each episode or prop or character within a narrative to have a moral or lesson of its own.
To do so will often lead to allegorizing the text, or at the very least, reading too much into the text. The primary function of Old Testament narrative was not to provide moral principles for God's people - this does happen, but not in every narrative.
Lament
Two perspectivesLament as prayer to God (e.g. Psalm 22, Habakkuk 1-2)Lament as expression of distress and mourningAlso found in Psalms and wisdom literatureExample: Amos 5:1-17Treats impending judgment as if it has already happenedExample: Ezekiel 19 (a lamentation in allegory)
Apocalyptic
Typically kingdom oracles with cosmic phenomena Traits of apocalyptic literature Hopelessness & evil of present world Battle between good & evil as the theme of history Divine intervention entailing catastrophic events Divine judgment ushering in a new, final era of peace Common devices of apocalyptic literature Visions of the future with graphic imagery Fantastic otherworldly settings & figures Symbolism—numbers, colors, & animals
Three Stage Hermeneutical Approach to Reading OT Quotations
Understand the NT context and the OT context from which the quotation is drawn. What differences (or similarities) exist between these? Note the differences (if any) in wording between the OT text and the NT quotation . Examine the purpose for which the NT author is quoting the OT quotation. Does the author quote the OT exegetically, analogically, or with another purpose in mind? What is the sense of fulfillment (if applicable)? Is there a pattern being realized?
We are not always told in a narrative that what happened was either good or bad.
We must discern those things from the testimony of the rest of Scripture.
Old Testament Law - Exegetical Considerations
When speaking of the Old Testament Law, a distinction needs to be made between the books of the law and the legal code itself. The books of the Law (or singular "book") comprise the Pentateuch, that is, Genesis through Deuteronomy. However, within those books are 613 commandments that taken together comprise the actual law code, those commandments and laws that form the stipulations of the Mosaic Covenant.
The Old Testament law was based on a conditional covenant in which blessings came as a result of obedience and cursing for disobedience (Deut 28).
With that said, the Mosaic Law was never designed to provide a works based means of earning personal salvation. The Law regulated the behavior of a nation, and never once hinted at being the means by which an individual could merit salvation in a soteriological sense. The Law brought temporal and material blessing and cursing to the nation for obedience or disobedience.
Second, in light of the fact that life is fleeting, death is inevitable,
and God's enigmatic ways on earth are sure to be followed by an equitable future judgment, the wise will fear God and keep his commandments.
Narratives
are stories, stories about real people and real places which have their basis in historical reality. Biblical narratives are not fables or myths which must be allegorized to find meaning, but rather, they provide for us a historical record of what God has done to and through his people in the past. In this sense, God is the foremost character in Old Testament narrative.
The NT authors often quoted the OT taking liberty
in omitting words, changing words, paraphrasing, changing points of grammar, and selectively arranging and adapting quotations to suit their purposes.
An instructional element
is common across subgenresInterwoven with other literary genres
