Big ol History

This is how Britain responded to Edmond Genet's efforts.

Britain seized U.S. ships and cargo on the open seas.

This term means to incorporate a territory into an existing political unit such as a country or state.

annex

During the second stage of the War of 1812, land and naval battles were fought along this frontier and on these lakes.

American-Canadian frontier and the Great Lakes

This was the nickname given to the group of 20,000 WWI veterans who marched on Washington, D.C., in 1932 to demand early payment of their military bonus. After Congress rejected their demand, many of the veterans stayed in the city and built tent camps around the White House.

Bonus Army

To extend its territory and gain natural resources, Japan invaded this country in the 1930s. In response, the U.S. established a trade embargo against Japan.

China

This U.S. government agency was created during WWI to boost popular opinion for the war and increase war production and the purchase of war bonds. The propaganda agency mobilized artists to design war posters, distributed millions of pamphlets, employed "Four-Minute Men" to give speeches, and organized huge parades and rallies.

Committee on Public Information (CPI)

These colonial groups worked to communicate information, spread revolutionary sentiment, and coordinate patriotic action. The first group was established in Boston during the 1760s. During the early 1770s, a network of these groups formed across the colonies.

Committees of Correspondence

These were "silverites," and this is what they wanted.

farmers and laborers who wanted bimetallism

This radical ideology originated in Italy during the 1920s and was promoted by Mussolini and his political party. It emphasized: 1) strict rule by a dictator 2) repression of opposition 3) subservience to the state (government) 4) extreme nationalism and unity 5) propaganda 6) militarism and territorial expansion

fascism

The United States utilizes this system in which power is constitutionally divided between a national government and a number of state governments.

federalism

This system is characterized by the social (government) ownership and control of the economy in an effort to achieve a more equal distribution of wealth.

socialism

This term means the supreme authority or power.

sovereignty (Popular sovereignty means that the citizens have the supreme authority.)

This was a hidden saloon or nightclub where people drank liquor during era of Prohibition.

speakeasy

During the 1920s, it became increasingly popular for investors to engage in this activity in U.S. stock markets. It involves buying stocks for a quick profit and ignoring risks. It helped create a massive bubble in stock prices, which led to a stock market crash and the Great Depression.

speculation

The Fifth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution guarantees this right.

to not be deprived of life, liberty, or property without due process (fair laws, procedures, trail)

The Third Amendment to the U.S. Constitution guarantees this right.

to not be forced to quarter soldiers during peacetime

In the 1964 presidential election, President Johnson ran against the Republican Governor Barry Goldwater, who favored U.S. military intervention in Vietnam and threatened to use nuclear bombs to stop the spread of communism in Cuba and Asia. During his election campaign, LBJ stated that he would not sent U.S. troops to Vietnam and ran this famous TV commercial.

the "Daisy Spot" (a.k.a. the "Daisy Girl" advertisement)

At this Christian mission in San Antonio, Texas, in 1836 a group of Texas rebels attempted to resist Santa Anna's army. The disorganized rebel government in northern Texas failed to reinforce the soldiers at this mission. As a result, at the end of a thirteen-day siege, Santa Anna's forces overran the mission's walls and killed almost all the defenders. News of this crushing defeat inspired Texans to join the rebel army and later use the battle cry "Remember the...!"

the Alamo

Scientists believe that when the glaciers receded at the end of the last ice age this feature emerged across the Bering Sea, linking Asia and North America. About 35,000 years ago, nomadic people from Asia walked across this feature (before the sea level rose and sealed it off) and settled in the Americas.

the Bering land bridge

The U.S. acquisition at the turn of the 20th century of this island chain (which consists of over 7,000 islands and at the time over 7 million people) caused significant controversy and debate in the United States.

the Philippines

These investigative journalists and writers of the Progressive Era helped to reveal social injustice, expose political and business corruption, and shape a climate favorable to reform. They were given this nickname by President Theodore Roosevelt.

muckrakers

This gelatinous gasoline mixture was used to create incendiary bombs that were sometimes used during U.S. airstrikes in Vietnam. Although it was also used to destroy buildings, it was primarily an anti-personnel weapon, for it sticks to skin and causes severe burns when on fire.

napalm

This term refers to a sense of belonging and loyalty to one's nation. Unlike patriotism, which is a peaceful pride and emotional attachment to one's homeland, this involves a belief that one's nation is the best and that the interests of their nation should be promoted over other nations.

nationalism

This is the attitude and practice of favoring native residents over immigrants. During the immediate post-WWI years, anti-immigrant feelings grew in the U.S.

nativism

As a backlash against the tumultuous social movements and liberal government policies of the 1960s and 1970s, this movement occurred during the late 20th and early 21st centuries.

neoconservative movement

The flow of immigrants to the United States during the late 1800s to the early 1900s is called this. Although people from Ireland, Germany, and Britain continued to immigrate to America, larger numbers of people during this phase of immigration came from Southern Europe (e.g. Italy and Greece) and from Central and Eastern Europe (e.g. Poland, Hungary, and Russia). Typically, these immigrants lacked money and education, settled in industrial cities, took factory jobs, and formed close-knit ethnic communities.

new-wave immigration

For the U.S. Constitution to go into effect, Article 7 required this number of states to ratify it.

nine

This type of organization often controlled city politics during the late 1800s.

political machine

While serving in Washington's cabinet, Hamilton and Jefferson engaged in a number of disagreements over federal policy. These disputes and the men's viewpoints were often published in newspapers and debated by Americans. By the early 1790s, these organizations formed around Hamilton and Jefferson.

political parties (A political party is an organization of people which seeks to achieve goals common to its members by electing its leaders to office and thereby exercising political power.)

This was a method the Southern states used to disfranchise blacks. It involved collecting a fee at the voting places during elections. Some Southern states waived this fee for voters who owned a certain amount of land property. Because most African Americans in the South were poor and didn't own land, this method prevented many blacks from voting.

poll tax

This was a method used by the Southern states to disfranchise blacks. In order to vote in elections, people had to pay a tax at polling places. Because most blacks in the South were poor, this method prevented many blacks from voting.

poll tax

This famous extemporaneous speech on women's rights was delivered by Sojourner Truth at the Ohio Women's Rights Convention in 1851. In her speech, Sojourner Truth related personal examples of hardship and repeatedly used the speech's title statement ("Ain't I...") to argue that women deserve legal and social equality.

"Ain't I a Woman?" speech

After witnessing the Battle of Baltimore, an American lawyer named Francis Scott Key wrote a poem initially entitled "Defense of Fort McHenry." The first stanza of this poem later became the lyrics to this song.

"The Star-Spangled Banner" (the nation anthem of the United States)

This poem, written by the English writer Rudyard Kipling, promoted the duty of the United States and Western Europe to rule over and civilize other nations and ethnic groups. The poem was published in the U.S. in 1899 and was endorsed by many Americans who favored U.S. territorial expansion.

"White Man's Burden"

Expressing his support for expansion and war in 1898, the U.S. Secretary of State John Hay referred to the Spanish-American War as this.

"a splendid little war"

This nickname has been given to several U.S. presidents who were from the North but sympathized with the South and chose not to oppose slavery during the 1850s.

"doughface" Examples: 1) President Franklin Pierce (1853-1857) signed the controversial Kansas-Nebraska Act and tried to actively enforce the Fugitive Slave Act. 2) President James Buchanan (1857-1861) declared secession illegal but claimed to lack the authority to force a state back into Union.

During the 1880s and 1890s, the federal government also opened up millions of acres of previously restricted Indian lands in Oklahoma for settlement. These lands were distributed to settlers by this method.

"land runs" (i.e. Settlers engaged in organized races and claimed the land on a first-arrival basis.)

In his 1917 war speech to Congress, President Wilson urged for a declaration of war against Germany so that the U.S. could make the world this.

"safe for democracy"

These terms were used in Christian circles to distinguish between groups within their denomination who took different positions on the Great Awakening. The (1)___ viewed the emotional fervor of the revivals as a threat to their traditional authority and ultimately opposed the Great Awakening. The (2)___ embraced the emotional aspects and supported the movement.

(1) Old Lights (2) New Lights

James Otis, a lawyer in colonial Massachusetts, is attributed with these two revolutionary catchphrases.

1) "A man's house is his castle." 2) "Taxation without representation is tyranny."

These were the harmful results of industrialization.

1) "Big business" (large corporations and their wealthy owners) gained excessive power. Industrialists often had unfair political influence, and corruption and bribes were not uncommon. Many companies worked to maximize profits by aggressively eliminating competition and attempted to create monopolies. 2) Many workers experienced poor, hazardous working conditions and received low wages. Some industrialists used coercion and force to control and push their workers. 3) Cities grew rapidly (urbanization) and became more crowded and polluted.

These were periods of intense legislative activity during which FDR and Congress created most of the New Deal programs.

1) "First Hundred Days" (1933) (a.k.a. First New Deal) 2) " Second Hundred Days" (1935) (a.k.a. Second New Deal)

During the 1960s and early 1970s, Americans became divided over the Vietnam War. These two nicknames were given to the opposing groups.

1) "doves" (opposed the war and wanted the U.S. to withdraw from Vietnam) 2) "hawks" (supported war and wanted the U.S. to maintain or intensify its involvement in Vietnam)

These were the main results of World War II.

1) 50 million people were killed (half were civilians) and millions were wounded, disabled, and homeless. 2) Europe and other areas were destroyed (physically and economically). 3) Allied forces occupied Germany, Japan, and other countries for years. 4) Axis leaders were put on trial for war crimes. 5) Many Jews who survived the Holocaust immigrated to Palestine, the U.S., and elsewhere. 6) The U.S. and Soviet Union rose in power and began a Cold War rivalry. 7) It fully revived the U.S. economy, expanded the U.S. government, and ended U.S. isolationism.

These are the basic steps of the law-making process of the federal government.

1) A bill (proposed law) is submitted to a house of Congress. 2) It is edited, debated, and voted on by the house. 3) If it passes a majority vote (50% plus one), it goes to the other house to be debated and voted on. 4) If the bill passes both houses by a majority vote, it is then sent to the president. If signed by the president, the bill becomes a law. If vetoed (rejected), the bill is sent back to Congress. 5) With a two-thirds vote in both houses, Congress can override the president's veto and the bill becomes a law.

This the significance of Bacon's Rebellion.

1) A royal commission made peace treaties with the remaining Virginia Indians (placed them on tiny reservations) and new lands were opened to the colonists. 2) Because both white and black indentured servants joined the rebellion, Virginia's ruling class hastened the development of racial lines and slave labor. 3) It was one of the first rebellions of discontented settlers in the American colonies.

These were the main results and effects that the war had on the Vietnamese.

1) About 2 million Vietnamese were killed. 2) large-scale destruction of property 3) dominance of a Communist government in Vietnam and reprisals against South Vietnamese who had aided the U.S. 4) health problems from Agent Orange

These were the main results and effects that the war had on Americans.

1) About 58,000 Americans were killed and 300,000 wounded. 2) Many soldiers developed post-traumatic stress disorder. 3) The unpopular war prompted Congress to end the military draft and create the War Powers Act. 4) The 26th Amendment was created (1971), which lowered the voting age from 21 to 18. 5) Many Americans became disillusioned and distrustful of the U.S. government.

Another factor that helped create the economic expansion of the 1920s was the rapid development of advertising. These are some advancements in advertising of that era.

1) Advertising agencies began utilizing psychological marketing (ads attempted to identify products with a lifestyle) and catchy slogans, songs, and celebrities to sell products. 2) New forms of communication (radio, movies, and national magazines) made the advertising industry more effective and influential.

These are some ways that slaves resisted bondage.

1) Although most slaves didn't openly rebel or escape, some did malinger, work slowly, break or lose tools, sabotage crops, and disobey orders. 2) Organized slave revolts to overthrow whites were rare but did occur. 3) Over 50,000 slaves escaped the South each year.

These were the unintended results of Prohibition.

1) Although the overall consumption (volume of alcohol) declined, most Americans still drank. The public's demand for liquor resulted in widespread violation of the Volstead Act. 2) In a number of U.S. cities, criminal organizations grew in size and power as they dominated the bootlegging of alcohol and the operation of speakeasies.

When World War I began, President Wilson urged Americans to remain neutral. These were two important ways our nation failed to remain strictly neutral.

1) American businesses sold the Allies war weapons and supplies. 2) U.S. banks loaned the Allies millions of dollars.

These are the main reasons why the U.S. rejected ratifying the Treaty of Versailles, signed a separate peace treaty with Germany in 1921, and never joined the League of Nations.

1) American opponents of the Treaty and the League believed that Article X of the Treaty of Versailles would enable the U.S. to be forced into unnecessary foreign wars. They argued that the U.S. Constitution gives Congress the power to declare war, not a League. 2) President Wilson had essentially given up all of his Fourteen Points at the bargaining table at Versailles with the exception of the creation of a League of Nations. Therefore, he refused to compromise with the Senate. 3) While travelling the U.S. in an effort to generate popular support for the Treaty and the League, President Wilson suffered a debilitating stroke.

These were the reasons why the U.S. declared war against Spain in 1898.

1) American sympathy for the Cuban revolt 2) yellow journalism 3) William McKinley was elected on an expansionist agenda and was pressured by imperialists. 4) publication of the de Lome letter 5) sinking of U.S.S. Maine

The American Revolution was not only a rebellious uprising and military conflict that resulted in the Thirteen Colonies gaining independence. The American Revolution also involved many dramatic political and social changes in the Thirteen States during and immediately following the Revolutionary War. These are some of the social changes of the American Revolution.

1) Americans cut ties with the Church of England and embraced the separation of church and state. 2) The democratic principles of the political revolution helped erode slavery in Northern states and stimulated women to question male dominance. 3) Primogeniture laws (requiring land to be passed down to the eldest son) disappeared. 4) The nation abandoned the English social hierarchy and titles of nobility.

These are the two national constitutions that the United States has had in its history.

1) Articles of Confederation (1781-1789) 2) United States Constitution (1789-present)

During the French Revolution, France went to war with Britain and several other European nations. These are a few reasons why this warring in Europe was problematic for the newly created United States.

1) At the time, our nation was in debt from the Revolutionary War and had a small military. Additionally, the country had recently adopted a new constitution and formed a new national government. Many Americans feared that their young country could not survive another war. 2) France had been a key ally during the Revolutionary War, and many Americans felt that the U.S. should support France in its war against Britain. 3) Trade with both Britain and France was important for many Americans and the U.S. economy. Many Americans wanted to maintain those trading relationships.

Over time, the groups that traversed the Bering land bridge spread across North, Central, and South America. Hundreds of tribes developed with different languages. These are the three main Native American tribes that emerged in Latin America.

1) Aztec (Central Mexico) 2) Maya (Yucatan Peninsula in Southeastern Mexico) 3) Inca (Peru)

This is how the western railroads were built.

1) Between 1850-1871, the U.S. government promoted railroad construction in the West by giving land grants and loans to railroad companies. For every mile of track they laid in a territory, the companies received ten square miles of land and (depending on how mountainous the land was) between $16,000 and $48,000 in loans. 2) Tracks were often built by Irish and Chinese immigrants. 3) In 1869, the first U.S. transcontinental railroad was finished when the Central Pacific and the Union Pacific lines met in Utah. 4) Railroad companies sold much of the granted land to settlers.

This is how the western railroads were built.

1) Between 1850-1871, the U.S. government promoted railroad construction in the West by giving large grants to railroad companies. For every mile of track they laid in a territory, the companies received money and ten square miles of land. 2) Tracks were often built by Irish and Chinese immigrants. 3) In 1869, the first U.S. transcontinental railroad was finished when the Central Pacific and the Union Pacific lines met in Utah. 4) Railroad companies sold much of the granted land to settlers.

These were arguments many Southerners made in an attempt to defend the practice of slavery.

1) Blacks are inferior, deserve to be enslaved, and need masters. 2) God and the Bible endorse slavery. 3) It's better than slavery and cannibalism in Africa. 4) It's better for workers (provides more security than poor workers in the North receive). 5) Masters are the "friends" of slaves and treat them well. 6) Emancipation will harm the U.S. economy.

This is how various ethnic minority groups in the U.S. were affected by the war.

1) Blacks, Hispanics, Asians, and American Indians joined military and fought in WWII. 2) Blacks were mostly segregated in the armed forces. 3) Some American Indians served in the military as "code talkers." 4) The need for labor (1) prompted the federal government to invite Mexican farm workers into the U.S. (bracero program) and (2) resulted in another mass migration of African Americans (continuation of the Great Migration) to industrial cities in the North and West. 5) The rapid growth of minority neighborhoods resulted in racial conflict (e.g. Detroit race riot of 1943, Zoot Suit Riots of 1943 in Los Angeles). 6) Japanese-Americans were imprisoned in internment camps.

These four Allied nations dominated the Paris Peace Conference.

1) Britain 2) France 3) Italy 4) United States

Of the Thirteen British Colonies, these were the New England Colonies.

1) Massachusetts 2) New Hampshire 3) Connecticut 4) Rhode Island

These were the causes of the War of 1812.

1) British blockade of France (Americans believed that Britain was depriving them of their shipping rights as a neutral nation and crippling the U.S. economy.) 2) British practice of impressment (especially the Chesapeake Incident) 3)British support of American Indian raids Believing Britain's actions (listed above) to be insulting and abusive, many Americans saw a need to uphold their national honor.

These are the reasons why the U.S. declared war on Germany in 1917.

1) British propaganda 2) U.S. trade and loans to the Allies 3) German unrestricted submarine warfare (sank the Lusitania and other European ships carrying American passengers, resumed submarine warfare in 1917 and sank several U.S. merchant ships) 4) Zimmermann Telegram

The dispute over the admission of California into Union was settled by a series of Congressional resolutions that are collectively known as the Compromise of 1850. These were the main provisions of the Compromise of 1850.

1) California was admitted as a free state. 2) The sale of slaves was outlawed in Washington, D.C. 3) A new, more effective Fugitive Slave Law was created. 4) The question of slavery in the Utah and New Mexico territories would be decided by popular sovereignty.

These were the effects of the Second Great Awakening.

1) Church membership soared 2) Denominational churches grew in number and popularity, which helped to reinforce democratic choice and freedom of religion in America 3) Focus on moral improvement and doing good works helped ignite subsequent reform movements like abolitionism and temperance

These are a few examples of things transferred in the Columbian Exchange.

1) Coffee beans, sugar cane, horses, and smallpox were brought from the Old World to the New World. 2) Corn, potatoes, tomatoes, and tobacco were brought from the New World to the Old World

With a system of checks and balances, each branch of government is given certain powers to prevent the other branches from dominating the federal government. These are examples of checks-and-balance powers.

1) Congress can override a presidential veto, impeach federal officials, ratify treaties (Senate only), and consent to federal appointments (Senate only). 2) The president can veto bills created by Congress, grant reprieves and pardons, and appoint federal judges, ambassadors, and cabinet members. 3) Federal Courts can interpret laws (determine how they will be applied) and review the constitutionality of laws (rule them null and void).

The U.S. strategy in Vietnam included these three elements.

1) Conventional warfare (i.e. find the enemy and apply superior firepower like airstrikes and artillery) 2) Attrition (i.e. wear down the Vietcong to the point that they can't put up an effective resistance and they give up on freeing South Vietnam) 3) Pacification (i.e. win the "hearts and minds" of the people by providing South Vietnam with economic aid and domestic programs)

These provision set forth in the Platt Amendment were forced into the Cuban constitution and enabled the U.S. to have considerable power over Cuba during the early 20th century.

1) Cuba was not allowed to make treaties that permitted foreign powers (except the U.S.) to control any part of its territory. 2) Cuba was not allowed to go into debt. 3) The U.S. reserved the right to intervene in Cuba to preserve its independence and property. 4) The U.S. reserved the right to buy or lease land on Cuba in order to establish American naval stations.

To help President Washington carry out the laws, the U.S. Congress created these three executive departments in 1789.

1) Department of State (foreign affairs) 2) Department of War (military matters) 3) Department of Treasury (financial matters)

These were the results of the 1988 sex scandal involving President Clinton and the White House intern Monica Lewinsky.

1) During an earlier legal interview about another case, Clinton lied (while under oath) about his relationship with Lewinsky. When he later admitted to the sexual relationship, Congress formally impeached President Clinton (charged him with perjury and obstruction of justice, and placed him on trial). 2) At the end of the impeachment trial, President Clinton was acquitted. The U.S. Senate lacked the two-thirds vote required to find Clinton guilty and remove him from office. 3) Despite being impeached, President Clinton's job approval rating remained high throughout his presidency, a fact that is mostly attributed to the prosperous U.S. economy.

In response to the widespread fear of immigrants and radicals, the federal government created these two laws during the early 1920s. Both laws significantly limited immigration.

1) Emergency Quota Act of 1921 2) Immigration Act of 1924

These are some of the environmental protection laws and agencies that President Nixon supported.

1) Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) 2) Clean Air Act of 1970 3) Endangered Species Act of 1973

During WWII, the Axis Powers and the Allies engaged in destructive, large-scale warfare in these two theaters (areas) of war.

1) European theater (Europe, Africa, Atlantic Ocean) 2) Pacific theater (Asia, Pacific Islands, Pacific Ocean)

These were the main causes of World War I.

1) Extreme nationalism, imperialism, militarism, and opposing alliances in Europe created an explosive situation. 2) War erupted after Archduke Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary was assassinated by a Serbian nationalist.

These were the key outcomes of the Montgomery Bus Boycott.

1) For over a year, blacks in Montgomery refused to ride the buses and instead walked and carpooled to work. 2) MLK and other boycott leaders were arrested. 3) During the boycott, civil rights leaders filed a lawsuit against the mayor of Montgomery. In 1956, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that the city's bus segregation laws were illegal and ordered Alabama to desegregate its buses. 4) MLK received national public attention and began his rapid rise as a main leader of the Civil Rights Movement. 5) The boycott inspired other black activists to utilize nonviolent protest and aim for rapid, radical change.

These developments were viewed by activists as an indication that the time was right to start a civil rights movement.

1) President Truman's desegregation of the armed forces and banning of hiring discrimination in federal employment 2) Supreme Court's ruling in Brown v. Board of Education

These factors helped to produce a booming economy (an abundance of production, jobs, and spending) during the 1950s.

1) G.I. Bill 2) Americans spending their saved war pay and the returns and repayment of their war bonds 3) baby boom 4) growth of the suburbs 5) popularity of automobiles and television 6) TV advertising and consumerism

These were the two main candidates in the presidential election of 2000.

1) George W. Bush (Republican, Governor of Texas, son of a former president) 2) Al Gore (Democrat, Vice President in the Clinton Administration)

The Axis powers were the nations that fought against the Allied forces during the Second World War. The Axis powers included these three countries.

1) Germany 2) Italy 3) Japan

These are the origins of the Mexican-American War.

1) In 1845 the U.S. annexed Texas, but Mexico still considered Texas a Mexican province in rebellion. 2) President Polk tried to buy California and sent troops to the disputed Texas border to pressure Mexico. Mexico rejected the U.S. diplomat sent to negotiate the purchase. 3) A skirmish between U.S. and Mexican troops broke out along Rio Grande River. 4) President Polk and Congress used the incident as a reason to declare war on Mexico in 1846.

The Arab-Israeli Conflict is an ongoing territorial dispute that has involved a series of modern military conflicts between Israelis and Arabs in the Middle East. During this conflict, the U.S. has provided significant support to the Jewish state of Israel. These are examples of U.S. aid to Israel that have contributed to the rise of anti-American sentiment in the Middle East.

1) In 1948, when Jewish leaders proclaimed the state Israel, President Truman recognized Israel as a new nation and the Jewish government as its authority. 2) Israel became a Cold War ally, and since the 1970s Israel has been one of the largest recipients of U.S. foreign aid (loans, weapons, money grants). 3) From the 1970s to 2006, the U.S. has vetoed numerous United Nations resolutions that were critical of Israel.

Many scholars consider 1968 to be the final year of the African-American Civil Rights Movement. These are the key events and developments of the late 1960s that fractured and weakened the movement.

1) In 1968, several important civil rights leaders were killed: MLK, Jr. was assassinated by James Earl Ray (which led to the worst urban rioting in U.S. history). Robert Kennedy was assassinated while campaigning for president. 2) During the late 1960s, new radical leaders like Carmichael tended to alienate whites and reduce the unity and power of the Civil Rights Movement. 3) During the late 1960s, a wave of inner city riots in black communities undercut support from the white community. Some of these riots, such as the Detroit Race Riot of 1967, were the result of blacks' frustrations with restrictive housing segregation and abusive police practices. 4) In 1968, the Vietnam War reached its height, and many Americans became more concerned with the war and the Peace Movement.

These factors ultimately led to the diminution of Native American Indians who lived near the English colonies.

1) Increasing English migration and desire for land led to numerous wars with Native Americans. 2) American Indians were also devastated by European diseases like smallpox.

This was the American Civil War. This is when it occurred, and these were the main results.

1) It was a military conflict between the United States (a.k.a. the Union, the North, USA) and the Confederate States of America (a.k.a. the Confederacy, the South, CSA) 2) The war started in 1861 and ended in 1865. 3) The Union won the war. Over 600,000 soldiers died and $5 billion in property was destroyed. The war brought freedom to 4 million black slaves and answered the question of whether a state has right to secede from the Union.

The two main candidates in the 1960 presidential election were John F. Kennedy (a young but experienced Democratic Senator) and Richard Nixon (a young Republican who was known for his role on HUAC and for his service as Vice President under Eisenhower). Ultimately, JFK won the presidential election by a very slim margin. These are two main factors that helped JFK win this election.

1) JFK's and Nixon's performances during the televised presidential debates 2) JFK's support of Martin Luther King, Jr.

These two Founding Fathers did not attend the Constitutional Convention because they were serving as U.S. diplomats in Europe.

1) John Adams 2) Thomas Jefferson

In the 1930s, Japan conquered Korea. After Japan's defeat in 1945, Korea was occupied by the Allies in this way.

1) Korea was divided in half along 38th parallel. 2) Soviet forces occupied North Korea and installed a communist government. 3) American forces occupied South Korea and installed a democratic government.

These are some of the main reasons why the Republican Richard Nixon won the presidential election of 1968.

1) LBJ dropped out of the race. 2) Robert Kennedy (who by then opposed the Vietnam War) was assassinated. 3) Demonstrations and rioting at the Democratic National Convention in Chicago made the Democratic Party appear to be weak and in disarray. 4) George Wallace (a pro-segregation politician from Alabama) split off from the Democratic Party and ran as a third-party candidate. 5) Nixon (the Republican nominee) promised to restore law and order and pledged, "we shall have an honorable end to the war in Vietnam."

These are reasons for Americans' popular love for automobiles during the 1950s.

1) Many Americans had not been able to afford a new car during the Great Depression. 2) During World War II, new cars were not made in the U.S., and gas and rubber were tightly rationed. 3) Many Americans had rising incomes and easy credit, and they were affected by persuasive advertising and widespread consumerism of the era. 4) Americans who had moved to the suburbs needed a car to commute.

These are some of the criticisms of the New Deal.

1) Many people argued that the New Deal didn't sufficiently challenge discrimination against minorities and women. 2) Conservatives argued that the New Deal overly expanded the size and power of the federal government, making it intrusive, costly, inefficient, and socialistic. 3) Socialists argued that the New Deal didn't go far enough, that it failed to adequately address economic inequality and harsh working conditions.

Of the Thirteen British Colonies, these were the Southern Colonies.

1) Maryland 2) Virginia 3) North Carolina 4) South Carolina 5) Georgia

These were the early difficulties of the Plymouth Colony.

1) Mayflower settlers arrived in late autumn and were not well prepared for the cold winter. Nearly half died during the first winter. 2) Although the settlers were initially aided by Native Americans, relations quickly deteriorated when more settlers arrived and violent conflicts erupted.

The Mexican-American War occurred from 1846 to 1848. During the conflict, U.S. forces invaded Mexico, seized California, and captured Mexico City. In the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, the U.S. and Mexico agreed to these terms.

1) Mexico agreed to give the northern third of its territory to the U.S. 2) The U.S. agreed to pay Mexico $15 million.

In 1820, the U.S. Congress made a deal called the Missouri Compromise. These are the three provisions of that compromise.

1) Missouri was admitted as a slave state. 2) Maine (formerly part of Massachusetts) was admitted as a free state. 3) Except for Missouri, slavery was to be excluded from the Louisiana Purchase lands north of latitude 36°30′.

These were the costs of the Civil War.

1) More than 600,000 soldiers died and another 500,00 were wounded. 2) Enormous financial costs ($6 billion) 3) Thousands of Southerners lost their homes and other possessions. 4) The South's economy was destroyed (eliminated its slave labor system, wrecked most of its industry and machinery, wiped out about 40% of its livestock).

These are a few of the hardships and injustices experienced by black slaves in the United States.

1) Most slaves were forced to labor on plantations, mostly serving as field hands and house slaves. 2) They were typically poorly housed, clothed, and fed and worked long hours. 3) They had no civil rights and faced varying degrees of brutality and treatment. 4) Many were sold several times in their lives, which meant being separated from their loved ones.

These were the "Big Four" civil rights organizations.

1) NAACP 2) CORE 3) SCLC 4) SNCC

Of the Thirteen British Colonies, these were the Middle Colonies.

1) New York 2) New Jersey 3) Pennsylvania 4) Delaware

These are a few of the jobs that Theodore Roosevelt held before becoming President of the United States.

1) New York legislator 2) Dakota rancher 3) NYC Police Commissioner 4) leader of the Rough Riders 5) New York Governor 6) U.S. Vice President

President Nixon believed that a quick U.S. withdrawal from Vietnam would appear as an obvious defeat for America, harm our nation's international reputation, and encourage Communists in Southeast Asia. So, seeking what he called "peace with honor," Nixon slowly withdrew the U.S. military from Vietnam and attempted to negotiate a settlement with North Vietnam that would ensure the separation and security of South Vietnam. However, during the early 1970s, Nixon also took these aggressive actions in attempts to suppress communist movements in Laos and Cambodia and pressure North Vietnamese negotiators into accepting U.S. terms. These actions angered many Americans, for it seemed as if Nixon was re-escalating the war.

1) Nixon authorized U.S. troops to invade eastern Cambodia. 2) Nixon secretly ordered massive bombing campaigns on North Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia.

These were the effects of the Watergate scandal.

1) Nixon resigned, and the Watergate burglars and numerous White House aides were sent to prison. 2) New campaign finance rules were created (Nixon had paid the Watergate burglars with campaign funds). 3) News media has become more aggressive. 4) The Watergate scandal (along the with turmoil of the Civil Rights Movement and Vietnam War) caused many Americans to lose a degree of faith in the capabilities of America and the honesty of our own government.

Barack Obama served two terms as U.S. president. These developments dominated his presidency.

1) Obama inherited the Great Recession and engaged in deficit spending to stimulate economy. The programs he and Congress created helped to end the economic crisis but increased the national debt. 2) Obama helped create the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act which requires Americans to obtain healthcare insurance and assists low-income Americans in buying it. 3) Obama ended the Iraq War by removing U.S. troops in 2011. Several years later, after ISIS developed, he placed special forces back in Iraq to assist the Iraqi army. 4) Obama attempted to end U.S. involvement in Afghanistan by greatly increasing American troop levels, training Afghan troops, and then gradually withdrawing U.S. forces. During that process, Osama bin Laden was killed. Today, about 8,000 Americans soldiers remain in an effort to oppose the Taliban and ISIS insurgents in Afghanistan.

This is how the culture of the 1930s reflected the harsh realities of the Great Depression.

1) Paintings, music, and literature were most often somber, serious, and expressive of the era's hardships. 2) Movies and radio were very popular during 1930s because they offered many people an escape from harsh realities of life. People were especially attracted to stories about good times, adventure, romance, and justice.

During the American Revolution, the colonists of the Thirteen Colonies became increasingly divided into these two main groups.

1) Patriots (a.k.a. Rebels, Whigs) resisted British control and eventually supported independence. 2) Loyalists (a.k.a. Royalists, Tories) supported traditional British authority.

These are the essential background developments and key results of the presidential election of 1860.

1) Politically, our nation had become divided over the issue of slavery. 2) The national political parties, which in prior decades had members throughout the country, broke apart. The Whig Party collapsed entirely, and the Democratic Party broke into Northern and Southern factions. What remained by the 1860 election was a number of regional political parties. 3) Abe Lincoln was nominated as the Republican candidate and won the presidential election. 4) Lincoln's election was perceived by many Southerners as a signal that federal power had fully shifted into the hands of Northerners who wanted to abolish slavery and radically change the Southern economy and culture. 5) Lincoln's election triggered many Southern states to secede from the Union.

Nixon's performance as president was both good and bad. These were two of President Nixon's biggest positive achievements.

1) President Nixon supported numerous laws that increased environmental protection and worker safety. 2) He also visited China and the U.S.S.R. and began a more peaceful and open relationship with those communist powers.

These were the two main prohibitionists organizations of the Progressive Era.

1) Women's Christian Temperance Union (WCTU) 2) Anti-Saloon League

These were the results of the Whiskey Rebellion.

1) President Washington led 13,000 militiamen into western Pennsylvania to suppress revolt. The rebels scattered, and about twenty leaders were arrested (but later pardoned). 2) The national government proved to have the ability to suppress violent resistance to its laws. 3) The federal government's display of force convinced some Americans to join the Democratic Republicans, a party that opposed a powerful central government.

These were the main goods and trade routes involved in the transatlantic trade of the Colonial Era.

1) Slaves from Africa were shipped to the Americas. 2) Sugar and molasses from the West Indies (the Caribbean) were shipped to the Thirteen Colonies. 3) Foodstuffs like fish, meat, and grain from the Thirteen Colonies were shipped to the West Indies. 4) Rum, foodstuffs, lumber, skins, whale oil, and cash crops like tobacco from the Thirteen Colonies were shipped to Europe. 5) Manufactured goods like cloth and paint from Europe were shipped to the Americas. 6) Rum from the Thirteen Colonies and manufactured goods from Europe were shipped to Africa.

In 1880, the Republican Party became divided over the issue of patronage. These two opposing groups emerged within the party.

1) Stalwarts (favored the traditional practice of patronage) 2) Half-Breeds (favored mild reform of patronage)

This is why President Taft eventually lost the support of both Progressives and conservative Republicans.

1) Taft angered conservatives in his own Republican party by busting trusts and supporting the Sixteenth Amendment. 2) Taft angered many Progressives by supporting higher tariffs (which made cheap foreign goods more expensive for poorer Americans) and allowing protected lands to be exploited.

These are the progressive reforms that Taft supported.

1) Taft busted more trusts than Theodore Roosevelt. 2) He also publicly supported the creation of the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Amendments.

This was the hierarchical structure of a political machine.

1) The CITY BOSS was the head of a political machine. He had great influence over county committees and city councils and sometimes held a political office such as mayor. 2) Working for the city boss were WARD BOSSES, who directed the activities of precinct captains within their voting district or ward. 3) PRECINCT CAPTAINS built relationships with the residents of their ward. The captains did them favors and then mobilized them during elections.

These were the results of the American Civil War.

1) The Confederacy was defeated. (Later, during the Era of Reconstruction, the seceding states were allowed to regain their status as states and given representation in Congress.) 2) The practice of slavery was outlawed throughout the U.S. 3) The federal government assumed supreme national authority (i.e. ended ideas of nullification and secession). 4) Americans increasingly thought of the U.S. as one nation rather than a collection of states. 5) The Republican Party tended to dominate the federal government for several decades.

These are reasons why the Populist Party collapsed soon after the 1896 election.

1) The Populists' morale was harmed after they joined with the Democrats and still lost the presidential election of 1896. 2) The Democratic Party adopted many Populist positions, so most Populists joined the larger Democratic Party. 3) Economic prosperity returned (after the Panic of 1893) in late 1890s, which weakened the need or urgency from some of their reforms like bimetallism.

Militarily, this is how the Union and Confederacy compared at the start of the Civil War.

1) The South had a motivating cause (defend their homes and culture) and good generals (experienced from Mexican-American War). 2) The North had a more established, powerful central government, Lincoln's leadership, a larger population, and more resources, food, factories, and railroads.

These two developments of 1890-1891 threatened American sugar planters in Hawaii. They responded by staging a revolution and taking control of the Hawaiian government in 1893.

1) The U.S. began taxing imported Hawaiian sugar. 2) Queen Liliuokalani challenged the growing American control over her islands and promoted a "Hawaii for Hawaiians" agenda.

These are some of the problems the United States experienced due to the weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation.

1) The U.S. couldn't force the states to pay their debts to foreign nations. As a result, Britain reoccupied its forts in the Northwest Territory. And, France, Spain, and Britain closed a few of their busiest ports to American trade. 2) The U.S. couldn't settle trade disputes among the states. 3) The U.S. couldn't raise enough money and was therefore unable to maintain a sufficient army and effectively deal with uprisings like Shays' Rebellion.

These U.S. actions of the mid and late 20th century angered many Iranians.

1) The U.S. fomented a government coup in 1953 and help to place a pro-American leader, the Shah, in power. 2) The U.S. harbored the Shah during the Iranian Revolution of 1979. 3) During the Iran-Iraq War of the 1980s, the U.S. established an arms embargo against Iran and supported Iraq and its leader Saddam Hussein with military aid.

These were the causes of the Civil War.

1) The U.S. was established with legal slavery. 2) The North and South developed major economic and cultural differences and desires (sectionalism). 3) Territorial expansion during the mid-1800s and the question of slavery in the territories challenged the traditional balance of power between the North and South. 4) A number of threatening events of the 1850s intensified the rift between Northerners and Southerners. 5) Lincoln's election triggered Southern secession. 6) The attack on Fort Sumter triggered the start of the war.

These factors encouraged white settlement of the Great Plains and the Far West.

1) The West offered cheap land that could be farmed, ranched, and mined for precious metals like gold. 2) Most whites believed that Native Americans were inferior and undeserving of the land. 3) Because many tribes had not permanently settled and improved the land in the ways whites were accustomed to, many whites felt that Native Americans had forfeited their right to the land. 4) Whites developed trails west for traders and settlers (e.g. Oregon Trail, Santa Fe Trail). 5) Railroads were extend across the West. 6) To protect settlers and travelers, the U.S. government began forcing the Plains Indians onto reservations beginning in the 1850s.

The rapid growth in the number of people living in American cities during the mid and late 1800s caused these urban problems.

1) unhealthy, crowded housing 2) destructive city fires 3) disease 4) poverty 5) crime and violence 6) political corruption

The Treaty of Versailles was a punishing treaty. President Wilson was able to get the Allied leaders to agree to only one of his Fourteen Points. These are the main provisions of the Treaty of Versailles.

1) The empires of the Central Powers were broken up, and nine new nations were established in Eastern Europe. 2) Germany was especially punished (colonies taken, limited military, pay $33 billion reparations to Allies, war-guilt clause). 3) The League of Nations was established.

There were the results of the XYZ Affair.

1) The incident was reported to Congress and made public. 2) Anti-French feelings increased in the U.S., and, although Adams sought neutrality, many Federalists pushed for war. 3) Congress did not officially declare war but did expanded the U.S. Navy and authorized attacking French warships in American waters. This undeclared war fought at sea between the United States and France from 1798 to 1800 is known as the Quasi-War.

These were the main economic difficulties of farmers during the Gilded Age.

1) The increase in farming during the late 1800s (advancements in farm technology, white settlement of the West) led to a drop in crop prices. 2) In response to falling crop prices, many farmers mortgaged their farms to buy more land. 3) Railroads charged high rates to transport crops. 4) Merchants charged high prices and interest rates for seeds and supplies. 5) The removal of greenbacks (Civil War currency) and the Coinage Act of 1873 (backed currency only by gold) created deflation, which made it harder for farmers to make their loan payments and store-credit payments. 6) Due to the reasons above, many farmers struggled financially, and during that era an increasing number lost their farms to foreclosure.

In 1848, gold was discovered in the foothills of the Sierra Nevada Mountains in Northern California. These were the results of that discovery.

1) The news created what is known as the California Gold Rush, a wave of intense migration in which thousands of "forty-niners" flocked to California in 1849 hoping to strike it rich. 2) In just twenty months after the discovery of gold, the population of non-native Americans in California grew from 800 to over 100,000. 3) The sudden population boom led to disorder and lawlessness, as the territorial government proved inadequate. In order to create state laws, courts, and law enforcement, leaders in California applied for statehood.

These were the main weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation and the government it established.

1) The only governmental body established by the Articles of Confederation was the Congress of the Confederation, which had little power but many responsibilities. 2) There was no judicial branch (national courts) and no executive branch (president, power to enforce laws). 3) In the Congress of the Confederation (the legislature) each state had only one vote, regardless of population. 4) The Congress of Confederation had no power to tax (could only request money from the states) and no power to regulate interstate and foreign commerce. 5) Important laws (e.g. war, treaties, coin money) required a supermajority of 9 (of the 13) votes, and amendments to the Articles required a unanimous vote.

These results of the Civil War helped to depress or harm the Southern economy during the Era of Reconstruction.

1) Union armies devastated large amount of Southern property (homes, businesses, machinery, farms, livestock) and infrastructure (railroads, bridges). 2) About 20% of the Confederate troops died in the war, and many who returned were disabled or maimed. 3) The South's slave labor system was suddenly eliminated, which required both whites and blacks to adjust. 4) Southerners of all classes were poorer.

These are the five permanent member nations of the UN Security Council.

1) United States 2) United Kingdom 3) France 4) Russia 5) China

By the end of WWII, these two countries stood as the world's superpowers. Their military forces occupied much of war-torn Europe and Asia, and by 1949 both nations possessed nuclear weapons.

1) United States 2) Soviet Union

The Allies were the countries that together opposed the Axis powers during the Second World War. Although the Allied powers included more than 25 nations, these three countries provided the most leadership and resources.

1) United States 2) United Kingdom 3) Soviet Union

These were the terms agreed to in the Geneva Accords.

1) Vietnam would be temporarily divided along 17th parallel (forming North and South Vietnam). 2) Vietnamese forces would withdraw to North Vietnam. French troops would withdraw to South Vietnam and then leave the country. 3) Public elections would be held in 1956, and Vietnam would be united under a government chosen by popular vote.

These were the political party affiliations of the early U.S. presidents.

1) Washington (officially nonpartisan but was generally sympathetic to Federalist positions) 2) Adams (Federalist) 3) Jefferson (Democratic Republican) 4) Madison (Democratic Republican) 5) Monroe (Democratic Republican)

This is the three-stage system of territorial government and admission to the union that was established by the Northwest Ordinance of 1787.

1) When an organized territory had fewer than 5,000 people, it would be governed by a territorial governor and three judges, all appointed by Congress. 2) When its population reached 5,000 free adult males, the territory would create its own elected assembly (legislature). 3) When the territory's total population reached 60,000, its elected assembly would draft a state constitution and apply to Congress for statehood.

These were the two main candidates of the 1896 presidential election and the positions they took on the money standard.

1) William Jennings Bryan (Democrat) supported bimetallism. 2) William McKinley (Republican) supported the gold standard.

These were the three main presidential candidates and their parties in the election of 1912.

1) William Taft (Republican) 2) Teddy Roosevelt (After failing to win the Republican nomination, he started the Bull Moose Progressive Party.) 3) Woodrow Wilson (Democratic Party)

These were the two main arguments made by suffragists as to why women deserve the right to vote.

1) Women have natural rights, just as men do. 2) Women's virtue will help to reform politics and society.

These were the two main arguments made by anti-suffragists.

1) Women voting contradicts the natural order of civilization. 2) Women voting will harm society (corrupt women, destroy the home, increase divorce and child neglect).

The peace agreement that ended U.S. military combat in Vietnam is known as the Paris Peace Accords. It was signed in 1973 by representatives of North Vietnam, South Vietnam, the United States, and a provisional revolutionary government representing the Vietcong. These were the main provisions agreed to in the Paris Peace Accords.

1) a ceasefire and U.S. withdrawal from Vietnam 2) the release of U.S. prisoners 3) free elections would take place and Vietnam would be reunified "through peaceful means"

These are the root causes of American imperialism during the late 1800s and early 1900.

1) a continuation of the popular belief of manifest destiny 2) the closing of the American frontier 3) a desire for natural resources and new markets 4) a desire for military strength (overseas naval bases) and international status 5) a belief in American cultural and racial superiority (better government and religion, Social Darwinism)

The economic plan known as the "American System" consisted of these three parts.

1) a higher tariff intended to protect and promote American businesses (The Tariff of 1816 was created.) 2) reestablishing a national bank to foster commerce (The charter of the First Bank of the United States had been allowed to expire in 1811. The Second Bank of the United States was created in 1816.) 3) federal aid for "internal improvements" such as building roads, bridges, and canals to develop profitable markets and unite the economic regions of the U.S. (The National Road, a.k.a Cumberland Road, was built from Maryland to Illinois.)

These were the sources of America's 19th-century industrial growth.

1) abundant raw materials (e.g. coal, iron, wood, oil) 2) large labor supply (high birth rate and immigration) 3) surge in technology (telegraph, telephone, light bulb, phonograph steel, oil drilling, railroads steam engines, electric generators moving assembly line, mass production) 4) talented entrepreneurs and modern corporations

These are a few important farming inventions of mid and late 1800s.

1) barbed wire (enclosed ranches to contain and protect domestic animals but harmed bison) 2) John Deere's steel plow (more efficiently tilled soil) 3) Cyrus McCormick's reaper (horse-drawn machine that cut standing grain) 4) steel windmill (used to power machines, e.g. pump ground water, grind grain, saw wood)

These were President Reagan's main efforts as president.

1) boost the U.S.'s troubled economy 2) oppose communism by building up U.S. military strength 3) advance the neoconservative social agenda by proposing a constitutional amendment on school prayer, waging a "War on Drugs", and appointing several conservative Supreme Court justices

These terms refers to the illegal transportation of alcohol during Prohibition.

1) bootlegging (smuggling alcohol over land) 2) rum-running (smuggling alcohol over water)

Although its beginnings trace back to the 1960s and 1970s, the neoconservative movement attained national strength and political power during a modern era that spanned from the 1980s to the early 2000s. The movement's supporters often came from these groups in America.

1) business owners who want fewer taxes and regulations 2) fundamentalist Christians who want to preserve traditional religious morals 3) middle and upper class whites who are frustrated with entitlement welfare programs and affirmative action and who feel that "big government" is harmful to the nation's economic health

These are the three basic types of English colonies.

1) charter colony (king authorized a joint-stock company or group of settlers to organize and govern a colony) 2) proprietary colony (king granted land to an individual to own and govern) 3) royal colony (king governed the colony through his appointed officials)

Most U.S. soldiers sent to Vietnam were drafted. Although the "lottery" selection of men age 18 to 26 was intended to be fair, by these methods many Americans were able to avoid the draft. As a result, most soldiers who served in Vietnam were lower-income whites and minorities.

1) college deferment 2) political connections 3) joined the National Guard or Coast Guard 4) medical exemptions or a lenient draft board

All of these sources influenced the writing of the first constitutions (state and national) of the United States.

1) colonials experiences with the English king and Parliament 2) colonials experiences with their own colonial governments 3) ideas of ancient political philosophers and governments (e.g. Plato, Roman Republic) 4) ideas of modern political philosophers (e.g. Locke)

These are main causes of the Great Depression.

1) crop prices fell after WWI and many farmers struggled during the 1920s 2) lack of diversification in the U.S. economy (focused on auto industry) 3) uneven distribution of wealth during the 1920s (workers wages were low) 4) buying on credit and high levels of private debt 5) stock speculation and buying on margin (resulted in a stock market bubble and crash) 6) widespread bank failures (many people lost their savings) 7) high tariffs and a decline in American spending (resulted in a drop in international trade and a worldwide economic depression)

These were the main issues that the Bull Moose Progressive Party of 1912 supported.

1) direct election of U.S. Senators 2) initiative, referendum, recall in all states 3) woman suffrage 4) workers' compensation and an eight-hour workday 5) outlawing child labor

These are the main factors that enabled Europeans to rapidly conquer the New World.

1) disease brought by Europeans 2) Europeans' superior military technology 3) division among Indians

The post-WWII prosperity in America was not evenly distributed. Although the booming economy helped to reduce poverty, in 1960 more than one-fifth of the nation lived in poverty. These were the main groups in the U.S. at the time who disproportionately experienced this poverty.

1) elderly Americans 2) African Americans, especially sharecroppers in the South 3) Hispanics, especially migrant farm workers 4) whites in rural Appalachia

These forms of corruption were typically utilized by city bosses.

1) election fraud 2) controlling political offices 3) controlling police forces 4) influencing courts 5) graft

These were the main difficulties the U.S. faced during the immediate post-WWI years (1919 to the mid 1920s).

1) ethnic intolerance and ultra-patriotism of the war years continued into the 1920s 2) economic slump after the war until 1922 3) workers angered and labor strikes occurred 4) African Americans frustrated (war efforts not recognized) 5) people became fearful of radical ideas (e.g. communism, anarchism), outsiders, and instability (revolution)

These are the three types of large-scale, national unions that emerged during the Gilded Age.

1) general unions 2) federated craft unions 3) industrial unions

These were the main motivations of the conquistadors to explore and conquer the New World.

1) gold (wealth, land) 2) glory (fame, adventure) 3) god (spread Christianity)

These factors helped promote popular beliefs of manifest destiny during the 1800s.

1) growing U.S. pride and nationalism after the Revolutionary War 2) abundance of land and the economic opportunities it offered 3) desire in early 1800s to perfect American society 4) solution to the economic problems and crowding in the East

This is how the popularity of cars affected the U.S. after World War II.

1) helped to expand the U.S. economy (car manufacturing, repairs, gas stations, etc.) 2) helped create a car culture (drive-in theaters, drive-thru restaurants, cruising, driving trips and motels) 3) helped stimulate the U.S. government to create interstate highways during the 1950s

The pro-business small-government philosophy of the U.S. presidents of the 1920s emphasized these policies.

1) higher tariffs 2) lower taxes 3) minimal government interference in American society and economy (no trust busting, didn't support labor laws or unions) 4) isolationism

These are some of the broad goals of the Progressives.

1) improve living and working conditions 2) change the nation's morality and behavior 3) curb corporate power and end business monopolies 4) stop political corruption and increase democracy

These are the main reforms which the Populist Party supported.

1) increase the money supply 2) a graduated income tax 3) nationalize the railroads 4) the direct election of U.S. Senators 5) an eight-hour workday

These were the results of the American victory of the War of 1812.

1) intense feelings of patriotism among Americans 2) new war heroes made, e.g. Andrew Jackson 3) stimulated the growth of American manufacturing and economic independence 4) triggered the slow collapse of the Federalist Party (The party had long favored Britain and strongly opposed the war. News of Jackson's victory at New Orleans and the Treaty of Ghent, just weeks after the Hartford Convention, discredited and disgraced the Federalists.) 5) increase in popularity of the Democratic Republicans and the party's acceptance of more federal power 6) ushered in a decade-long "Era of Good Feelings" marked by a decline in party disputes and a rise of national unity

During the mid and late 1800s, gold and silver was discovered in California, Colorado, Nevada, Arizona, Idaho, Montana, and South Dakota. These were the results of the western mining rushes

1) intense migration to the West (prospector "rushes") 2) development of boom towns and lawlessness 3) pressure to remove Indians and create new states 4) Individual prospecting was rapidly replaced by corporate mining, but many miners stayed and engaged in farming, wage work, etc.

These were the main effects in America of the U.S. government's WWI propaganda.

1) intense patriotism and support for the war 2) intolerance, suspicion, and violence towards immigrants (especially German-Americans) and those who opposed the war, such as socialists and pacifists 3) laws that limited the freedom of speech

Besides muckrakers and a number of reform efforts led by women, these are other groups who worked to improve American society and helped to create the Progressive Movement.

1) labor unions and labor leaders 2) American socialists 3) African-American civil-rights leaders 4) progressive politicians

Over time, as the slave populations in the South grew and white Southerners became increasingly fearful of slave revolts, the Southern states created laws to control slaves. Although these slave codes varied from state to state, they typically outlawed slaves from these activities.

1) learning to read and write 2) preaching without the owner being present 3) owning guns 4) purchasing alcohol 5) assembling in public 6) testifying in court

These were the main motivations of English settlers to move to the New World and establish colonies.

1) make profit (charters gave individuals and companies regional monopolies) 2) obtain land (crop land was scarce and expensive in England) 3) gain religious freedom 4) escape European wars

Formally known as the Servicemen's Readjustment Act of 1944, the G.I. Bill was a law that provided a range of benefits for returning World War II veterans (commonly referred to as G.I.s). The goal was to provide rewards for World War II veterans and soften the effects of a postwar economic slowdown caused by the nation's transition away from war production and military employment. Instead of promising deferred cash bonuses like World War I, the G.I. Bill provided these immediate benefits.

1) payment of tuition and living expenses for veterans who attend high school, college, or vocational school 2) low-cost mortgages 3) low-interest loans to start a business 4) one year of unemployment compensation

These are difficulties which workers faced during the Gilded Age.

1) poor pay 2) long hours 3) repetitive, exhausting work 4) dangerous working environments 5) child labor

During the late 20th century, the neoconservative philosophy dominated the Republican Party. These are the main goals of neoconservatives.

1) promote religious morals, family values, and patriotic ideals 2) promote business and economic freedom by cutting taxes and government regulations 3) promote U.S. national security by maintaining a large, strong military and by taking an active, leading role in opposing foreign threats to the U.S. and promoting democracy in the world

Blocked by a Republican-controlled U.S. Congress, President Truman was unable to win approval for several of his Fair Deal plans, including his civil-rights proposals. Doing what he could to promote civil rights, Truman exercised his presidential authority over the executive departments and order the end of these unjust racial practices.

1) racial discrimination in the hiring of government employees 2) racial segregation in the armed forces

Wanting to modernize the Democratic Party and shift it away from its traditional "big government" philosophy, President Clinton often took moderate stances on social and economic issues. These are some of President Clinton's main domestic efforts.

1) raised taxes on the 2% wealthiest Americans 2) used budget surpluses to pay down the public debt 3) approved of welfare reform (limits on cash assistance to poor) 4) helped create NAFTA (North American Free Trade Agreement) which lowered tariffs and increased trade between the U.S., Canada, and Mexico, but made outsourcing more affordable 5) attempted healthcare reform (rejected by the GOP)

In an effort to boost U.S. economic growth and reduce governmental intervention in the economy, President Reagan supported these economic policies, which were dubbed "Reaganomics" by his critics.

1) reduce income taxes, especially on wealthy Americans (a policy labelled "trickle-down economics" by his critics) 2) reduce spending on social programs like Medicaid, food stamps, and housing assistance 3) ease environmental protections (oil, timber, mining) 4) increase military spending

These are examples of 19th-century technology that influenced the warfare of the American Civil War.

1) rifles (much better accuracy and range than smooth-bored muskets, made charges against defensive positions more difficult and deadly) 2) field fortifications (defensive barriers and trenches made necessary by the effectiveness of the rifle) 3) ironclad warships 4) railroads 5) telegraph

These are the types of local self-help activities that members of the Grange and Farmers' Alliances engaged in.

1) shared farming techniques and knowledge 2) established cooperatives (mutually-owned supply stores, grain elevators, silos, and insurance companies) 3) hired negotiators to sell their grain 4) elected state legislators

Although nationalism was continuing to develop among Americans during the early 1800s, the divergent growth of the North and South caused Americans to become increasingly concerned about the interests of their own section of the country. This sectionalism between the North and South focused on these issues.

1) slavery (The North banned it; the South relied on it.) 2) tariffs (The North wanted to protect U.S. businesses by taxing cheaper imported goods; the South wanted to buy cheap imports.) 3) federal vs. state power (The North favored a stronger federal government; the South favored stronger state governments.)

These were the main methods the Nazi regime used to carry out what they called the "Final Solution to the Jewish Question."

1) starvation, disease, and exhaustion in concentration camps 2) mass shootings by mobile death squads 3) poison gas at death camps such as Auschwitz in Poland

These were the initial difficulties of the Jamestown settlement.

1) swampy location 2) settlers searched for gold rather than food 3) mass starvation and disease 4) conflict with the native Powhatan Indians

These are the origins of the United States' involvement in the Middle East.

1) the Cold War (The U.S. attempted to establish pro-U.S. allies in the Middle East and prevent the spread of communism and Soviet influence in the region.) 2) the Arab-Israeli Conflict (The U.S. supported Israel.) 3) the U.S. desire for oil and economic security (During the late 20th century, U.S. production of oil began to decline yet our demand continued to rise. The Middle East, which contains about 80% of the world's oil reserves, was considered a strategically important region to the U.S.)

George W. Bush served two terms as U.S. president. These two developments dominated his presidency.

1) the War on Terror 2) the Great Recession

These factors brought about the passage and ratification of the Nineteenth Amendment.

1) the efforts of the NWP and NAWSA 2) women's contributions during WWI (selling bonds, working in factories, nursing wounded soldiers) 3) President Wilson's eventual support

These factors stimulated the emergence among the colonists of a separate identity, a sense of nationalism as Americans.

1) the large geographic separation from Britain 2) the mixture of ancestry and culture in the colonies 3) local rule and salutary neglect 4) a sense of importance after winning the French and Indian War 5) colonial resentment with the way the British treated the colonials (as inferiors) during and after the French and Indian War

These developments helped to stimulate the Women's Liberation Movement of the 1960s and 1970s.

1) the persistence into the late 20th century of the cult domesticity and women's social and economic inequality 2) JFK's Commission on the Status of Women (reported widespread discrimination against women in the workplace) 3) the Civil Rights Movement and the Peace Movement 4) the bestselling book The Feminine Mystique 5) the Civil Rights Act 1964 (banned gender discrimination in employment)

Evidenced by the drug abuse problems among U.S. troops in Vietnam and the hundreds of "fragging" incidents (attempts by American soldiers to kill their own leaders) that occurred in the later years of the war, the morale of U.S. forces in Vietnam deteriorated during the late 1960s and early 1970s. These were some of the main factors that harmed troop morale during that period.

1) the physical and psychological effects of guerrilla warfare 2) the difficult (perhaps impossible) task of eliminating the communist insurgents while also winning the popular support of the South Vietnamese people 3) President Johnson's 1968 announcements 4) President Nixon's slow U.S. withdrawal and continuation of the war 5) the American public's increasing disdain for the war and some Americans' treatment of returning soldiers

Formed from members of the defunct Federalist party in the North and South, the Whig Party supported these principles and policies.

1) the supremacy of Congress over the President 2) the American System (protective tariffs, Bank of the United States, federally funded roads and canals)

The rapid growth in the number of people living in American cities during the mid and late 1800s caused these urban problems.

1) unhealthy, crowded housing 2) destructive city fires 3) disease 4) poverty 5) crime and violence 6) political corruption

These were the main results of the Mexican-American War.

1)The U.S. won the war and gained a massive amount territory. 2) The war propelled some generals, like Zachary Taylor, into fame and political power. 3) The war increased Americans national pride. 4) The war reawakened the slave debate. (e.g. Would slavery be allowed to extend into the newly acquired territory?)

One of the three "Reconstruction Amendments," this change to the U.S. Constitution was ratified in 1868 and was a product of Congressional Reconstruction. This amendment: 1) defined citizenship (which meant that former slaves were citizens with constitutional rights) 2) declared that a state cannot deprive a person of their life, liberty, or property without due process (fair laws, trial) 3) declared that a state cannot deny a person the equal protection of the laws

14th Amendment

In the presidential election of 1868, about a half million African Americans voted, mostly for Ulysses S. Grant. Because freedmen had become key voters in the South, Republicans in Congress feared that Southern whites would attempt to limit black voting rights. To reaffirm black males' right to vote, Congress created this amendment to the U.S. Constitution. The amendment declares that the right to vote shall not be denied "on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude." This amendment was ratified in 1870 and stands as one of the three "Reconstruction Amendments."

15th Amendment

In this year Africans first arrived at Jamestown and the importation of slaves to the English colonies in North America began.

1619

By this year, all of the Northern states of the U.S. had voted to outlaw slavery. Many of these states, such as Pennsylvania and New York, required a gradual emancipation of slaves, rather than instantly freeing all slaves at once.

1804

As early as 1837, the Republic of Texas made several attempts to negotiate annexation with the United States. Due to opposition from both Whig and Democratic leaders who feared that adding another slave state to the South would aggravate sectional tensions in Congress, these early attempts were rejected by the federal government. However, as belief in manifest destiny increased during the 1840s, the question of acquiring Texas became the central issue in the presidential election of 1844. Ultimately, in this year, when newly elected President James Polk took office, Texas was annexed and made a state of the Union.

1845

This year represents a major turning point in the American Civil War. During this year, two key Union victories (at Vicksburg and Gettysburg) split and crippled the Confederacy. Although many more Civil War battles would be fought after this year (some of which would be Confederate victories), the North thereafter had a distinct advantage and was able to slowly wear down the South.

1863

Lasting three months, the Spanish-American War occurred in this year.

1898

The Second World War occurred during these years.

1939 - 1945

China's civil war ended in this year, when Chinese Communist forces finally defeated the Nationalists and established a Communist government led by Mao Zedong.

1949

In this year, the Soviet Union successfully developed the atomic bomb.

1949

In this year, the U.S. signed the Paris Peace Accords and removed the last American combat forces from Vietnam.

1973

The war between North Vietnam and South Vietnam continued until this year, when North Vietnamese forces captured Saigon. Historians mark this year as the end of the Vietnam War. Soon afterward, Vietnam was officially unified under a Communist government.

1975

Created in the mid 1960s, this Amendment to the U.S. Constitution prohibits the use of a poll tax (payment) as a requirement to vote in federal elections.

24th Amendment

By 1860, there were about 4 million slaves in the United States. During the 1700s and early 1800s, Southern states developed large slave populations. South Carolina and Mississippi, for example, had more black slaves than free whites. Although most white Southerners approved of slavery and wanted to own slaves, slaves were expensive. During the early and mid 1800s, about this percent of white Southerners owned slaves.

25% (Most slave owners had fewer than five slaves. Only 1% of slave owners—the rich and politically powerful Southerners who owned large plantations—had more than a hundred slaves.)

The Great Depression was the worst economic collapse in U.S. history. The effects of the Depression lasted from 1929 to the early 1940s. The economic crisis involved a stock market crash, a rapid decline in the production and sale of goods, the closing of thousands of businesses and banks, the loss of homes and savings, and widespread hunger and emotional depression. At its peak in 1933, the unemployment rate in the U.S. reached this percent.

25% of all workers were out of work.

During the early and mid 1800s, approximately this many slaves escaped from the South each year.

50,000

Eventually, President Johnson's "middle path" proved to be a dead end. His attempts to win the "hearts and minds" of the South Vietnamese by providing them with economic aid and beneficial domestic programs were ruined by corrupt Vietnamese officials and counterproductive U.S. military tactics. As Vietcong resistance grew, LBJ's strategy to secure South Vietnam with minimal U.S. military intervention became unsustainable. To protect American forces from Vietcong attacks, LBJ increased troop levels in Vietnam, which further inspired Vietcong resistance and, in turn, further pushed LBJ to send more troops to Vietnam. In this manner, President Johnson greatly escalated the Vietnam War during the mid and late 1960s. By 1968, there were more than this many U.S. troops in South Vietnam.

500,000

Approximately this percentage of the native Indians in Latin America died from forced labor, violent conflict, and disease brought on by the conquistadors and early Spanish and Portuguese settlers.

80 %

One of the contentious disagreements that arose at the Constitutional Convention was the clash between representatives of large and small states over the issue of whether representation in the national congress would be equal or proportional. A lengthy deadlock was finally broken when delegates from Connecticut proposed a compromise plan that blended the large-state and small-state proposals. Known as the "Great Compromise," the convention ultimately agreed to structure the national congress this way.

A bicameral congress would be formed. Representation in the lower house (the House of Representatives) would be based on the population of each state. Representation in the upper house (the Senate) would be equal (two Senators for each state).

This is a corporate trust (a.k.a. a trust company).

A corporate trust is a combination of corporations that are organized under the control of a single trust company, which runs all the companies as if they were one. It is formed when stockholders of competing corporations turn over their stock to a trust company in exchange for a trust certificate entitling them to dividends. Historically, corporate trusts are associated with monopolies and abusive, anti-competitive business practices.

This is the difference between a general union, a craft union, and an industrial union.

A general union is open to all, allowing workers from various industries and skills to be members. A craft union only allows skilled workers to be members. An industrial union only allows workers in a specific industry (regardless of their skill level) to be members.

During the Civil War, both the U.S. government and the Confederate government created legal loopholes that enabled men to avoid being drafted into military service. These were a few of those loopholes.

A man who was drafted could avoid military service during the Civil War by paying a $300 fee, hiring a substitute who would serve in his place, or by holding an "essential" job, such as a position in government. (Note: Unable to easily utilize the loopholes, poorer Americans tended to resent the draft system, and some fiercely resisted conscription. For example, in July of 1863, draft riots occurred in New York City that lasted four days.)

In 1942, the U.S. government declared a special "military area" along the West Coast and ordered all residents of Japanese ancestry to move several hundred miles inland. About this many Japanese Americans were imprisoned in internment camps for the remainder of the war. Most of these Japanese Americans were U.S. citizens, and their forced relocation and incarceration were gross violations of their constitutional rights. Furthermore, because they were given little time to relocate, many Japanese Americans were forced to sell their homes, businesses, and property for a fraction of their value.

About 110,000 of the 120,000 Japanese Americans living in the continental United States were imprisoned in internment camps during World War II.

This was the death toll of World War I.

About 22 million people died (more than half civilians) in World War I. This number includes 112,000 Americans who died as a result of the conflict.

This U.S. president was born into a poor farming family in Kentucky who later moved to Illinois. Tall, thin, charismatic, trustworthy, and extremely intelligent, this self-educated man was a frontier lawyer who, before becoming president, served several terms as an Illinois state legislator and just one term as a member of the U.S. House of Representatives. He ran for the U.S. Senate in 1858, but lost to Stephen Douglas. He was elected U.S. president in 1860 and again in 1864 but was assassinated the following year.

Abraham Lincoln

Rising to power through his Nazi Party and taking the title "Fuhrer" (leader), this dictator ruled Germany from the early 1930s to mid 1940s. He attempted to create an expansive empire in Europe ("Third Reich") by building a massive military, launching the Second World War, and conducting the Holocaust.

Adolf Hitler

These were the advantages and disadvantages of Britain during the American Revolutionary War.

Advantages: Britain had a large navy and well trained army, a strong government with money, and the support of colonial Loyalists and Native Americans. Disadvantages: The war was far from Britain (costly to wage war). The British were less familiar with the terrain, and its soldiers were fighting for pay and out of loyalty to the crown.

These were the advantages and disadvantages of the United States during the American Revolutionary War.

Advantages: The Patriots were more familiar with the terrain, received aid from abroad (made a key alliance with France), and were fighting for homes, families, future (inspiring cause). Disadvantages: Initially, the Patriots no navy. Their national government (Continental Congress) was newly formed and lacked broad powers over the thirteen states. Not all Americans were Patriots.

Immediately following the September 11 attacks, President Bush proclaimed that the terrorist assaults were an act of war and asked Congress for the authority and support to wage a "War on Terror," a campaign to not only eliminate the al-Qaeda organization but also defeat terrorist groups around the world and the governments that support them. As part of this "War on Terror," the U.S. invaded and attempted to democratize these two nations in the Middle East.

Afghanistan (The War in Afghanistan, 2001-present, involved the destruction of the Taliban government, the hunt for Osama bin Laden, and continued opposition to extremist insurgents.) Iraq (The Iraq War, 2003-2011, became controversial because of President Bush's inaccurate claims of Saddam Hussein's possession of WMDs and support of al-Qaeda. The war resulted in the destruction of the Hussein regime, the formation of a democratic government in Iraq, and the destabilization of the region.

During the first few years of Congressional Reconstruction, this was the role that blacks played in Southern politics.

African-American men served as delegates to state constitutional conventions, eagerly voted, and held public offices, including several seats in the U.S. Congress. With black participation, the newly created Southern state governments of Congressional Reconstruction worked to repeal the black codes and provide schools, public works projects, and relief to the poor. Although Southern whites complained about "Negro rule" during Congressional Reconstruction, blacks never dominated the Southern governments.

This is how President Roosevelt was eventually able to gain a lease on the land to build the Panama Canal. It's a good example of American overseas imperialism during the early 20th century.

After Colombia rejected a U.S. lease offer, President Roosevelt supported a revolt by Panamanian rebels. U.S. warships blocked sea lanes, which hindered Colombia's attempts to quickly send troops to put down the rebellion. Panama declared independence, and within days the United States recognized the new nation and signed a treaty with the new Panamanian government to lease the land to build the Panama Canal.

This is how the Soviet Union dominated Eastern Europe after WWII.

After WWII and the Potsdam Conference, Stalin installed pro-Soviet governments and suppressed political opposition in the Eastern European nations it occupied.

This is why President Jefferson sent U.S. warships to the Mediterranean Sea.

After the U.S. gained its independence from Britain and lost its protection on the seas, pirates working for a number of kingdoms along the Barbary Coast of North Africa began seizing American merchant ships and enslaving the crews. For years, the U.S. agreed to pay tributes to the Barbary States, but when Jefferson took office the pasha of Tripoli demanded a larger sum. In turn, Jefferson refused the demand, and the pasha declared war on the U.S. With permission from Congress, Jefferson sent warships to fight the pirates and expanded the size the U.S. Navy. This conflict, known as the First Barbary War, lasted from 1801 to 1805 and resulted in an American victory. It was the first military action in foreign lands and seas authorized by the U.S. Congress.

This is how the Civil Rights Movement changed during the mid- and late 1960s.

After the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965, Martin Luther King, Jr. and the SCLC turned their attention to addressing de facto segregation in the Northern states and advancing African Americans' economic prosperity. As King struggled to make progress in these areas, and as our nation's focus shifted toward the worsening war in Vietnam, many blacks grew frustrated. Civil rights groups began to disagree over strategy, and there was a rise of new civil rights leaders and groups that advocated black nationalism and an abandonment of nonviolent protest.

In an attempt to expose hiding places of the Vietcong, U.S. aircraft sprayed 19 million gallons of this plant killer in South Vietnam.

Agent Orange

Created in 1933, this federal agency attempted to help farmers by improving crop prices. It told farmers how much to produce and paid them (subsidies) for leaving some of their land idle.

Agricultural Adjustment Administration (AAA)

This Italian-American gangster of the Prohibition Era eliminated his competitors through violence. His criminal organization, known as the Chicago Outfit, controlled liquor, gambling, and prostitution in Chicago. The Outfit bootlegged from Canada, operated illegal breweries, and ran a network of 10,000 speakeasies.

Al Capone

This candidate won the presidential election of 2000, and this is why that election was controversial.

Al Gore won 500,000 more votes in the popular vote, but Bush won more electoral votes. Ultimately, the election came down to which candidate would win the electoral votes from Florida. On the first count, Bush won the popular vote in Florida by just a few hundred votes, a margin which by Florida law called for an automatic recount. However, this recounting was disputed largely because the ballot counting machines were miscounting the ballots with hanging "chads." Republicans demanded a stop of the manual recount that ensued and argued that Bush should be declared the winner. Both campaigns dispatched teams of lawyers to Florida, and some fifty lawsuits were filed concerning counts, recounts, and voting deadlines. Ultimately the Supreme Court ruled to stop a manual recount because it could not be done uniformly and within the federal voting deadline. In the end, the first vote count was used, and Bush was certified the winner of Florida and thus won the presidency.

These were the September 11 attacks of 2001.

Al-Qaeda terrorists hijacked four airliners. Two of the planes struck, and ultimately destroyed, the Twin Towers of the World Trade Center in New York City. Another plane was flown into the Pentagon, and another crashed in a field in Pennsylvania.

In an attempt to unite the colonies in order to better protect themselves against the French and their Indian allies, Ben Franklin submitted this plan to a meeting of colonial representatives in 1753. The plan called for an inter-colonial government made up of a President-General and a Grand Council that could enact laws, make treaties with Indians, and raise an army. Although it was initially endorsed by the representatives at the meeting, the plan was ultimately rejected by both the King and colonial assemblies.

Albany Plan of Union

Born on a Caribbean island to unmarried parents and orphaned as a child, this Founding Father was sent to New York to receive a formal education. He served as an officer in the Continental Army and, after the Revolutionary War, practiced law and wrote many of the Federalist Papers. This self-made, ambitious aristocrat was eventually appointed by President Washington as the nation's first Secretary of Treasury.

Alexander Hamilton

In 1890, this American naval officer wrote the book The Influence of Sea Power upon History and urged for the growth of the U.S. navy and the acquisition of foreign territories and naval bases.

Alfred T. Mahan

This former U.S. government official was accused of being a Soviet spy in 1948 and convicted of perjury in connection with this charge in 1950. At the time, his case seemed to lend substance to Americans' fears that communists had infiltrated the United States and the federal government.

Alger Hiss

During World War I, England, France, Russia, the U.S. and many other nations were collectively referred to as this group.

Allies

This radical suffrage leader joined NAWSA during the early 1900s and began lobbying the federal government for a constitutional amendment to guarantee women's right to vote. When tensions developed between her and the leaders of NAWSA over her focus on a constitutional amendment, she cut ties with NAWSA and formed her own woman suffrage organization.

Alice Paul

Disagreeing over a number of issues and developments, such as Hamilton's financial programs and the diplomatic troubles with Britain and France, the rift between the Federalists and Democratic Republicans increased during the 1790s. In response to the Democratic Republicans' public criticisms of the Federalist-controlled government and to the fear that an increasingly divided nation would rip itself apart, the U.S. Congress created these laws in 1798, which outlawed the publishing of false or malicious writings against the government and the inciting of opposition to any act of Congress or the president.

Alien and Sedition Acts

The first state constitutions were created during the Revolutionary War by representatives who attended a special convention in their state. Although the state governments have many small differences, their state constitutions feature these major similarities.

All of the state constitutions feature: 1) popular sovereignty 2) limited authority of the government 3) elected governors and legislature 4) a separation of powers 5) a bills of rights

This was the outcome of the Mystic massacre and the final battles of the Pequot War.

Almost all of the Pequot Indians were killed or enslaved. The colonials attributed their success to an act of God and seized Pequot lands. A colonial wrote, "Let the whole Earth be filled with his glory! Thus the lord was pleased to smite our Enemies...and to give us their Land for an Inheritance."

The phrase "readmit the Confederate states back into Union" means this.

Although most Northerners and federal leaders like President Lincoln believed the Union to be perpetual and argued that the seceding states never left the Union, they did acknowledge the fact that the Confederate states had renounced (abandoned) their membership in the federal government. The phrase "readmit the Confederate states back into Union" means to allow those states to once again hold federal elections, hold seats in the U.S. Congress, and participate in the federal government.

These were the results of Reaganomics.

Although the effects are often debated, most historians agree that Reaganomics: 1) boosted the growth of the U.S. economy 2) widened the gap between rich and poor in the U.S. 3) increased federal budget deficits and our national debt

This was the Supreme Court's decision on the case Marbury v. Madison.

Although the justices agreed that it was right for Marbury to receive his commission, they ruled that the Supreme Court did not have the power to issue a writ of mandamus. During their consideration of the case, the justices found that the Judiciary Act of 1789 (which set up the federal courts and gave the Supreme Court jurisdiction over petitions for writs of mandamus), was unconstitutional because the 1798 law extended the Court's jurisdiction (authority) beyond that which is stated in the U.S. Constitution. Consequently, in its ruling on Marbury v. Madison, the Supreme Court declared the Judiciary Act of 1789 unconstitutional and denied Marbury's request for a petition because the Supreme Court lacked jurisdiction in the case.

This American organization was founded in 1898 and was dedicated to opposing the annexation of the Philippines.

American Anti-Imperialist League

This official term refers to the U.S. armed forces sent to Europe under the command of General John J. Pershing in 1917 to help fight World War I.

American Expeditionary Forces (AEF)

This was an alliance of craft unions formed in 1886 by disaffected members of the Knights of Labor. Samuel Gompers of the Cigar Makers' International Union served as its president for several decades. This grouping of skilled-workers' unions was the largest union organization in America during the early 20th century.

American Federation of Labor (AFL)

This Native-American rights organization was established in 1968. To gain greater control of their tribal lands and draw attention to their poor living conditions and dependence on welfare, members of this organization engaged a number of protests during the late 1960s and 1970s, such as: 1) the occupation of Alcatraz Island 2) the "Trail of Broken Treaties" march in Washington, DC, and a 3-day sit-in at the Bureau of Indian Affairs building 3) the Wounded Knee incident (seized the town in South Dakota for 71 days, took hostages, traded gunfire with FBI) 4) sit-ins in federal courts armed with copies of old treaties

American Indian Movement (AIM)

This political party was also known as the Know-Nothing Party. It originated from several secret nativist organizations which later formed into a national political party in 1854. Its members opposed immigration and immigrants, especially Irish Catholics. The party disintegrated by the election of 1860 as its members failed to agree on the slavery issue and consequently joined other parties.

American Party

Promoted by Congressman Henry Clay, this economic plan was intended to develop and unite the U.S. economy. It was devised in the burst of nationalism that followed the War of 1812, out of a desire to better compete with British manufacturing.

American System

This American temperance organization was formed in 1826. It established thousands of local chapters with members who took a pledge to abstain from drinking alcoholic beverages. In time, its members increasingly pressed for the mandatory prohibition of alcohol (i.e. the creation of laws) rather than for voluntary abstinence.

American Temperance Society

This is the nickname of the Union's military strategy during the Civil War. The three-part plan involved (1) blockading Southern ports with the Union Navy to cut off the Confederacy's cotton trade with Europe, (2) gaining control of the Mississippi River and isolating the western portion of the Confederacy, and (3) capturing the Confederate capital at Richmond, Virginia.

Anaconda plan

This group opposed ratification of the U.S. Constitution. They feared a stronger national government and argued that the U.S. Constitution (which gave numerous powers to the federal government and lacked a bill of rights) would result in governmental tyranny. Patrick Henry and Samuel Adams were advocates for this group.

Anti-Federalists

During the Civil War, Union and Confederate forces took thousands of prisoners. At first, prisoner exchanges occurred, but the Union later abandoned this practice when Confederates began executing black soldiers. Both sides built and operated prisoner camps that featured horrible conditions and high death rates. This Confederate prison in Georgia was the worst prison camp of the war. It's prisoners suffered from poor shelter and sanitation, little food, and rampant disease.

Andersonville

As a child, this industrialist emigrated from Scotland with his family. He worked as a telegraph operator, invested his money, and built a steel mill in Pennsylvania. Through horizontal integration (bought many competitors) and vertical integration (bought iron and coal mines, ships, and railroads), he established a massive steel company that dominated the industry during the late 1800s. In 1901, he sold his company and devoted his life to philanthropy, establishing a number of libraries and schools. He also wrote the "Gospel of Wealth."

Andrew Carnegie

From humble origins, this Tennessee frontier politician gained fame during the War of 1812 for leading American troops against Indians in the Southeast and then defeating the British at the Battle of New Orleans. Nicknamed "Old Hickory" by his troops, this hot-tempered, tough leader engaged in several duels during his life. He was elected U.S. president in 1828 and served two terms.

Andrew Jackson

This vice president became president when Lincoln was assassinated. A Democrat from Tennessee, he did not share the Republicans' goal to remake the South. During his presidency, he pursued a policy of leniency toward former rebels and neglect toward former slaves. He vetoed several Republican reconstruction bills, such as the Civil Rights Act of 1866, the Reconstruction Acts of 1867, and a bill to renew the Freedmen's Bureau.

Andrew Johnson

At this meeting in Maryland in 1786, representatives from a few of the colonies gathered to discuss their interstate trade difficulties and decided that changes to the Articles of Confederation were necessary. The group urged for a national convention of all the states, but their requests were largely ignored.

Annapolis Convention

This Puritan woman hosted meetings in her Boston home to discuss sermons and the Bible. She claimed that "the Holy Spirit [enlightens] the heart of every true believer" and that worshipers didn't need the church or ministers to interpret the Bible for them. In response to her promotion of unorthodox religious beliefs and individualism, Puritan ministers banished her from the Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1638. Along with a band of followers, she and her family traveled south to an island in Narragansett Bay and established the settlement of Portsmouth.

Anne Hutchinson

In the mid 1830s, this military general and president of Mexico seized control of the Mexican government, dissolved the Mexican Congress, and suspended the Mexican constitution. Threatened by this growing dictatorship, settlor Texans banded together, defeated several small garrisons of Mexican troops, and declared their independence. In response to this rebellion of white Texans, this president led the Mexican army north in 1836 to bring Texas back under Mexican control.

Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna

In 1865, Grant's large army pursued Lee's weakened forces in Virginia and engaged in series of running fights. Outnumbering Lee's army by more than two to one, Grant's forces eventually blocked Lee's retreat at this village in Virginia. There, on April 9 in a private home, Lee surrendered his forces to Grant, an event that inspired the remaining Confederate armies to surrender soon after.

Appomattox (The original name of the village was Appomattox Court House.)

This is how most of the large, costly labor disputes (strikes) of the late 1800s were resolved.

Armed troops (e.g. National Guard, U.S. Army, or Pinkerton's men) dispersed union strikers, took control of the factory, and protected new workers (strike breakers).

This Vietnamese army was formed and trained by the U.S. in 1955. It was used by President Diem and the U.S. to combat the communist insurgency in South Vietnam.

Army of the Republic of Vietnam (ARVN)

Joseph McCarthy's downfall came in 1954 when he began investigating suspected Communists and security risks in the U.S. Army. To investigate conflicting accusations between the Army and McCarthy, the U.S. Senate conducted these televised hearings, during which the American public witnessed firsthand McCarthy's unethical tactics. As a result of the hearings, the Senate condemned McCarthy of "conduct unbecoming of a senator," and McCarthy quickly declined in popularity. Without any support in the Senate, McCarthy became an alcoholic and died just three years after the hearings.

Army-McCarthy hearings

As president, Theodore Roosevelt believed that the federal government should ensure that all Americans are given a "Square Deal." These are some of President Theodore Roosevelt's progressive reforms and actions.

As president, Teddy Roosevelt: 1) engaged in trust busting (e.g. He broke up the Standard Oil Company and the railroad monopoly Northern Securities Company.) 2) supported organized labor (e.g. He forced owners to negotiate with workers during the 1902 Coal Strike.) 3) promoted public health reforms (e.g. He pushed for the creation of the Meat Inspection Act and the Pure Food and Drug Act.) 4) engaged in conservation (e.g. He used his executive power to create protected forests and wildlife areas.)

This is how many African-American men participated in the war.

At first, only whites fought in the Civil War. In 1862 Congress authorized blacks to serve in the military, and after Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation in 1863, large numbers of runaway slaves enlisted in the Union Army. During the war, African Americans in the Union Army served in separate (segregated) regiments and were often assigned labor duty. Some black fighting units, such as the 54th Massachusetts Regiment, engaged in battles. In the Confederate Army, African Americans were used as a slave labor force and never allowed in combat.

This is why the Cuban Missile Crisis was called a crisis.

At the time of Kennedy's naval blockade of Cuba, Soviet ships were on route to deliver additional nuclear missiles to Cuba. Khrushchev warned the U.S. not to attempt to stop the Soviet ships. Kennedy warned the U.S.S.R. that the Soviet ships would not be allowed to cross the naval blockade. A naval battle or U.S. airstrikes on Cuba could have initiated a full-scale war between the U.S. and U.S.S.R., which may have involved the use of nuclear weapons.

This is why far more troops were killed by disease (including infection) than by bullets during the American Civil War.

At the time of the Civil War, surgeons had little understanding of germs. They didn't use antiseptics, and antibiotics had not yet been invented. Consequently, soldiers who were wounded in combat often developed deadly infections (e.g. gangrene, blood poisoning). Additionally, army camps often had poor sanitation and hygiene, which led to outbreaks of diseases like dysentery and typhus.

This document was created by Franklin Roosevelt and Winston Churchill in 1941. With this document, FDR and Churchill agreed on a number of important principles and goals: the destruction of Nazi tyranny and the creation of a new world order of peace and freedom. Although FDR couldn't declare war, he pledged full assistance to the Allies. This document was quickly endorsed by other nations, became the basis of a more formal alliance document the Allied countries signed the following year, and was an inspiration for the creation of the United Nations organization at the end of the war.

Atlantic Charter

After a Nazi Party gained popularity and power there, German troops entered that country in 1938, and that country was absorbed into the Third Reich. The German annexation of that country is known as the Anschluss.

Austria

This term refers to the first ten amendments to the U.S. Constitution. These amendments were all adopted in 1791 and guarantee Americans some of their most important civil rights.

Bill of Rights

After seizing the capital of the United States, British forces attempted to invade this Southern coastal city. American troops battled and ultimately repulsed British ground forces on the outskirts of the city, and, more famously, soldiers in Fort McHenry resisted a British naval bombardment.

Baltimore

Another plan proposed by Alexander Hamilton (the first Secretary of Treasury) was the creation this, which issued paper money, handled the federal government's funds, and made loans to businesses and state governments. Although the proposal of this institution faced widespread resistance, it was created in 1791 and given a twenty-year charter.

Bank of the United States (a.k.a. BUS)

In 1819, leaders of the Missouri Territory applied for admission as a state where slavery would be permitted. This is why Missouri's application for statehood caused intense debate in the U.S. Congress.

Basically, Northern Congressmen didn't want slavery to expand in the United States and therefore wanted to prohibit slavery in Missouri. Southern Congressmen argued that new states should be free to choose slavery. At that time there were eleven free states and eleven slave states in the Union. Admitting Missouri as a slave state would upset this sectional balance of power.

Many colonists protested that the writs of assistance violated their rights as British subjects. The colonists made these criticisms of the warrants.

Basically, the warrants were too general (not specific with limits) and therefore too powerful. The warrants: 1) didn't expire 2) were transferable (the holder of a writ could assign it to another) 3) allowed any place to be searched at the whim of the warrant holder 4) excused searchers from being held responsible for any damage they caused

During Japan's conquest of the Philippines in 1942, about 60,000 Filipino and 10,000 American prisoners of war were forced to endure this famous, sixty-mile march to Camp O'Donnell, a former military post the Japanese converted into a POW camp. During the march, the prisoners were subjected to physical abuse and thousands were killed. Similarly, conditions in the POW camps operated by the Japanese in the Philippines were characterized by malicious killings, cruel treatment, torture, forced labor, disease, and inadequate food and water.

Bataan Death March

This Civil War battle occurred in Maryland in 1862 and was the bloodiest single day of combat during the war. Although General Lee was outnumbered two to one, the Union General George McClellan chose not to commit all his forces to the battle. The next day, when Lee retreated with his troops, McClellan didn't pursue the weaker Confederate Army. Consequently, General McClellan was fired by President Lincoln after this battle.

Battle of Antietam

This was the first large land battle of the American Civil War. In 1861, three months after Confederate forces captured Fort Sumter, 30,000 Union soldiers marched from Washington, D.C., toward the Confederate capital in Virginia. Confederate troops intercepted the Union Army along a creek about twenty-five miles from Washington. This one-day battle ended when Confederate reinforcements arrived and the Union Army fled. The Confederate victory boosted the morale of the South and helped shatter the Northern belief that it would be a quick, easy war.

Battle of Bull Run

This was the first large-scale battle of the American Revolutionary War. By late spring of 1775, about 15,000 colonial militia had closed in on British-held Boston. On June 17, British troops repeatedly attacked colonial militia forces that had occupied several hills surrounding the city. Ultimately, the British took the hills but lost more men than the colonials.

Battle of Bunker Hill

This was the other "turning point" battle of 1863. Hoping to lure Grant's army away from its siege on Vicksburg, General Lee invaded the North by leading a large Confederate Army into Pennsylvania. Eventually, Lee's 75,000 Confederate troops were intercepted by 90,000 Union troops, and for three days they fought among a few low hills and a cemetery on the outskirts of a small town in Pennsylvania. After Confederate forces failed to take the hills and their all-out attack on the cemetery (Pickett's Charge) ended in disaster, the crippled Confederate Army retreated and was never again strong enough to invade the North.

Battle of Gettysburg

The U.S. invasion of this small volcanic island in Pacific in 1945 was one of the most costly victories of the war. During this battle, U.S. Marines were photographed raising the American flag on Mount Suribachi.

Battle of Iwo Jima

This was one of the battles of The Great Sioux War of 1876. At this battle, elements of the 7th Cavalry Regiment attacked a large group of Sioux, Cheyenne, and Arapaho Indians who had gathered for an annual bison hunt and were camped along the Little Bighorn River. Not knowing that his men were greatly outnumbered, Lieutenant Colonel George Custer divided his forces. While one cavalry group attempted a direct charge, Custer and a detachment of about 200 soldiers attempted to flank the Indian camp but were surrounded and killed. News of this defeat angered many white Americans and increased pressure on the federal government to defeat the Plains Indians.

Battle of Little Bighorn (a.k.a Custer's Last Stand)

With its victory in this battle in the Pacific in 1942, the U.S. halted Japan's eastward expansion toward the continental United States.

Battle of Midway

Although negotiators signed the Treaty of Ghent in December of 1814, it took six weeks for ships to cross the Atlantic and bring news of the peace treaty. During that time, in January 1815, the British suffered a decisive defeat at this battle, when they attempted to invade a key port city in the deep South. American troops in this battle were commanded by Andrew Jackson.

Battle of New Orleans

This was the last major battle of the war in the Pacific. In 1945, U.S. forces launched a massive amphibious assault on this populated Japanese island, which was only 350 miles from Tokyo. The battle lasted 82 days as Japanese military troops, kamikaze pilots, and hastily drafted civilian militia provided bitter resistance. During this battle, nearly 80,000 Japanese soldiers were killed. Additionally, tens of thousands of Japanese civilians died in combat with American troops, from unintended collateral damage, and by suicide.

Battle of Okinawa

At this battle in 1836, the Texas rebel army defeated the overly confident Mexican army, and Santa Anna was captured and forced at gunpoint to sign a treaty giving Texas independence.

Battle of San Jacinto

Also occurring during the summer of 1777 was this battle in upstate New York. British troops that had invaded from Canada got bogged down in the wilderness, were unable to get reinforcements and supplies, and eventually were surrounded and attacked by American forces. The surrender of British forces at this battle is regarded as the turning point of the war, for it renewed revolutionary confidence (which had suffered from the British occupation of Philadelphia) and encouraged a powerful European nation to form a military alliance with the U.S.

Battle of Saratoga

During this battle, which occurred on Christmas night in 1776, Washington led 2,400 men in rowboats across the Delaware River, marched nine miles through a storm, and attacked a garrison of 1,500 Hessians in New Jersey. Washington's successful surprise attack was a much-needed victory that boosted the Patriots' morale and inspired reenlistment.

Battle of Trenton

This "turning point" battle occurred in 1863. At that time, Confederate forces controlled the lower Mississippi River by setting up a battery of cannons in a town along the river. General Grant led Union troops down the Mississippi River, circled around behind the cannons aimed at the river, and pinned 30,000 Confederates inside the town. After six weeks of being bombed and starved, the Confederate forces in the town surrendered, and the Union was able to gain control of all of the Mississippi River.

Battle of Vicksburg (a.k.a. Siege of Vicksburg)

This battle was the last major German offensive of World War II. During the winter of 1944-1945, 250,000 German troops launched a large counterattack along Germany's western border. Some U.S. forces were surrounded but did not surrender. After weeks of fighting and heavy losses, the Allies eventually drove back the German forces.

Battle of the Bulge

In 1961, 1500 U.S.-trained Cuban exiles landing at this location in Cuba in an attempt to start an anti-communist revolution. The assault was a failure (most of the exiles were taken prisoner) and an embarrassment for President Kennedy who authorized the attack. This event further harmed U.S.-Cuban relations during the Cold War.

Bay of Pigs

These are characteristics of the economies of the Southern Colonies.

Because of the region's warm, wet climate and good soil, farming dominated, especially the growing of cash crops like tobacco and indigo. Soil exhaustion led to rapid territorial expansion and the growth of large plantations. The need for farm labor resulted in a great demand for indentured servants and slaves.

This is how France responded to Jay's Treaty.

Because the U.S. had agreed to favor British trade, France was angered by Jay's Treaty. In retaliation, France seized U.S. ships and cargo.

This was how war was averted during the Cuban Missile Crisis.

Before the Soviet ships reached the U.S. blockade of Cuba, Khrushchev and Kennedy made a deal. The Soviet Union agreed to remove its missiles from Cuba, and the U.S. agreed to remove its nuclear missiles from Turkey and promised not to invade Cuba.

The famous "Join or Die" political cartoon (which depicts a serpent divided into pieces that are labeled with abbreviated names of the colonies) was created by this person and for this reason.

Ben Franklin created the illustration and published it in his newspaper, the Pennsylvania Gazette, in 1754. He wanted to encourage the colonists to adopt the Albany Plan of Union (i.e. unite the colonies under a common government).

During the early 1920s, this Italian dictator rose to power through his Fascist Party and took the title "Il Duce" (the leader). He ruled Italy until the Allies invaded his country in 1943.

Benito Mussolini

At the age of 81, this leader from Pennsylvania was the oldest delegate at the Constitutional Convention. He provided wisdom, experience, and a calming influence.

Benjamin Franklin

This colonial leader from Pennsylvania symbolized the "dare to know" spirit of the Enlightenment. He published thought-provoking newspapers and books, conducted experiments, invented, founded civic organizations, and supported the American Revolution and the development of a republican government.

Benjamin Franklin

Backed by big business, this politician defeated Grover Cleveland in the 1888 presidential election and, as President, helped to raise tariffs.

Benjamin Harrison

Joseph Stalin felt threatened by the Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan. In 1948, Stalin attempted to force Britain, France, and the U.S. out of the western half of this city by cutting off all access to it and preventing its 2 million residents from getting necessary supplies like fuel, food, and medicine.

Berlin

This was the first inexpensive and efficient process of turning iron into steel, which is stronger and more rust resistant than iron. It involves injecting air into molten iron to remove carbon and other impurities. The process was developed during the mid 1800s and helped create a new industrial age of railroads, large mechanical inventions, big bridges and skyscrapers.

Bessemer process

This feminist author and activist wrote the book The Feminine Mystique and helped to establish the organization N.O.W.

Betty Friedan

In the context of American immigration history, the term "melting pot" means this.

Between 1840 and 1920, 37 million immigrants came in the U.S. About 80% were Europeans Significant numbers also came from: Latin America Canada China Japan Blending of ethnic groups, cultures, ideas

Theodore Roosevelt believed in military strength and the use of American power (both diplomatic and military) in the world. This is the nickname given to President Roosevelt's foreign policy.

Big Stick Diplomacy

This is why McKinley won the 1896 presidential election.

Big business contributed millions to McKinley's campaign.

This law professor and Democratic Governor of Arkansas served as U.S. president from 1993 to 2001.

Bill Clinton

In 1963, the SCLC organized and led local activists in this Alabama city to engage in marches and sit-ins. Many of the demonstrators were arrested, including Martin Luther King, Jr. who wrote a famous letter while in jail. During this campaign, the SCLC heightened the marches by persuading teenagers and school children to join in. The city's police attempted to stop the marches by attacking the demonstrators with dogs and with water from fire hoses.

Birmingham

This militant black organization was founded in Oakland, California, in 1966. The group advocated for self-defense, self-sufficiency, justice, and equality. Dressed in black leather, berets, and sunglasses, members formed patrols to monitor police and protect residents.

Black Panthers

Inspired by leaders like Marcus Garvey and Malcolm X, this radical black nationalist philosophy was popularized and promoted by Stokely Carmichael and others during the late 1960s and early 1970s. The philosophy generally emphasized racial pride, self-assertion, black cultural heritage, and, for some supporters, black separatism. Spokesmen of this philosophy, such as Carmichael, argued that blacks must lead their own organizations, organize themselves to gain political power (especially in areas where they constituted a majority), and possibly (if democratic processes are cheated) engage in violent revolution.

Black Power

This term refers to October 29, 1929, a day of panicked selling on Wall Street and the beginning of the Stock Market Crash of 1929.

Black Tuesday

This is "black gold" and its role in 19th-century American history.

Black gold refers to petroleum (crude oil). During the late 1800s, oil drilling and refining quickly became major industries in the U.S. In 1859, removing subsurface oil became practical when a steam engine was first used to drill oil in Pennsylvania. An oil drilling boom quickly resulted in the Midwest and later in Texas and California. At the same time, the oil refining business arose. These businesses distill the crude oil into fuels and other useful derivatives. During the late 1800s, kerosene, which Americans used in oil lamps to light their homes, was the most important fuel. During the early 20th century, when automobiles became affordable and electric lighting was fast replacing kerosene lighting, gasoline became the most important petroleum product.

This African-American leader of the late 1800s and early 1900s, established a black vocational school in Tuskegee, Alabama. He advocated for blacks to temporarily accept segregation and their inferior status and concentrate their efforts on attaining vocational skills, developing self-reliance, and becoming a valuable part of the American economy.

Booker T. Washington

This black civil-rights leader and educator was born into slavery and later wrote the book Up From Slavery. He established a black vocational school in Tuskegee, Alabama, and advocated for blacks to build themselves up by developing skills and self-reliance.

Booker T. Washington

This black educator and civil rights leader was born into slavery and later freed during the Civil War. After raising himself up through education, he helped establish a black vocational school in Tuskegee, Alabama in 1881. As an educator, author, and lecturer, he became a popular spokesman for African Americans. He advocated for blacks to temporarily accept segregation and an inferior status but work hard to build themselves up and become self-reliant through vocational training. He believed that blacks could best gain equal rights by first developing themselves (as a group) into a valuable part of the American economy.

Booker T. Washington

This event, which took place in Massachusetts in 1770, involved the taunting of British soldiers at a customs house and the death of five colonists. Publicized by colonial newspaper writers and artists (e.g. Paul Revere's illustration), the event heightened tensions throughout the Thirteen Colonies.

Boston Massacre

During this 1773 event, a group of colonists dressed like Indians boarded ships in a New England harbor and threw a large shipment of tea overboard. The protesters (members of the Sons of Liberty) were angry with the British policy to allow a huge surplus of tea in England to be sold in the colonies tax-free. They felt that the British government was inducing the colonists to buy the cheap (but taxed) tea and implicitly agree to accept Parliament's right of taxation.

Boston Tea Party

This is how the South and the North financed (paid for) the war.

Both the CSA and the USA printed money, levied taxes, and borrowed money by selling war bonds. The Confederate government, newly made and with little power over the Southern states, struggled to sell bonds and raise tax revenue. It resorted to printing large sums of money, which led to harmful inflation. The U.S. federal government, which was well established and trusted by Northerners, was able to borrow, tax, and print money more effectively.

During his presidency, FDR enlisted the aid of a group of professors, lawyers, economists, and journalists to help him shape the New Deal. This group of advisers was nicknamed this.

Brain Trust

This is why Great Britain increased taxes on the Thirteen Colonies during the 1760s.

Britain had amassed huge government debt from the French and Indian War and also faced the high costs of keeping an army in North America to protect the colonists. The British government reasoned that the colonials should share the cost of their own defense.

In the context of the mid 1700s, this term refers to all the territories and colonies in North America, Asia, Africa, and the Caribbean that were ruled by Great Britain.

British Empire

This is how the British government responded to the colonial protests against the Sugar and Stamp Acts.

British Parliament: 1) repealed the Stamp Act 2) lowered the Sugar Act taxes 3) passed the Declaratory Act which asserted the power of Parliament to make laws over the colonies

In its ruling on this 1954 landmark case, the U.S. Supreme Court declared racial segregation in public schools to be unconstitutional. Arguing that segregation in schools is psychologically damaging to black school children, Chief Justice Earl Warren ruled that separate educational facilities are inherently unequal and violate the equal protection clause of the Fourteenth Amendment.

Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka

This federal agency was formed to enforce the Volstead Act. Its investigators were called Prohibition Agents. Although some agents, like Elliot Ness who helped to bring down Al Capone, aggressively enforced the law, this agency was unable to successfully enforce Prohibition across the nation. It was under funded and some of its agents accepted bribes.

Bureau of Prohibition

This is how voting qualifications and elections had changed in the U.S. by the late 1820s.

By the late 1820s, the states: 1) eliminated property requirements to vote 2) required that electors to the Electoral College be chosen by popular vote, rather than by the state legislatures 3) This expansion of voting rights changed politics in the United States. It ended the domination of the government by elite planters and businessmen, and resulted in the election of "log cabin" politicians and a government of the "common people."

This U.S. president served from 1923 to 1929. He assumed office when Warren G. Harding died in 1923. Like his predecessor, this president was a conservative, pro-business Republican. He once said, "the chief business of the American people is business."

Calvin Coolidge

This English soldier and explorer took control of Jamestown and imposed order during the settlement's first few years. He proclaimed, "He who shall not work, shall not eat."

Captain John Smith

This American woman was a radical member of the temperance movement during the early 1900s. She is particularly noteworthy for attacking drinking establishments with a hatchet.

Carrie Nation

After WWII began in 1939, the U.S. government revised the Neutrality Acts by creating this plan, which permitted Britain and France to purchase arms if they paid with cash and shipped the goods themselves.

Cash-and-Carry Plan

Following its ruling on Brown v. Board of Education, the U.S. Supreme Court declared that communities must desegregate schools "with all deliberate speed." Unfortunately, many Southern school districts resisted desegregation. Perhaps the most famous example of this refusal occurred at this school in 1957.

Central High School in Little Rock, Arkansas (White mobs blocked black kids from entering the school, and Arkansas Governor Orval Faubus supported the obstruction. In response, President Eisenhower sent Army troops to force compliance and escort the black students, known as the Little Rock Nine, to their classes.)

This federal agency collects information about foreign nations and conducts secret operations to protect U.S. national security. During the Cold War, this agency engaged in extensive espionage (spying) against the Soviet Union and conducted covert operations to weaken and overthrow unfriendly governments in Iran, Congo, Guatemala, Cuba, Indonesia, Vietnam, and other nations.

Central Intelligence Agency (CIA)

During World War I, Germany, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, and the Ottoman Empire were collectively referred to as this group.

Central Powers

During the 1960s and 1970s, this Mexican-American civil rights activist and labor leader helped to organize migrant farm workers in California into a labor union. To force growers to recognize the farm workers' union and increase pay, he organized strikes and utilized nonviolent protest, such as a campaign that convinced consumers to boycott grapes.

Cesar Chavez

This mentally disturbed, Stalwart office-seeker assassinated President Garfield.

Charles Guiteau

In 1807 a British warship stopped a U.S. naval vessel off the coast of Virginia. After the captain of the American warship refused to be searched, the British opened fire (killing several U.S. sailors), boarded the American ship, and seized four men. This event is known as this, in reference to the name of the U.S. naval vessel. It greatly angered the American nation and caused some to call for war with Britain.

Chesapeake Incident (a.k.a. Chesapeake-Leopard Affair)

Hired by the king and queen of Spain, this Italian sailor and navigator sought a shorter sea route to Asia and in 1492 "rediscovered" the Americas.

Christopher Columbus

This church was established by King Henry VIII who broke with the Catholic Church during the early 1500s. Although this church allowed the introduction of Protestant beliefs into Britain and was free from papal control, it retained many Catholic traditions.

Church of England (a.k.a. Anglican Church)

This federal law prohibits segregation in public accommodations and bans discrimination in education and employment. A number of factors helped push this law through Congress, such as the March on Washington, the assassination of JFK, and the leadership of President Johnson. This law was originally proposed by President Kennedy but ultimately signed by President Johnson.

Civil Rights Act of 1964

This was the last federal law of the Civil Rights Movement. Also known as the Fair Housing Act, this law prohibits racial discrimination in the sale, rental, and financing of housing. The law was the result of a number of developments: 1) Several fair housing protest campaigns were conducted in 1966 and 1967 by the SCLC, NAACP, and others in a number of northern cities. 2) A government report by the Kerner Commission on the 1967 race riots strongly recommended the creation and enforcement of a federal law that prohibits racial housing discrimination. 3) Martin Luther King, Jr. was assassinated.

Civil Rights Act of 1968

Created in 1933, this federal agency employed young men (aged 18 to 25) to build roads, develop national parks, plant trees, and create hiking trails. Most of the men's pay was automatically sent home to the workers' families.

Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC)

This Union volunteer distributed medicine and nursed wounded soldiers during Civil War. After the war, she founded the American Red Cross, a relief agency that seeks to alleviate suffering caused by war and disaster.

Clara Barton

One of President Wilson's progressive reforms, this federal law created in 1914 prohibits specific monopolistic business practices, such as business mergers that substantially lessen competition. The law also declared that labor unions are not a monopoly and are therefore legal.

Clayton Antitrust Act

In 1774, Britain made this series of laws to punish the Massachusetts colonists for throwing a large tea shipment into Boston harbor. These laws (1) closed the Port of Boston, (2) stripped Massachusetts of self-government, (3) allowed trials of accused royal officials and soldiers to take place in Britain rather than in the colonies, and (4) reaffirmed the Quartering Act.

Coercive Acts (a.k.a. Intolerable Acts)

This term refers to the transfer of living things between the Old World (Europe and Africa) and the New World (Americas) during the years following Columbus' rediscovery.

Columbian Exchange

This pamphlet was written by Thomas Paine in 1776. In clear, simple language, Paine criticized the colonists' allegiance to the King, explained the financial advantages of becoming an independent republic, and urged the colonists to proclaim independence. The pamphlet became an immediate bestseller in America and helped influence colonial opinion.

Common Sense

During the 1920s and immediately after World War II, China experienced a civil war between these two factions.

Communists vs. Nationalists (pro-democracy)

This term refers to the the agreement made by the special Electoral Commission that was formed to settled the disputed election of 1876. In this compromise deal, the Republican candidate Rutherford B. Hayes was approved as the winner of the presidential election in return for three concessions to Southern Democrats. Republicans in Congress would support legislation to help rebuild the Southern economy. Hayes would appoint at least one Southerner to his cabinet. And, most importantly, all remaining U.S. military forces would be removed from the former Confederate states. This compromise, made in 1877, marks the end of Reconstruction.

Compromise of 1877

This was the name of the nation which the Southern states in secession formed in 1861. Its leaders created a national constitution which protected slavery, established an alliance of states under a weak central government, and identified its states as sovereign and independent. After the Southern states seceded and established this separate nation, they began seizing all federal property, arsenals, and forts in the South.

Confederate States of America (a.k.a. the Confederacy)

This civil rights organization, abbreviated CORE, was founded in 1942 by a group of pacifists who were inspired by Gandhi's teachings of nonviolent resistance. The organization is composed of local chapters, and its members played a key role in many campaigns and protests of the Civil Rights Movement.

Congress of Racial Equality (CORE)

Angry that many former Confederate leaders had regained power and created the black codes, moderate Republicans joined with the Radical Republicans to revoke Johnson's Presidential Reconstruction and oppose his resistance to change in the South. The Republican-dominated Congress refused to allow the newly elected Southern representatives into Congress and rejected the new state governments that were formed under Johnson's plan (except Tennessee). In addition, Congress created a new, more stringent process to readmit the Confederate states and produced several new constitutional amendments to protect freed slaves. This phase of reconstruction, which replaced Presidential Reconstruction, is known as this.

Congressional Reconstruction (a.k.a. Radical Reconstruction)

In response to Shays' Rebellion, the Congress of the Confederation called for a special gathering of representatives to revise the Articles of Confederation. During the summer of 1787, delegates from all of the states except Rhode Island met in Philadelphia at this convention. In closed meetings (not open to the public), the representatives decided to scrap the Articles of Confederation and create a new constitution, which they named the United States Constitution.

Constitutional Convention (a.k.a. Philadelphia Convention)

This political party formed in 1860 with the aim of staying neutral on slavery and avoiding Southern secession. This party's members lived mostly in the border states (the upper South).

Constitutional Union Party

This was the United States' professional military force during the Revolutionary War. It was composed of paid volunteers who signed enlistment contracts with their states. Because of funding problems, short enlistment periods, and desertions, the force varied in size (from 5,000 to 17,000) throughout the war. General George Washington was its commander-in-chief.

Continental Army

At the age of sixteen, this 19th-century industrialist bought a boat and started the Staten Island Ferry. Over time, he purchased more boats, expanded his operations, and eventually controlled shipping in the Northeast. Nicknamed the "commodore," he sold his ships in the 1860s and used his money to built a railroad empire in the eastern U.S. When he died in 1877, he was the richest man (and one of the most powerful) in the U.S. at the time.

Cornelius Vanderbilt

This is how the Tweed Ring defrauded the taxpayers of New York City.

Corrupt politicians allowed a construction company to overcharge the city for building a new courthouse. The excess money ($10 million) was then "kicked back" to the politicians.

In this corporate scheme to defraud the federal government of money, the Union Pacific Railroad Company created a fake construction company called Crédit Mobilier of America to build the eastern portion of the First Transcontinental Railroad. The Union Pacific "hired" Crédit Mobilier, which grossly overcharged the U.S. government. The Union Pacific built the railroad track and pocketed the excess money. This scam was exposed during 1870s. The scandal was made worse when it was also discovered that many U.S. politicians owned stock in the Union Pacific and had voted to appropriate government funds to cover Crédit Mobilier's inflated charges.

Crédit Mobilier scandal

Most of the fighting on land during the Spanish-American War occurred on this island in the Caribbean.

Cuba

In 1938, German forces invaded the Sudetenland, the western region of this European nation. Soon afterward, alarmed European leaders met with Hitler at what is known as the Munich Conference. European leaders agreed to allow Germany to keep the Sudetenland in return for Hitler's promise to go no further. Five months later, in 1939, Hitler broke his promise, and German forces seized the rest of this nation.

Czechoslovakia

This muckraking newspaper reporter published the article "The Treason of the Senate" in Cosmopolitan Magazine in 1906. His article exposed the widespread corruption in the U.S. Senate and helped generate support for the Seventeenth Amendment.

David Graham Phillips

Enacted in 1887, this federal law authorized the U.S. government to subdivide tribal reservations into private parcels of land that would then be "allotted" to individual members of each tribe. Under the act, heads of families received 160 acres, and single individuals were granted 80 acres. Once the president directed that a particular reservation be broken up pursuant to the act, tribal members were given four years to select their specific allotment. If no such selection was made, the government made the selection for the individual. Surplus tribal lands that were not allotted could be offered for sale to non-Indians. Designed to assimilate American Indians into mainstream white society by transforming them into self-supporting farmers and ranchers, this law became one of the most disastrous pieces of legislation (for Native Americans) ever passed by Congress. By the time the allotment process was stopped in 1934, the amount of Indian-held land in the U.S. had dropped from 138 million acres to 48 million acres, and, of the remaining Indian-owned land, almost half was arid or semiarid desert.

Dawes Act

Enacted in 1887, this federal law authorized the U.S. government to subdivide tribal reservations into private parcels of land that would then be "allotted" to individual members of each tribe. Under the act, heads of families received 160 acres, and single individuals were granted 80 acres. Once the president directed that a particular reservation be broken up pursuant to the act, tribal members were given four years to select their specific allotment. If no such selection was made, the government made the selection for the individual. Surplus tribal lands that were not allotted could be offered for sale to non-Indians. Designed to assimilate American Indians into mainstream white society by transforming them into self-supporting farmers and ranchers, this law became one of the most disastrous pieces of legislation, for Native Americans, ever passed by Congress. By the time the allotment process was stopped in 1934, the amount of Indian-held land in the U.S. had dropped from 138 million acres to 48 million acres, and, of the remaining Indian-owned land, almost half was arid or semiarid desert.

Dawes Act

This document proclaimed the Thirteen Colonies to be sovereign states, separate and free from Britain. It explains the reasons for the colonies' decision by describing the colonists' natural rights, their duty to abolish an abusive government, and the ways King George III violated their rights. The document was approved by the Continental Congress on July 4, 1776.

Declaration of Independence

This is the statement of beliefs and grievances that was issued by members of the Seneca Falls Convention in 1848. It was modeled after the U.S. Declaration of Independence (e.g. "all men and women are created equal"). The claims of this women's rights document were quite radical for the time and were criticized by many men.

Declaration of Sentiments

Because Andrew Jackson's presidential style and political philosophy differed so much from the original Democratic Republican Party of Thomas Jefferson, President Jackson's political party became known as this.

Democratic Party

This political party evolved from the Jeffersonian Democratic-Republican Party of the 1790s. During the early decades of the 1800s, when property requirements for voting were eliminated among the states and Andrew Jackson served as president, the party was renamed this. From the 1830s through the 1850s, its Northern and Southern members generally favored laborers, farmers, territorial expansion, states' rights, and limited government involvement in the economy. During the election of 1860, this party split over the slavery issue, forming a Northern faction that favored popular sovereignty in the terrirotires and a Southern faction that was adamantly pro-slavery.

Democratic Party

This political party opposed Hamilton's financial programs and favored a strict interpretation of the U.S. Constitution, states' rights, and supporting France. This party was strongest in the South and weakest in the Northeast.

Democratic-Republican Party

As the slave issue became increasingly intense in the U.S. and sectional violence and fear intensified, this happened to the Democratic Party in 1860, prior to the presidential election.

Democrats couldn't agree on the slave issue during their 1860 national convention, and the Democratic Party split in two. Southern Democrats nominated a pro-slavery candidate from the South and proclaimed that all territories should be open to slavery. Northern Democrats nominated a candidate from the North and asserted that popular sovereignty (the settlers) should decide the legality of slavery in each territory.

The Virginia Colony underwent this change in 1624.

Despite tobacco profits, the Virginia Company was near bankruptcy by the 1620s. (Wars with Indians, a high death rate, and numerous resupply ships were very costly.) After hundreds of settlers were killed during a conflict known as the Indian Massacre of 1622, King James I revoked the Virginia Company's charter in 1624 and made Virginia a royal colony under his control.

Encouraging U.S. bankers and businesses to invest abroad, President Taft attempted to use money and economic involvement to exert diplomatic pressure on foreign nations and influence world affairs. Consequently, President Taft's foreign policy has been nicknamed this by historians.

Dollar Diplomacy

To punish certain colonies for defying the Navigation Acts, King James II revoked the colonial charters of New Hampshire and Massachusetts and created an administrative union of New England, New York, and New Jersey in 1686. The representative assemblies of these colonies were eliminated, and their governments were combined and ruled by a single governor. This is the name of that short-lived union of colonies.

Dominion of New England

During the Cold War, many American policymakers believed in this theory. They argued that if Vietnam fell to communism its neighboring nations would also fall, and communism would spread throughout Asia and beyond. This theory helped convince Americans to take action in Vietnam.

Domino Theory

A multi-millionaire who made his fortune in the real-estate business, this Republican won the 2016 presidential election. He campaigned on a conservative agenda, calling for lower taxes and regulations, a stronger military, and greater limits on immigration.

Donald Trump

During the 1840s, this Boston schoolteacher and reformer investigated the neglect and abuse of mentally ill people in prisons and hospitals. She presented her findings to several state legislatures, lobbied for reform, and helped push several states to open public mental hospitals for special treatment of the insane.

Dorothea Dix

This U.S. general shared command of troops in Pacific. At the beginning of the war in the Pacific, he was the commander of U.S. troops in the Philippines and escaped the island shortly before American forces were defeated there. Vowing to return, he led U.S. forces in retaking several islands, including the Philippines, accepted the Japanese surrender on the USS Missouri, and supervised the postwar occupation and rebuilding of Japan.

Douglas MacArthur

This is a measurement of the stock prices of 30 large companies traded on the New York Stock Exchange. It is an important indicator of the overall performance of U.S. stock markets.

Dow Jones Industrial Average

This court case was initiated by a slave who, with the help of abolitionists, sued for his freedom. After a decade of appeals and court reversals, his case was finally brought before the U.S. Supreme Court. In 1856 the court ruled that all people of African ancestry (slaves and those who were free) could never be U.S. citizens and therefore could not sue in federal court. The court also ruled that the federal government did not have the power to prohibit slavery in its territories. This ruling outraged Northerners.

Dred Scott decision

This is how President Reagan's foreign policy towards the Soviet Union differed from his presidential predecessors of the 1970s.

During his first term, President Reagan abandoned the policy of détente and chose to more aggressively confront the U.S.S.R. Promoting the concept "peace through strength," Reagan renewed the arms race and made critical speeches against the Soviet government (e.g. described the U.S.S.R. as an "evil empire"). During his second term in office, Reagan shifted to diplomacy, eagerly engaging in talks with the Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev and signing a nuclear arms treaty that eliminated intermediate-range, ground-launched missiles.

President Carter only served one term as president. Although he had promoted peace and negotiations between the leaders of Israel and Egypt (Camp David Accords), Carter's public approval ratings were harmed by these two developments.

During his presidency, Carter's reputation was harmed by: 1) his inability to boost the U.S. economy and lower inflation 2) his inability to quickly solve the Iranian hostage crisis

Cognizant of the likelihood that the use of nuclear weapons and a third world war would result in their mutual destruction, the U.S. and Soviet Union never engaged in direct combat with each other during the Cold War. However, to intimidate and limit the power of the other, both nations did engage in these aggressive actions.

During the Cold War, the U.S. and Soviet Union: 1) exchanged threats 2) built up their armed forces and weapons 3) aided like-minded governments with money and weapons 4) entered foreign wars 5) engaged in espionage

These are some basic historical details about cattle ranching in the West.

During the mid and late 1800s, cattle ranching became a big business in the West. Open-range ranching (no fences, cattle roamed freely regardless of land ownership) was commonly practiced in the vast, undeveloped grasslands of the Western territories. Cowboys were employed to protect, brand (identify ownership), and drive cattle to be sold at stock yards along railroads. Cowboys' work was difficult and involved long hours. Their techniques and culture were influenced by Mexican vaqueros. By the late 1800s, open-range ranching came to an end as increasing settler populations, overgrazing, and the invention of barbed wire led to closed-in, fenced ranches.

These two candidates competed in the presidential election of 1864, and this was the outcome of that election.

During the presidential election of 1864 (which occurred only in the North due to the secession of the Confederate states), Abraham Lincoln (Republican) ran against George McClellan (Democrat), the former Union general whom Lincoln fired for being too cautious. Although many Northerners had become distressed by the war's length and the high number of casualties, a series of Union victories (e.g. Sherman's capture of Atlanta) shortly before the election helped boost the public's opinion of Lincoln's job performance. In the end, Lincoln won by a sizable margin.

Although the French won most of the battles during the first few years of the French and Indian War, these are the reasons why the British ultimately won the war.

During the second half of the war, Britain sends thousands troops to North America, enlisted many colonials into military units, and gained the aid of the Iroquois Confederacy. Additionally, the French colonial population was small and in the end couldn't provide enough supplies and soldiers.

This is how the Union and Confederacy responded to the prevalence of infection and disease.

During the war, the Union created the U.S. Sanitary Commission, which sent nurses and supplies to field hospitals set up near battles. The Confederacy didn't have a sanitary commission, but thousands of Southern women volunteered as nurses.

This is why the Vietnam War is known as the nation's first "living room" war.

During the war, there were nightly television news broadcasts about the conflict in Vietnam. This extensive coverage, which included casualty reports, interviews with soldiers, and film footage of the fighting, often contrasted with the optimism of the American government and helped to shape the public's opinion of the war.

This term refers to the region in the southern Great Plains that was devastated by drought and dust storms during Great Depression.

Dust Bowl

Aided by his WWII leadership fame and his tough stance on communism, this Republican won the presidential election of 1952. He served two terms as president.

Dwight Eisenhower

This American general served as Supreme Commander of the Allied Forces in Europe during World War II. Extremely popular after war, he was elected U.S. president in 1952.

Dwight Eisenhower

The Twelfth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution established this voting procedure of the Electoral College.

Each elector casts a single vote for president and then casts another vote for vice president. (This change was created to lessen the possibility of a tie in the Electoral College as well as avoid electing a president and vice president who are from different political parties, such as when Jefferson, a Democratic Republican, was the vice president under Adams, a Federalist.)

This was the original voting procedure for the Electoral College.

Each elector voted for two candidates. The person who received the most (and at least a majority) of the votes was elected president. The person who received the next greatest number of votes became vice president. If no individual had a majority, the House of Representatives would choose the president.

This French ambassador to the U.S. stirred up American opposition to Britain and even recruited privateers to capture British ships. His efforts angered Britain as well as President Washington, who was trying to avoid war.

Edmond Genet

The U.S. foreign policy known as the Monroe Doctrine stated this.

Efforts by European nations to colonize land or interfere with independent countries in North or South America would be viewed as acts of aggression, requiring U.S. intervention. However, the United States would not interfere with existing European colonies.

During the late 1800s and early 1900s, support for temperance grew in America, and many states and counties outlawed liquor. At the end of the Progressive Era, this amendment to the U.S. Constitution was created. Ratified in 1919, the amendment banned the production, transport, and sale of alcohol in every state.

Eighteenth Amendment

This was one of the most controversial presidential elections in American history. The Democratic candidate Samuel J. Tilden outpolled the Republican candidate Rutherford B. Hayes in the popular vote. After a first count of electoral votes, Tilden won 184 electoral votes to Hayes's 165, and 20 votes were unresolved. These 20 electoral votes were in dispute in several states, like Florida and South Carolina, where both political parties reported that their candidates had won the state. Congress formed a special Electoral Commission to investigate and settle the the question of which candidate would be awarded these electoral votes. Most historians believe that the members of that commission struck an informal deal to resolve the dispute.

Election of 1876

These two female abolitionists became the first leaders of the early women's rights movement in the United States. They began working for women's rights after they were both denied full participation at the World Anti-Slavery Convention in London in 1840.

Elizabeth Cady Stanton Lucretia Mott

Located at the mouth of the Hudson River in New York Harbor, this was the site of a federal immigration processing station. From the 1890s to the mid 1900s, more than 12 million immigrants were processed through this station. These immigrants were interviewed and tested for physical and mental ailments. Most were processed in a few hours and allowed to enter the U.S. Some immigrants who were sick were quarantined on the island until they were given a clean bill of health. About 2% of those processed on this island were denied entry and sent back to their homeland because of chronic contagious disease, criminal background, or insanity. First and second class passengers (i.e. wealthier immigrants) who arrived in New York Harbor were not required to undergo the inspection process at this island. Instead, these passengers underwent a cursory inspection aboard their ship.

Ellis Island

This executive order was issued by President Lincoln in 1863. Lincoln proclaimed that slaves in rebellious states (not border states) were free and eligible to enroll in the Union Army. This wartime measure had a number of effects. It made the abolition of slavery an official goal of the Union war effort and helped invigorate Northern support for the war. It encouraged slaves to escape and harmed the Confederacy's economy and ability to make war. And lastly, the proclamation led to large-scale enlistment of blacks in the Union Army.

Emancipation Proclamation

In response to the Chesapeake incident and American's desire for war in 1807, Jefferson helped pass this federal law, which prohibited American ships from trading in all foreign ports. The goal of this law was to impose on Britain an economic punishment that would deter further abuses at sea and avoid war.

Embargo Act

This was how President Roosevelt responded to the Supreme Court's rulings against some of his New Deal laws.

Emboldened by his decisive reelection in 1936, FDR proposed to overhaul the federal court system. He hope to add six new Supreme Court seats and appoint liberal justices who would support the New Deal. Ultimately, Congress rejected his "court-packing plan."

Enacted during the early 1870s, this series of federal laws attempted to combat KKK violence and protect black voters. The laws prohibited interfering with a citizen's right to vote, provided federal supervisors for Southern elections, outlawed KKK activities (such as wearing disguises and intimidating officials), and even authorized the president to suspend habeas corpus (the right of a prisoner to be brought before a court to determine if his detention is valid) where necessary to suppress "armed combinations." Although the federal government successfully neutralized the KKK in a number of Southern counties, overall the laws suffered from weak and inconsistent enforcement.

Enforcement Acts

This intellectual movement of the 1600s and 1700s emphasized reason, science, and the principle that natural laws govern all things. Inspired by philosophers like Descartes, Locke, and Newton, it began in Europe and later spread to the American colonies.

Enlightenment

This is how the Enlightenment affected the Thirteen Colonies.

Enlightenment ideas were embraced by many colonists and affected popular thought. The movement challenged religious ideas and weakened Puritan churches. Many college curricula shifted away from theology toward the study of moral philosophy, science, astronomy, and math. The Enlightenment also promoted natural rights, democracy, and freedom of religion in the Thirteen Colonies.

This proposed constitutional amendment would have required equal rights and protections for men and women. It was supported by NOW and in 1972 approved by the U.S. Congress, but the proposed amendment never became law because it failed to be ratified by three-fourths of the states.

Equal Rights Amendment (ERA)

This federal law was created by Congress in 1917. It imposed a hefty fine and/or imprisonment for anyone convicted of obstructing the military, aiding the enemy, or mailing treasonous material.

Espionage Act

This is what the USA PATRIOT Act authorized.

Essentially, the federal law expanded the authority of government agencies to investigate suspected terrorists in the U.S. It reduced restrictions on the government's ability to: 1) search people's financial documents and communications records (e.g. telephone numbers, e-mails, internet use) 2) conduct surveillance (e.g. wiretaps) and delay notification of search warrants (i.e. "sneak and peek" warrants) 3) detain and deport immigrants suspected of terrorism-related acts (Note: Since the law's creation, a few of its provisions have been ruled unconstitutional by federal courts, and other controversial provisions have been amended out or allowed to expire by Congress.)

In 1935, Italy invaded this African nation. Focused on their own economic difficulties of the Great Depression, the international community provided little opposition to Italy. The League of Nations imposed economic sanctions against Italy, but the League abandoned those sanctions after eight months.

Ethiopia

This American socialist and labor leader helped to form the American Railway Union and, during the Pullman Strike, led a boycott in which the railway union members refused to handle trains with Pullman cars. While in jail, he read the works of Karl Marx and became a socialist. Later during the Progressive Era, he co-founded the Industrial Workers of the World and ran for the presidency five times as the candidate of the Socialist Party of America.

Eugene V. Debs

After the attack on Pearl Harbor, the U.S. government perceived Japanese Americans as a threat to the nation. In 1942, President Franklin Roosevelt issued this order, which gave the War Department the authority to establish special military areas and limit the civil rights of Japanese Americans.

Executive Order 9066

This term refers to President Truman's domestic plans for continued liberal reforms like those of the New Deal. Specifically, Truman wanted to expand Social Security benefits, raise the minimum wage, continue public works projects, establish national health insurance, and provide civil-rights protections for blacks.

Fair Deal

Created in 1938, this New Deal law banned most child labor and established a minimum wage, a maximum workweek, and overtime compensation.

Fair Labor Standards Act

Created in 1933, this federal agency acts as an insurance company for banks. It originally guaranteed all bank accounts up to $5,000. This New Deal program helped end the banking panic of the early years of the Great Depression.

Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC)

Following reports of serious financial abuses in the 1972 presidential campaign (e.g. Nixon's use of campaign funds to pay the Watergate burglars), Congress set legal limits on campaign contributions and established this agency in 1974 to enforce campaign finance laws.

Federal Election Commission (FEC)

In response to Americans' growing fear of communism, President Truman created this program 1947 to root out communism from the U.S. government. The program created a loyalty review board to investigate government workers and resulted in hundreds of federal employees being fired and thousands being compelled to resign.

Federal Loyalty Program

To address the nation's frequent banking panics and provide greater banking stability and supervision, Wilson and Congress created this central bank in 1913. Actually composed of twelve district banks, this central bank system was given the power to create rules for the nation's private banks and make loans to troubled banks.

Federal Reserve System

To help enforce the Clayton Antitrust Act, regulate big business, and protect consumers, President Wilson and Congress created this independent government agency in 1914. The agency has the power to investigate and prosecute instances of unfair competition.

Federal Trade Commission

These essays were written in 1787 and 1788 to generate support for the ratification of the U.S. Constitution. The essays' authors (Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay) argued that the U.S. Constitution would create a more effective government and avoid tyranny. For example, in Federalist #10, James Madison reasoned that the size and diversity of the American nation would help prevent any one "faction" from dominating the government. Ultimately, these essays, which first appeared serially in New York newspapers and were later reprinted in many other states, helped to convince the states to ratify the U.S. Constitution.

Federalist Papers

This political party favored Hamilton's financial programs, a loose interpretation of the U.S. Constitution, a strong central government, and trade with Britain. This party was strongest in the Northeast and weakest in the South.

Federalist Party

This group favored ratifying the U.S. Constitution. They wanted a stronger national government and argued that the separation of powers, checks and balances, and other features in the U.S. Constitution would prevent governmental tyranny. James Madison and Alexander Hamilton were advocates for this group.

Federalists (1787-1788) (Be aware that this term is used to refer to two different groups in U.S. history. It was first used to refer to those Americans who favored ratifying the U.S. Constitution between 1787 and 1788. It was later used to refer to supporters of the Federalist Party (a political party) which formed during the early 1790s and dissolved during the early 1800s.)

This man led a revolution that overthrew the Cuban government in 1959, served as the principal leader of Cuba for the rest of the 20th century, and helped transform Cuba into a communist nation. After he redistributed land to peasants and nationalized the oil refineries on Cuba (which were owned by U.S. corporations), the U.S. imposed a trade embargo against Cuba and authorized the CIA to attempt to overthrow the Cuban government. These actions pushed this Cuban leader to ally with the Soviet Union.

Fidel Castro

In response to the Intolerable Acts, fifty-five delegates from the colonies met in Philadelphia in 1774 and formed this group.

First Continental Congress

This movement, which occurred during the 1730s and 1740s, sought to revive religion in the Thirteen Colonies. Concerned with the decline of religion (caused by the Enlightenment, deism, and the fact that many frontier settlers lived far from churches), Protestant ministers engaged in intense evangelism (preaching and converting).

First Great Awakening

After World War II, Ho Chi Minh declared Vietnam an independent nation. However, France refused to give up its colonial claim and control of Vietnam. As a result, this war was fought between Vietnamese nationalist forces and French troops in Vietnam. The conflict lasted from 1946 to 1954.

First Indochina War

In a separate peace treaty signed at the conclusion of the Revolutionary War, Britain ceded this North American territory to Spain.

Florida

This U.S. government agency was created during WWI to boost food production and food conservation. The organization promoted "wheatless" and "meatless" days, growing "victory gardens," and appealed to housewives to conserve food.

Food Administration

This Great Society program provides food-purchasing assistance for low-income people living in the U.S. During the mid 1960s, President Johnson and Congress expanded this anti-poverty program and made it permanent.

Food Stamp Program

While camped at Valley Forge, the Continental Army received training from this Prussian general who had been given a position in the Continental Army. He created a model company (that then trained the rest of the troops) and greatly improved the army's camp sanitation, discipline, and tactics, including the use of bayonets.

Friedrich von Steuben

Beginning in the 1830s, thousands of farmers, miners, ranchers, and business owners and their families traveled west along the Oregon Trail, which passed through the Great Plains. This migration through Indian lands resulted in conflict between the white settlers and native Americans. To protect its migrant citizens, the U.S. government held a meeting in 1851 at an Army fort in what is today Wyoming. At this meeting, government agents and representatives of the Sioux, Cheyenne, Arapaho, and several other Plains Indian tribes agreed to this treaty. The treaty defined territory for each tribal group and acknowledged that all the land covered by the treaty was Indian territory (not U.S. property). Additionally, the Native Americans agreed to give safe passage for settlers on the Oregon Trail and allowed roads and forts to be built in their territories in exchange for annual federal payments of $50,000 for fifty years.

Fort Laramie Treaty of 1851

Red Cloud's War consisted mostly of Indian attacks on soldiers and civilians at a number of forts built along the Bozeman Trail, wearing down those garrisons. Despite a few Army victories, the U.S. government increasingly sought a peaceful rather than a military solution to Red Cloud's War. Building the transcontinental railroad took priority, and the Army did not have the resources to defend both the railroad and the Bozeman Trail from Indian attacks. In 1868, peace commissioners were sent to Fort Laramie, and Red Cloud's War ended in a victory for the Sioux. The resulting peace treaty is called this. The agreement established a smaller Sioux reservation and declared large areas around the Sioux reservation to be "unceded" lands on which the Sioux were guaranteed the right to hunt. In return, the U.S. government promised to prevent whites (except for government agents) from entering Sioux lands (including the unceded hunting territories) and agreed to provide annual payments of clothing, food, and money.

Fort Laramie Treaty of 1868

This federal fort is on an island in Charleston harbor, South Carolina. Because the fort is located in the South, the Confederate States claimed that it was the property of the Confederacy. Lincoln claimed that this fort was federal property of the United States. On April 12, 1861, before federal reinforcements could arrive, Confederate forces bombed this fort until Union forces surrendered. News of the fall of this fort angered Northerners. Lincoln claimed it was an attack on the Union and called for volunteers to join the military and recapture it. The Confederate attack on this fort is considered the beginning of the American Civil War.

Fort Sumter

When determining the settlement of the war at the Paris Peace Conference, Britain and France wanted revenge and compensation from the Central Powers. President Wilson wanted a lasting peace and at the conference promoted a set of principles that are known as this. President Wilson hoped that these principles would be included in the war's peace treaty.

Fourteen Points

Although this European nation had covertly helped the United States with supplies since the beginning of the war, the American victory at Saratoga gave this country the confidence to officially join the war. After signing a military alliance with the U.S. in 1778, this European nation sent warships and troops to fight against the British in North America.

France

In 1608, this European nation established a settlement at Quebec. This nation's colonizers explored deep into interior of North America, often formed close ties with American Indians, and established an extensive fur trade.

France

Throughout the early 1800s, France fought against Britain and a number of other European nations in a series of major conflicts called the Napoleonic Wars. This is how these wars affected the United States.

France and Britain set up naval blockades to stop the others' shipping. Merchant ships caught by these blockages were often seized. By 1807, about 1000 American ships with cargo had been seized by Britain, and about 500 American ships with cargo had been seized by France.

This Spanish conquistador conquered the Inca Empire in South America during the early 1500s.

Francisco Pizarro

This U.S. president served from 1933 to 1945. He was born into a wealthy, political family in New York. In 1921, at the age of 39, he was was stricken with polio, which cost him the use of his legs and put his political career on hold for several years.

Franklin Delano Roosevelt

This African American escaped slavery and became an abolitionist leader who gained fame as a powerful speaker and writer. He authored several autobiographies (e.g. Narrative of the Life of...), published an antislavery newspaper called The North Star, and spoke in support of a number of other reform causes, such as women's rights, temperance, and free public education.

Frederick Douglass

This political party was formed in 1848 by members of the Liberty Party and extreme anti-slavery Whigs and Democrats in the North. The party opposed the expansion of slavery into the territories and favored the creation of a federal law that would give free land to settlers in the West. Many of its members were white laborers and businessmen who believed that slavery posed a threat to their opportunities in the western lands. The party's platform slogan was "Free Soil, Free Speech, Free Labor, and Free Men." Ultimately, this party was abandoned in the mid-1850s when its members joined the larger Republican Party.

Free Soil Party

This federal agency was created in 1865 with the aim of providing assistance to newly freed slaves. In addition to providing free food, clothing, and health care for African Americans in the South, the agency established schools and helped negotiate labor contracts between black workers and Southern employers.

Freedmen's Bureau

This term refers to the black and white college students who in 1961 rode buses through the deep South to challenge segregated seating on interstate buses and segregated facilities at the bus stops. Some of the riders were beaten by white mobs and many were jailed.

Freedom Riders (their 1961 protest campaign is sometimes called the Freedom Rides)

During this civil rights campaign that occurred during the summer of 1964, thousands of college students trained in nonviolent protest traveled to Mississippi to assist blacks in registering to vote. Some of these students were beaten and a few even murdered.

Freedom Summer

This region—which consisted of Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia—was claimed by France as part of its colonial empire in the late 1800s.

French Indochina

This war between England and France (and their North American colonists and Indian allies) occurred from 1754 to 1763. The conflict began in the colonies and, several years later, extended to Europe, where it was called The Seven Year's War.

French and Indian War

This federal law was created as part of the Compromise of 1850. The law attempted to help Southerners retrieve escaped slaves. According to this legislation: 1) Southerners who traveled North had the authority to require Northerners to assist them in capturing their slaves. 2) People who aided fugitive slaves or refused to cooperate with slave catchers could be fined and jailed. 3) Fugitive slaves who were captured had no rights to testify. Many Northerners were angered by this law as they felt that they were being forced to participate in slavery. Some protested by assaulting slave catchers and aiding escaped slaves.

Fugitive Slave Act

Inspired by black civil rights efforts, women's liberation, and other movements of the late 20th century, homosexuals in America began to organize and protest for equal rights in the late 1960s. This early movement for gay and lesbian rights is known as this.

Gay Liberation Movement

This is the main representative body of United Nations. Each of the UN member nations has a seat and a vote in this body, which meets once a year and during special emergency sessions. The representatives in this body debate and vote to make official recommendations to a more powerful, decision-making body of the the UN.

General Assembly

This is why President Truman relieved Douglas MacArthur of his command in 1951.

General MacArthur was angered that Chinese forces had joined the Korean War, and he wanted the U.S. to invade China and even drop atomic bombs on Chinese cities. President Truman did not want another world war and thus wanted to avoid an escalating conflict with China. Several times MacArthur criticized Truman's leadership and unwillingness to commit more force in Korea. As a result, in 1951 President Truman relieved MacArthur of his command in Korea.

When Cubans revolted against Spanish rule in the 1890s, Spain sent this general to crush the rebellion. In an attempt to stop the revolutionaries, he established concentration camps where thousands of Cubans died from disease and malnutrition. He was consequently nicknamed "the Butcher" by American journalists.

General Valeriano Weyler

Tired of the long, costly war and humiliated by the Battle of Dien Bien Phu, the French public forced the French government to seek peace and withdraw from Indochina in 1954. That year, representatives of Europe, Asia, and the U.S. met in Switzerland and created this peace agreement that formally ended the First Indochina War.

Geneva Accords

After participating in the Civil War, this U.S. Army cavalry officer was dispatched to the West to fight in the American Indian Wars. He participated in several campaigns against the Cheyenne during the late 1860s, and in 1874 he led an expedition that found gold in the Black Hills. His announcement of the discovery of gold led to a mining rush into the Dakota Territory. Ultimately, this officer was killed in 1876 during the Battle of Little Bighorn.

George A. Custer

Elected in 1988, this neoconservative Republican succeeded Reagan as U.S. president. Although he successfully rallied international coalition forces to liberate Kuwait during the Persian Gulf War, this U.S. president only served one term. He lost the presidential election of 1992 largely because the economy was in recession.

George H. W. Bush

He was the King of Great Britain during the American Revolution.

George III

This general commanded the eastern Union Army, which was known as the Army of the Potomac. He was a good organizer and trainer of troops but very cautious to engage in battle. In 1862, after he chose not to pursue the wounded Confederate Army after the Battle of Antietam, this general was fired by President Lincoln.

George McClellan

This American general commanded U.S. tank forces that invaded and liberated North Africa and Southern Europe during World War II.

George Patton

This colonist led a Virginia militia force into the Ohio River Valley, warned a French commander to leave the territory, ambushed a French scouting party, and then built Fort Necessity, which he surrendered during a French attack. During the French and Indian War, he participated in several British expeditions and led a full-time American military unit to defend the Virginia frontier.

George Washington

This leader from Virginia served as the president of the Constitutional Convention. He maintained order at the meetings, but his participation in debate was minor.

George Washington

These men were elected as the first president and first vice president of the U.S.

George Washington (president) John Adams (vice president)

This charter colony was founded in 1733 by James Oglethorpe and a group of trustees, who hoped to provide a haven for debtors and establish a military barrier against Spanish Florida. The farmer-soldier settlers disliked Oglethorpe's strict rules (limits on land accumulation, no alcohol, no slaves) and became discontent. In 1755 the King allowed the colony's charter to expire and made the settlement a royal colony.

Georgia Colony

In 1973, after Vice President Spiro Agnew resigned from office for taking bribes, President Nixon chose this U.S. Congressman to be his new Vice President. In the 1974, after Nixon resigned from office, this man assumed the presidency and pardoned Nixon of all crimes he may have committed.

Gerald Ford

This is how Germany was divided after World War II.

Germany was dividing into four occupation zones: 1) British, French, and U.S. zones were formed in western Germany 2) a Soviet zone was formed in eastern Germany 3) Berlin was divided just like above The occupying nation within each zone served as the supervising authority that provided order and aid after WWII.

In 1889, when the South Dakota and North Dakota Territories sought statehood, the federal government pressured the Sioux into accepting legislation that again reduced the size of Sioux territory, splitting the tribe's land into five smaller reservations. By this time, confined to their reservations with no bison to hunt, the Sioux Indians had largely become impoverished, dependent on government rations and under pressure to abandon their tribal way of life. In 1889, this Indian dance spread among many tribes in the West. According to the teachings of the Paiute spiritual leader Wovoka, proper practice of the dance would make white Americans leave, restore the bison herds, and enable the spirits of their Indian ancestors to return to Earth.

Ghost Dance

Coined by Mark Twain, this term refers to the late 1800s in America. The difficult working and living conditions, monopolistic businesses, and political corruption of this era were often overshadowed by the enormous growth of technology, industry, and upper-class wealth.

Gilded Age

During this 1688 government takeover, King James II, who had grown unpopular in England for attempting to control Parliament and appoint fellow Catholics, was removed from power. William and Mary were invited to become the new rulers of Britain. After only two minor clashes between opposing armies, James II fled the country.

Glorious Revolution

This is why Guiteau murdered President Garfield.

Guiteau was turned down for a civil service job. Guiteau wanted Vice President Chester Arthur (a Stalwart) to be President.

These are the main provisions of the Treaty of Paris of 1783.

Great Britain: 1) accepted the independence of the U.S. 2) ceded (gave up) to the U.S. the land east of Mississippi River 3) but retained possession of Canada

During WWI, over 400,000 African Americans (largely from South) moved to industrial centers in the North. This mass movement of blacks is referred to as this. Caused by the reduced labor supply during war (millions of American men had been drafted or volunteered for military service), this mass movement resulted in a rapid increase of black populations in a number of northern cities as well as a rise of racial tensions in those cities.

Great Migration (It is sometimes referred to as the First Great Migration, for another mass movement would occur during WWII.)

This flat, gently rolling grassland region is at the center of the continental United States. The first Europeans and Americans to explore this area (which lacked trees and was occupied by Indians and buffalo) perceived it as a vast desert, unsuitable for cultivation and civilization. However, by the mid 1800s, the construction of railroads, the lure of gold and silver, and the expanding U.S. population opened up the region to white settlement. This white migration resulted in conflict with the Native American Indians of this region.

Great Plains

This term refers to President Johnson's domestic program with which he hoped to defeat poverty, end racial injustice, and improve the quality of life in the U.S.

Great Society

During his two non-consecutive terms, this U.S. President attempted to lower tariffs but was blocked by Congress and big business.

Grover Cleveland

During this incident in 1964, three North Vietnamese gunboats exchanged gunfire with the USS Maddox, which was performing a signals-intelligence patrol along the coast of North Vietnam. President Lyndon Johnson portrayed the incident as an act of aggression, ordered air strikes against North Vietnam, and spoke on TV to gain the support of the American public.

Gulf of Tonkin incident

This was Alexander Hamilton's vision for the future of America.

Hamilton hoped for the development of a strong federal government that was primarily led by an educated elite and empowered to effectively promote the country's manufacturing and shipping and establish a national bank. Hamilton and the policy proposals he made as Secretary of Treasury were typically supported by American merchants and landowners.

This term refers to the African-American cultural movement of the 1920s. Centered in a black neighborhood of New York City, the movement involved the outpouring of literature, art, music, theater, and political thought. It was the first time that African-American literature and arts attracted attention from the nation at large and were taken seriously by mainstream publishers and critics.

Harlem Renaissance

In 1859, John Brown and about twenty of his followers seized a U.S. arsenal building in this town in Virginia. Brown's plan was to create a large slave revolt by freeing slaves and arming them with federal guns. After capturing the arsenal, Brown and his men were surrounded by local militia troops and U.S. Marines. After a day of fighting, U.S. forces were able to retake the arsenal and capture John Brown.

Harper's Ferry (This event is known as the Harper's Ferry Raid.)

This female ex-slave and abolitionist assisted many fugitives along the Underground Railroad. As a "conductor," she made twenty trips to the South and guided about 300 slaves to freedom. She became well-known among abolitionists and was given the nickname "Black Moses." During the Civil War, she served as a Union spy, scout, and Army nurse.

Harriet Tubman

When FDR died in April of 1945, this man assumed the presidency. He made the decision to drop atomic bombs on Japan.

Harry S. Truman

Because the War of 1812 largely cut off trade between Britain and the U.S. and crippled the shipping economy of New England, many New England Federalists opposed the conflict. In 1814, prior to the end of the war, a group of Federalist delegates from New England held a series of meetings known as this. At these meetings in Connecticut, the delegates discussed their grievances about the ongoing war, and a few radical members proposed that New England secede from the Union and sign a separate peace treaty with Great Britain.

Hartford Convention

On which Pacific islands did Americans began buying land and establishing sugar plantations in early 1800s. Later in the century, these wealthy planters staged a revolution and seized control of the islands.

Hawaiian Islands

President Hoover and Congress responded to the Great Depression by creating this law in 1930, which raised tariffs on imported goods. Although it was intended to protect American businesses and farmers from foreign competition, it had disastrous, counterproductive effects on the U.S. economy. Because the high tariff increased the prices on foreign goods sold in the U.S., fewer Americans purchased those goods. Foreign nations retaliated by raising their tariffs on American products, which caused a sharp decline in the sale of U.S. goods to foreign countries.

Hawley-Smoot Tariff

This term refers to the labor demonstrations, a deadly bombing, and the subsequent trial of anarchist suspects that occurred in Chicago in 1886.

Haymarket affair

During the 1950s, millions of East Germans fled into West Berlin to escape communism. This migration weakened East Germany's economy and advertised the failures of communism and the Soviet-dominated government of East Germany. In response, Khrushchev took this action.

He had a wall built to divide East and West Berlin and stop the flow of refugees.

During this 1892 strike near Pittsburgh, steel workers engaged in armed combat with several hundred guards from the Pinkerton Detective Agency.

Homestead Strike

This is how Theodore Roosevelt ascended to the presidency.

He was elected Vice President in 1900 and became President after McKinley was assassinated in 1901.

Created in 1965, this Great Society program provides preschool for low-income children.

Head Start Program

This American essayist, poet, and transcendentalist was a friend and student of Ralph Waldo Emerson. He lived alone for two years in the wild along Walden Pond and wrote the book Walden, in which he stressed the importance of living a simple independant life surrounded by nature. This influential transcendentalist philosopher opposed slavery and the Mexican-American War. His most famous essay is commonly known as "Civil Disobedience."

Henry David Thoreau

In 1903 this American engineer and industrialist formed an automobile manufacturing company. Using moving assembly-line techniques, his company built affordable automobiles for average Americans. His first mass-produced touring car was the Model T. Unlike many industrialists of his era who paid low wages and demanded long work hours, this man paid his employees well and instituted a 40-hour workweek at his factory. He believed such practices would boost worker performance and reduce employee turnover.

Henry Ford

Hired by the Dutch East India Company to find a western route to Asia, this English sailor explored the area around what is today New York and claimed that region for the Netherlands in 1609.

Henry Hudson

This U.S. president served from 1929 to 1933, during the first years of the Great Depression. Due to his cautious response to the economic crisis and his harsh dispersal of the Bonus Army, this man became widely criticized and unpopular by the end of his presidency.

Herbert Hoover

This Spaniard and his conquistadors explored parts of Mexico and defeated the dominant Aztec tribe during the early 1500s.

Hernando Cortes

To expand Britain's largely volunteer army (which had shrunk from a lack of peacetime spending), the British government hired contingents of German mercenaries, commonly known as this, who served alongside the regular British army units during the Revolutionary War. Of the 32,000 soldiers who invaded Long Island in 1776, about 9,000 were this.

Hessians

This Japanese army general became prime minister of Japan during World War II. He was a key leader in Japan's attempts to conquer East Asia and the Pacific, and after the war he was arrested, tried, and hanged by an international military tribunal.

Hideki Tojo

After the Allies issued an ultimatum, to which Japan made no reply, the U.S. dropped an atomic bomb on this Japanese city on August 6, 1945. Three days later, the U.S. dropped an atomic bomb on this city. On that same day, August 9, the Soviet Union declared war on Japan and invaded Japanese-occupied territory in northern China. Facing the possibility of further atomic bombings and a land invasion of the Japanese archipelago, Japan finally surrendered on August 15, 1945.

Hiroshima (August 6, 1945) Nagasaki (August 9, 1945)

This Vietnamese leader became a communist while living in Europe. When the Japanese invaded Vietnam during World War II, he returned to his homeland and organized and led a communist-dominated independence movement in Vietnam. After WWII, he continued this independence movement by opposing French and U.S. dominance in Vietnam.

Ho Chi Minh

This was the name of the supply route through the highlands of eastern Laos and Cambodia which the North Vietnamese used to supply the Vietcong with weapons, ammunition, food, and additional soldiers. The U.S. repeatedly bombed this route, but vigilant Vietnamese work crews repaired and maintained it.

Ho Chi Minh Trail

This term refers to the group of movie producers, directors, and screenwriters who appeared before the House Un-American Activities Committee in 1947, refused to answer questions regarding their possible communist affiliations, and were imprisoned for contempt of Congress.

Hollywood Ten

This federal law was created in 1862. It offered 160 acres of land in the West to anyone who was at least 21 years of age, built a house on the land, and lived there for five years. About 10% all U.S. land was privatized by this act.

Homestead Act

Aimed at criticizing President Hoover, this was the nickname of shantytowns in American cities during early years of Great Depression.The term is an example of the public's frustration with Hoover's inability to fix the U.S. economy and reluctance to aid the poor.

Hooverville

This special committee of the House of Representatives was formed in the late 1940s to expose communist influence in American life and discredit the nation's Democratic leadership. The committee focused their "investigations" on the Hollywood movie industry.

House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC)

This is the name of the general assembly in the Virginia Colony. Like other colonial general assemblies, this was a law-making body elected by the colonists.

House of Burgesses

In 1956, revolutionaries in this Eastern European country revolted against Soviet control and called for a democratic government and the withdrawal of Soviet troops from their country. The Soviet Union crushed this uprising by sending tanks and additional troops into this country, killing over 30,000 people, and placing pro-Soviet leaders in power.

Hungary (The events was known as the Hungarian Uprising of 1957.)

New England Puritans and Separatists believed in a strict Christian theology known as Calvinism, which emphasized these religious beliefs.

Humans are weak, wicked, and sinful. God is all-powerful and all-good and knows who is going to heaven and who is going to hell. Since the moment of creation, some people are destined for eternal bliss and others are destined for eternal torment. Good works cannot save those who are "predestined" for hell. (Puritans and Separatists could not be certain of their destiny and therefore constantly sought signs of God's grace. Those who had an identifiable personal experience which indicated God's favor and led "sanctified" lives demonstrated by holy behavior were thought to be "visible saints" who were predestined for heaven.)

A writer for McClure's Magazine, this muckraker wrote a series of articles about Standard Oil Company's monopoly in the oil industry and the strong-arm tactics of John D. Rockefeller. In 1904, she combined these magazine articles into a book entitled History of the Standard Oil Company.

Ida Tarbell

This is why California's request for statehood was problematic for the nation.

In 1849, California applied for statehood as a free state, which if approved would upset the balance of power between free and slave states in the U.S. Senate. This application created intense debate in the Senate. President Zachary Taylor supported the idea, whereas many Southerners threatened secession if California was admitted. A political compromise was needed.

What were the Lincoln-Douglas Debates?

In 1858, Abraham Lincoln and Stephen Douglas ran against one another for a seat in the U.S. Senate. During their campaigns, these candidates agreed to series of seven debates. As it turned out, their debates focused on the most pressing question of the time: the question of allowing slavery in the western territories. Lincoln argued that slavery was a moral evil, opposed its extension in the territories, and hoped that if left alone in the South it would eventually become extinct. Douglas avoided the moral question of slavery and argued that popular sovereignty should be the determining principle. These debates helped to draw national attention to the slave issue and Abraham Lincoln.

This occurred during the event known as "Sherman's march to the sea."

In 1864 and 1865 General Sherman led 60,000 Union troops on an invasion into the deep South. Marching through Georgia and the Carolinas, Sherman's forces demolished resources, railroads, houses, and farms, and then joined up with Grant's army in Virginia. Sherman's campaign was conducted with the hope that the destruction of resources and private property would lower Southern morale and help end the war.

This was America's "frontier heritage."

In 1893, the American scholar Frederick Jackson Turner wrote about the significance of the frontier on U.S. history. He theorized that the lengthy presence of a frontier, our nation's recurring westward expansion, and the common frontier experience helped shape Americans' character and spirit. He argued that the frontier encouraged our faith in democracy, our inclination for individuality, our belief in social and geographic mobility, and our tendency to be wasteful.

By ratifying the Treaty of Paris of 1898, the federal government annexed Puerto Rico as a U.S. territory. This is how the U.S. ruled over Puerto Rico.

In 1900, the U.S. passed the Foraker Act, which gave Puerto Rico limited popular government. The island was ruled by a governor and a legislature. The governor and the upper house of the legislature were appointed by the U.S. President. The lower house of the legislature was elected by the residents of Puerto Rico. Additionally, the economy of Puerto Rico was largely dominated American businessmen who purchased land and established large sugar plantations.

These are the results of the Korean War.

In 1951 a stalemate occurred around the 38th parallel, and fighting continued without any significant exchange of territory until 1953 when the warring sides signed an armistice. The armistice has established a cease-fire until a final peace settlement is achieved and has created a demilitarized zone to separate North and South Korea. To date, no lasting peace treaty has been signed, and the two Koreas are technically still at war. Hundreds of thousands of military troops died in the Korean War, including about 54,000 Americans. Additionally, it is estimated that 2.5 million Korean civilians were killed or wounded.

This is why Marbury v. Madison is important.

In Marbury v. Madison, the Supreme Court ruled that Congress cannot pass laws that are contrary to the U.S. Constitution, and that the federal courts have the power and responsibility of judicial review. This case and the power of judicial review gave the judicial branch equal power with the executive and legislative branches and helped to solidify the United States' system of checks and balances.

This was the British government's response to the actions taken by the First Continental Congress.

In early 1775, the British government declared Massachusetts to be in a state of rebellion, appointed a military general as governor of Massachusetts, and ordered him to enforce the Coercive Acts and suppress the "open rebellion" among the colonists by all necessary force.

These were the main social and legal limitations for women at the turn of the twentieth century.

In many ways, women were treated like second-class citizens or minors: 1) Only a couple states allowed women to vote, hold office, and serve on juries. 2) They were mostly excluded from the professions and earned less than men. 3) Most colleges didn't admit women. 4) Once married, they had limited rights to their children, their finances, and divorce.

This is why President Jefferson was somewhat hesitant about the Louisiana Purchase.

In principle, Jefferson was a Democratic Republican who stood for a strict interpretation of the Constitution. At the time of the purchase, some argued that it was unconstitutional for President Jefferson to acquire the territory. Jefferson agreed that the U.S. Constitution did not contain explicit provisions for acquiring territory but decided to proceed with the acquisition, believing that the purchase fell within his presidential powers to negotiate treaties.

These conditions and challenges helped inspire Native American Indians to protest against federal Indian policies during late 1960s and 1970s.

In the U.S., Native American Indians had the highest rates of unemployment, poverty, suicide, and alcoholism and the shortest life expectancy.

Incidents of "radicalism" significantly harmed this during the Gilded Age.

Incidents of "radicalism" harmed popular opinion of labor unions. Shocked by the violence and destruction committed by workers and businesses, many Americans came to associate labor unions with anarchy and terrorism.

Created in 1830, this law authorized the federal government to make treaties and use money to move Native American Indians west and free up lands for white ownership. President Jackson aggressively administered this law and forced several Indian tribes to move from the South.

Indian Removal Act

Founded in 1905, this radical labor union wanted to unite workers into one big union, take over industry, and share in the decision-making and profits of America's big businesses. Many of the union's members were socialists. This union favored strikes and sabotage over political action such as lobbying elected representatives.

Industrial Workers of the World (IWW)

Article X of the Treaty of Versailles required this.

It required members of the League of Nations to preserve the territorial independence of other members, even to the point of taking joint action against aggression.

In the early 1950s, when this country nationalized its oil fields and a British oil boycott weakened this country's economy, the U.S. feared that this country would adopt communism and turn to the Soviets for support. In response, the U.S. and U.K. orchestrated a coup (government takeover) in this country in 1953. CIA agents bribed officials and thugs in this country to spread propaganda and stage demonstrations in favor of this country's Shah (king) who was pro-American. Ultimately, the Shah overthrew the democratically elected Prime Minister, greatly strengthened his monarchical rule, and entered this country into a close, controversial relationship with the U.S. for several decades.

Iran

In this illegal scheme that occurred during the mid 1980s, members of the Reagan administration secretly facilitated the sale of weapons to Iran, which violated an arms embargo imposed by the U.S. These federal officials hoped that Iran would then aid the U.S. in securing the release of several American hostages in Lebanon. Additionally, the officials then funneled the revenue from the arms sales to anti-communist rebels, known as Contras, in Nicaragua. This was illegal, because prior to the incident Congress and the President had passed the Boland Amendment which prohibited the U.S. government from funding the Contras.

Iran-Contra scandal

Although most Native American tribes were scattered and separated, this group of five tribes in what is today Upstate New York formed an alliance. Calling themselves "the people of the longhouse," each tribe kept their independence but met occasionally in a common council composed of village chiefs to discuss matters of common interest, like war and trade.

Iroquois Confederacy

This was the structure of government that was created by our country's first national constitution, the Articles of Confederation, which was written and adopted during the Revolutionary War.

It established a confederation, which is a loose alliance of states under a weak central government.

The Seventeenth Amendment provided for this change to the U.S. Constitution.

It established the direct election of U.S. Senators by popular vote. (Originally, U.S. Senators were chosen by their state legislators, a method which resulted in corruption. In the past, legislators would often select puppet Senators who were expected to do the bidding of the legislators and powerful business owners.)

This is the significance of the Battle of Yorktown.

It was the last major battle of the war and a defeat that helped to convince the British government to end the war. Just a few months after the Battle of Yorktown, Parliament voted to cease all offensive operations in America and seek peace.

After college, this American banker and industrialist apprenticed at his father's bank and then started his own banking firm. In 1895, he combined his bank with his deceased father's bank to create one of the most powerful banks in the world. In 1901, he then purchased Carnegie Steel and merged it with several other steel companies to form U.S. Steel, which at one time was the largest steel producer in the world. Like many industrialists of his era, he engaged in philanthropy later in life.

J. P. Morgan

In 1962, the U.S. discovered Soviet nuclear missiles on Cuba. Believing the weapons to be an act of aggression, President Kennedy took these steps.

JFK ordered a naval blockade of Cuba to quarantine the nuclear weapons and ordered the U.S. military to prepare airstrikes to destroy the Soviet missiles on Cuba.

Like his presidential predecessors, JFK opposed the spread of communism and Soviet power. However, he believed that the policy of massive retaliation was too limiting and impractical, especially when attempting to counter the spread of communism in Third World nations. Consequently, Kennedy developed this foreign policy.

JFK's foreign policy was known as flexible response. He attempted to respond to communist aggression with the use of conventional troops and Special Forces as well as through peaceful means like the Peace Corps.

In 1830, Congress passed a bill providing federal funds to build the Maysville Road across Kentucky. This is how President Jackson responded to the proposed legislation.

Jackson vetoed the bill, arguing that federal funding of intrastate projects of this nature was unconstitutional. He declared that such bills violated the principle that the federal government should not be involved in local economic affairs and made it more difficult to pay off the national debt.

In an effort to promote the American economy after the War of 1812, Congress created the Second Bank of the United States in 1816. In 1832, Congress attempted to recharter the Bank, but President Jackson vetoed the bill. Jackson and his supporters claimed that the Bank of the United States was a corrupt institution that harmed the common man by unfairly granting most of its loans to powerful, wealthy Northerners. To prevent another renewal attempt in the near future, President Jackson effectively killed the Bank by doing this.

Jackson withdrew the federal government's money from the Bank and placed those funds in state "pet" banks.

This muckraker was a photojournalist for several New York newspapers. Using flash powder, he photographed the city slums at night and the dark interiors of tenements. He gave lectures with lantern slides to educate people about life for poor people in New York City. In 1890, he published the book How the Other Half Lives.

Jacob Riis

This U.S. president served from 1857 to 1861 and was labeled a "doughface" (a Northerner with Southern sympathies). As president, he declared the secession of Southern states to be illegal but also claimed to lack the Constitutional authority to force a state back into the Union. Ultimately, he took no forceful action against the states in secession.

James Buchanan

In 1880, this independent Republican was selected as his party's nominee and won the U.S. presidential election.

James Garfield

This U.S. president, who served from 1845-1849, supported the beliefs of manifest destiny and expansionism. He signed the legislation that added Texas to the United States, and his presidential administration waged the Mexican-American War and negotiated a treaty to settle the boundary dispute over the Oregon Country.

James K. Polk

During the 1790s, this influential Democratic Republican represented Virginia in the U.S. Congress. He then served as Secretary of State in the Jefferson Administration, and in 1808 was elected as U.S. president. He served two presidential terms and helped guide the U.S. through its second war with Britain.

James Madison

This leader from Virginia was the most active and able political philosopher at the Constitutional Convention. He is considered the "Father of the Constitution."

James Madison

This statesman succeeded Madison as U.S. president. He was elected in 1816 and served two terms in office.

James Monroe

Established in 1607 by profit-seeking men, this was the first successful British settlement in North America.

Jamestown

In 1889, this woman helped to found the Hull House, which was one of the first and one of the largest settlement houses in America.

Jane Addams

By the 1930s, this East Asian nation had created its own version of fascism. Over time, the country developed a totalitarian rule by a military elite, a radial interpretation of Shinto (the national religion) which promoted subservience to the state and complete loyalty to the Emperor, and a widespread commitment to imperialism and territorial expansion.

Japan

Often featuring brass instruments and improvisation, this was a new style of music of the 1920s. It originated in a number of American cities, such as New York and Chicago, and became immensely popular among the rebellious youth of the Roaring Twenties. This music helped inspire new dances like the Charleston.

Jazz

This politician from Mississippi was the first and only president of the Confederate States of America.

Jefferson Davis

This was Thomas Jefferson's vision for the future of America.

Jefferson wanted a more decentralized republic in which a limited federal government shared power with strong state governments. Jefferson hoped for the country to be widely populated by agrarian landowners and for the nation's economy to be based on farming and skilled craft work. Jefferson was typically supported by farmers, skilled artisans, and laborers.

This term refers to the system of laws and customs that enforced white dominance over blacks in the South. These laws were created after the collapse of Reconstruction in 1877 and remained in effect until the 1960s. They involved racial discrimination, disfranchisement (denying the right to vote), and segregation (separation).

Jim Crow Laws

Created after Reconstruction, these laws and customs enforced white dominance over blacks in the South. These laws disfranchised most blacks, required racial segregation, and sanctioned job and housing discrimination. Most of these unjust rules remained in effect until the 1950s and 1960s when they were finally banned by a number of key federal laws and Supreme Court decisions.

Jim Crow laws

This Democrat from Georgia narrowly defeated Gerald Ford in the 1976 presidential election.

Jimmy Carter

This Great Society program offers free education and vocational training to low-income young men and women ages 16 to 24.

Job Corps

This Boston lawyer wrote essays against the Stamp Act and, as a member of the Continental Congress, played a leading role in persuading that body to write and adopt the Declaration of Independence. During the second half of Revolutionary War, he served as diplomat in Europe.

John Adams

This Massachusetts lawyer was a key member of the Continental Congress and, for most of the Revolutionary War, served as a U.S. diplomat in Europe. He was the nation's first vice president. In 1796, this Federalist was elected president and served one term.

John Adams

This violent abolitionist moved to Kansas in 1856 but after committing the Pottawatomie Creek Massacre fled the territory. In 1859, he led an attempted slave revolt in Virginia. He was captured, tried for murder and treason, and hanged.

John Brown

Although the U.S. Constitution required the judicial power of the federal government to be "vested in one supreme Court, and such inferior Courts," the document made no provision for the composition or procedures of any of the courts, leaving those details for Congress to decide. So, one of the first things Congress did was create this law, which set up a federal court system. This law set the number of Supreme Court justices at six and created thirteen federal district courts and three circuit courts.

Judiciary Act of 1789

This statesman from South Carolina served for a few years as vice president under Andrew Jackson. He opposed the so-called Tariff of Abominations and in a protest essay asserted the nullification theory. In 1832, he resigned from the vice presidency over the Nullification Crisis.

John C. Calhoun

Hired by England, this Italian explorer claimed the northeastern coast of North America for England in 1497.

John Cabot

In 1870, this American industrialist formed the Standard Oil Company, which produced a more stable, consistent (less explosive) kerosene. After becoming the largest refiner, he flooded the market with too much refined oil (which sharply reduced prices and profits) and either bought out his competitors or forced them out of business. By 1879, Standard Oil controlled over 90% of the oil refining in the country. In addition to engaging in horizontal integration (buying or forcing out competitors), this industrialist also engaged in vertical integration (buying suppliers). In time, Standard Oil gained ownership of most of the pipelines leading to railroads, tank cars, oil-storage facilities, and oil barrel and can makers. With tremendous economic power, Standard Oil was able to pressure the railroad companies into giving cheap shipping rates to Standard Oil and more expensive shipping rates to Standard's competitors. This industrialist became the country's first billionaire and, like other elite capitalists of his time, engage in extensive philanthropy.

John D. Rockefeller

This American was from a wealthy, political family in Massachusetts, graduated from Harvard, and became a naval hero during World War II. At the age of 29, this Democrat was elected to the U.S. Congress and in 1960 he was elected as U.S. president.

John F. Kennedy

This lawyer from New York was a member of the Continental Congress, helped to negotiate the 1783 Treaty of Paris, wrote a number of the Federalist Papers, and served as the nation's first Chief Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court.

John Jay

In response to worsening relations with Britain, President Washington sent this American to England in 1794 to negotiate a treaty and avoid war. The resulting agreement (officially named the Treaty of Amity, Commerce, and Navigation, Between His Britannic Majesty and the United States of America) is more commonly know as this man's treaty.

John Jay (the presiding Chief Justice of the Supreme Court)

The ideas of this 17th-century English philosopher influenced the leaders of the American Revolution. Rejecting the notion of the divine right of kings, he argued that the people are the source of governmental power, that governments are formed to protect the people's natural rights, and that people have the right to abolish their government if it fails to protect their rights.

John Locke

This law was created by the "lame-duck" Federalist Congress and President Adams before Jefferson took office. It attempted to ensure Federalist control of the judicial system by adding new judgeships to the lower federal courts.

Judiciary Act of 1801

This Chief Justice led the Supreme Court in its ruling on the case Marbury v. Madison.

John Marshall

This early Jamestown settler pioneered the cultivation of tobacco, which helped Jamestown to survive and grow.

John Rolfe

He was the first governor of the Massachusetts Bay Colony. Promoting moral discipline and hard work, he hoped to make the colony a model Puritan community. He declared, "We shall be as a City upon a Hill; the eyes of all people are on us."

John Winthrop

This Puritan minister led a spiritual revival in his Massachusetts congregation during the 1730s. His sermon "Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God" is a typical sermon of the Great Awakening, emphasizing the belief that Hell is a horrific, real place that awaited sinners who had not turned to Christ.

Jonathan Edwards

In 1950, this U.S. Senator from Wisconsin made bold charges of communist subversion in the U.S. government and even claimed to have a list of communists employed in the State Department. Arguing that the Democratic Party had been soft on communism and "guilty of twenty years of treason," he was given the authority in the early 1950s to lead a special Senate subcommittee to investigate communism in the U.S. government.

Joseph McCarthy

This man was the leader of the Soviet Union from 1925 to 1953. He agreed to a nonaggression pact with Hitler in 1939, but after Germany invaded the USSR in 1941, he joined the Allies.

Joseph Stalin

In 1953, these two Americans were arrested for passing information about the atomic bomb to the Soviet Union, found guilty of committing espionage, and executed. The couple's conviction increased the public's fear of communism in America and helped to fuel investigations into anti-American activities of U.S. citizens.

Julius and Ethel Rosenberg

In order to open up land for large-scale settlement and make feasible a Midwestern Transcontinental Railroad, Congress created this federal law in 1854, which established two large organized territories out of the remaining Louisiana Purchase land. Initially, Southern Congressmen opposed the creation of such a law because the Missouri Compromise required new territories in that region to become free states. In order to gain Southern support, the bill's author, Stephen Douglas of Illinois, specified in this law that popular sovereignty would decide whether the two territories would become slave or free states. This law effectively repealed the Missouri Compromise and alarmed many Northerners.

Kansas-Nebraska Act

In 1970, when Nixon publicly announced that he had ordered U.S. assaults into Cambodia, American students erupted in protest on hundreds of college campuses. At this university in Ohio, student protesters damaged buildings and threw rocks. National Guard troops fired on the protesting students, killing 4 and wounding 9. This event shocked many Americans and further harmed public support for the Vietnam War.

Kent State University

In protest to the Alien and Sedition Acts, the legislatures of two Southern states passed these political statements in 1798. Secretly written by Jefferson and Madison, these statements denounced the Alien and Sedition Acts as unconstitutional and declared that the states had to right to nullify (cancel out) acts of Congress that were not authorized by the U.S. Constitution. The measures were primarily intended as propaganda to aid the Democratic Republicans in the upcoming federal elections of 1800.

Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions

This is what happened to New Netherland in 1664.

King Charles II of England sent war ships and seized the colony. He gave the territory to his brother James (the Duke of York), who then divided the land and named the colonies New York and New Jersey.

This was an armed conflict between most of the Native American tribes of New England and the English colonists during the 1670s. It began after several Wampanoag Indians were executed for allegedly killing a "praying Indian" who had reported to the governor of Plymouth Colony that Metacomet was planning an attack. It was the most destructive Indian war during the Colonial Era.

King Philip's War

In 1959, the Soviet and American governments agreed to hold exhibits in each other's countries as a cultural exchange to promote understanding. During Vice President Nixon's visit to the American National Exhibition in Moscow, he engaged in an informal debate with Khrushchev as they walked around a model American house. This informal debate is often referred to as this. Although the cultural exhibit was intended to lower Cold War tensions, the leaders' intensity and critical arguments against each other's systems demonstrated the deep-seated rivalry that continued to exist between the US and USSR during the late 1950s.

Kitchen Debate

This labor union was the largest labor organization in America during the 1880s. As a general union, membership was open to all workers. Its primary demands were for an eight-hour workday and legislation to end child labor.

Knights of Labor

This is why President Johnson initially pursued a "middle path" in dealing with the growth of communism and insurgency in Vietnam.

Knowing that the American public would not support a large foreign war, and that a costly conflict would drain funding away from his Great Society programs, LBJ wanted to avoid a full-scale war in Southeast Asia. He initially hoped to avoid deploying large numbers of U.S. troops in Vietnam, and he chose not to invade North Vietnam with ground troops or use nuclear weapons. However, during the early years of his presidency, LBJ also felt that he couldn't end U.S intervention in Vietnam. He believed that an American withdrawal would make him appear weak on communism and would effectively break commitments made by previous presidents to promote democracy and freedom in Vietnam.

In its 1944 ruling on this case, the U.S. Supreme Court declared that the internment of Japanese Americans was a military necessity during a national emergency and was thus constitutional. Although this case has not been explicitly overturned by a subsequent court ruling, in the 1980s the U.S. government formally apologized for its treatment of Japanese Americans and paid reparations to those who were interned.

Korematsu v. United States

This American racist organization experienced a huge resurgence during the 1910s and 1920s. Claiming to be a "protector" of Americanism, the organization opposed blacks, Catholics, Jews, and foreigners. Due to widespread nativism and fear of radicals in the U.S., this organization's membership grew to 4 million by 1924.

Ku Klux Klan

This racist, fraternal organization was founded in 1866 by Confederate veterans in Tennessee. During the Era of Reconstruction, this organization spread throughout the South, and its members worked to resist Congressional Reconstruction and restore white supremacy in the region. Often wearing masks and operating at night to avoid being identified or captured by federal troops overseeing reconstruction, the members of this group used violent methods to intimidate carpetbaggers, scalawags, and former slaves. By the mid 1870s, this group and others like it were able to re-establish conservative, white-dominated state governments in the South.

Ku Klux Klan (KKK)

Exhausted and personally defeated by the U.S. quagmire in Vietnam, President Lyndon Johnson made these two important announcements on TV in March 1968. These announcements helped to demoralize U.S. soldiers and further harm the American public's opinion of the war.

LBJ announced that he would: 1) stop military escalation in Vietnam and seek an end to the war 2) not run for reelection as president

This is what life was like for settlers on the Great Plains.

Lacking an abundance of trees on the plains, many of the early settlers' homes were either dugouts (dug out of hill) or soddies (built with sod laid like brickwork). Typically, the settlers' lives involved hard work and many difficulties, such as droughts, storms, bugs, and raids by outlaws and American Indians. Most settlers raised cattle or farmed land. Failures were frequent.

Made by the Congress of the Confederation in 1785, this law helped to raise money for the national government by authorizing the division and sale of the Northwest Territory. The law called for the land to be surveyed, divided into one-square-mile sections, and sold to the public. Typically, wealth investors purchased the land and then resold it in smaller, 160-acre sections.

Land Ordinance of 1785

This was the structure of the Puritan government in the early Massachusetts Bay Colony.

Laws were made by a governor and a general assembly who were chosen the colony's male church members. Only "visible saints" could be church members. Each settlement chose its own minister and "selectmen" who regulated local affairs. There was no separation between church and state.

This American was arrested for murdering JFK but was shot and killed by a Dallas nightclub owner two days later.

Lee Harvey Oswald

By 1941, the American public began to feel directly threatened by the worsening war in Europe. England had survived the Battle of Britain but was still being bombed and was virtually bankrupt. German forces had invaded the Soviet Union and were rapidly approaching Moscow. In response to these developments, the U.S. government passed this law which further loosened the Neutrality Acts.

Lend-Lease Act (This law authorized the President to lend or lease weapons to nations that were "pivotal to the defense of the U.S." From 1941 to 1945, the U.S. supplied the Allies with vast amounts of war materials.)

On April 19, 1775, British troops marched from Boston to these two towns in Massachusetts to arrest rebel leaders and seize a militia arms depot. On that day, skirmishes erupted in both towns, and, during their return march to Boston, British troops were repeatedly attacked by colonial militiamen. These events mark the beginning of the American Revolutionary War.

Lexington and Concord

This political party formed in 1839 with the chief goal of immediately ending slavery throughout the United States. Composed mainly of Northern abolitionists, this small political party eventually faded away during the late 1840s when most of its members joined the larger Free-Soil Party.

Liberty Party

This muckraker was a New York newspaper reporter who became editor of McClure's Magazine. In 1904, he published a collection of articles on city government corruption into a book entitled The Shame of the Cities.

Lincoln Steffens

In 1863 at the dedication of a national cemetery at the Gettysburg battlefield, President Lincoln presented a short speech. This is what Lincoln said in his Gettysburg Address.

Lincoln stated that our nation was founded on the ideal that all men are created equal. But, as Americans were at war with one another (North vs South), our nation and its founding principle of equality were being tested. He urged the citizens of the Union to keep fighting the war so that the "dead shall not have died in vain" and that the nation shall have "a new birth of freedom" and a "government of the people, by the people, and for the people." In essence, Lincoln redefined the Civil War as a struggle to not only maintain the Union but to also bring true equality to all its citizens.

President Lincoln proposed a plan for admitting the Confederate states back into the Union when the war was won. This is the nickname of Lincoln's plan for Reconstruction, and these were the conditions of that plan.

Lincoln's "Ten-Percent Plan" offered a full pardon for all Southerners except high-ranking Confederate army officers and government officials. For a Southern state to be readmitted into the Union and once again hold seats in Congress, Lincoln's plan required that at least 10% of that state's population swear an oath of allegiance to the United States and pledge to eliminate slavery. Those oath takers could then elect delegates to draft a new state constitution and establish a new state government.

During the summer of 1776, 32,000 British and German soldiers landed on this island. Washington's army (about 19,000 largely untrained, poorly equipped soldiers) attempted to defend New York City. After losing several battles, Washington and his battered army retreated to Pennsylvania.

Long Island

In 1803, President Jefferson arranged the U.S. purchase of this land from France for $15 million. The purchase more than doubled the territory of the U.S.

Louisiana territory (which consisted of most of the land between the Mississippi River and the Rocky Mountains)

These famous cotton mills were built in Massachusetts during the early 1800s as part of the first planned factory town in the United States. Owned by one company, the mills emphasized mechanization and (unlike other mills) the completion of all the stages of textile production under one roof. The company hired young, unmarried women as laborers and housed them in dormitories with strict rules. Initially viewed as a model of labor and production, the system fell apart when the "mill girls" engaged in labor strikes over low pay. By the mid 1800s, this female labor system was replaced by the use of poor immigrant labor.

Lowell mills

In 1915, a German submarine sank this British luxury liner and killed over a thousand passengers, including 128 American citizens.

Lusitania

From humble Texas origins, this Democrat served in the U.S. Senate during the 1940s and 1950s and was known for his ability to persuade other Congressmen to support his bills. He served as Kennedy's Vice President and assumed the presidency immediate after JFK's death in 1963. He was reelected in 1964.

Lyndon B. Johnson

This civil rights leader became a prominent minister of an American religious movement known as the Nation of Islam. He argued that whites were inherently racist and evil, urged African Americans to embrace black pride and racial separation, and advised blacks to join the Nation of Islam in order to develop religious discipline and unity. In 1965, after disagreeing with his religious leader, Elijah Muhammad, and leaving the Nation of Islam, this leader was assassinated.

Malcolm X

This was the codename of the top-secret U.S. project to develop atomic weapons. The project began early in war, and by 1945 American and foreign scientists working in hidden sites in Tennessee and New Mexico successfully built several nuclear bombs.

Manhattan Project

This was the colonials' response to the series of British laws and taxes made in 1764 and 1765.

Many American colonists were annoyed with the rapid end of salutary neglect and felt that they were victims of tyranny (cruel and oppressive rule). Irate colonists protested the laws by: 1) publishing pamphlets and giving speeches 2) passing resolutions and petitioning the British government 3) holding rallies and engaging in violence (assaulting tax agents, destroying tax offices) 4) boycotting (refusing to buy) British goods

This is how Americans viewed the Mexican-American War.

Many Americans vigorously supported war because: 1) of their belief in manifest destiny and desire for resources and land 2) military war service offered foreign travel, adventure, heroism, fame However, some Americans, such as abolitionists and some Northern businessmen, opposed the war as they thought it would extend slavery and Southern power.

This is why the patronage system was a problem.

Many appointees were not qualified for the job, and many used their position for personal gain (graft).

In the immediate post-war years, American leaders believed that the war destruction and poverty in Europe made the continent susceptible to communism. In response, the U.S. adopted this economic recovery program in 1947, which pumped $13 billion of aid into Western Europe.

Marshall Plan

This is what life was like for most Southern blacks during Congressional Reconstruction.

Many blacks traveled (which had been outlawed when they were slaves) and looked for jobs, family members, and even education. Since freed slaves typically lacked money, land, and advanced skills, most blacks were unable to move out of the South and ultimately became sharecroppers or tenant farmers.

This is how the Cold War and the Vietnam War changed the political philosophies of liberal Democrats and conservative Republicans.

Many liberal Democrats grew disillusioned with the ability and morality of U.S. military intervention and American Cold War foreign policy. Since the Vietnam War era, many liberal Democrats now favor a smaller military and a more passive foreign policy. Conversely, during the Cold War many conservatives developed the belief that the government must actively work to preserve American liberty and defend democracy in the world. Since the Vietnam War era, many conservative Republicans now favor a larger military and a more aggressive foreign policy.

The term "Bleeding Kansas" was coined by Horace Greeley, the editor of the New York Tribune, during the mid 1850s. What was he referring to with this term?

Many settlers moved to Kansas after the Kansas-Nebraska Act was signed. During its territorial elections in 1855, Missourians crossed the border, voted, and helped elect a pro-slavery territorial government. Northern settlers responded by forming an anti-slavery (free-state) rival territorial government. Several acts of violence triggered a small civil war between pro-slavery and anti-slavery settlers in Kansas ("Bleeding Kansas"). This violence was seen by the North and South as evidence of other side's harmful intentions.

The Montgomery Bus Boycott was led by this local pastor.

Martin Luther King, Jr.

After losing her family and possessions and becoming angered by the social injustice in America, this woman became a labor leader and community organizer during the Progressive Era. She helped to lead labor strikes of the United Mine Workers and co-founded the IWW. She is perhaps most famous for leading a week-long march of stunted and mutilated child workers from Pennsylvania to New York in an effort to protest child labor.

Mary Harris "Mother" Jones

During and after China's civil war, the Chinese Communists were led by this man.

Mao Zedong

When he took office, President Jefferson chose not to deliver the commissions of the "Midnight Judges." Consequently, William Marbury (one of the Midnight Judges) sued and directly petitioned the Supreme Court for a writ of mandamus (a court order) to force the delivery of his commission. In this famous court case the Supreme Court rule on this issue.

Marbury v. Madison

This Jamaican political leader was a proponent of Pan-Africanism, a movement that seeks to unify and uplift people of African descent. He lived in the U.S. for a decade and promoted black nationalism, separatism, and a Back-to-Africa movement. Although he was deported in 1927, this leader helped inspire racial pride and confidence among many African-Americans during the 1920s.

Marcus Garvey

This American woman was the leader of the birth control movement in the U.S. during the 1920s. At the time, it was illegal to talk about and use contraception in most states, and the federal government banned sending information about contraception through the U.S. mail service. This woman opposed those laws. By publishing articles, engaging in public debates, and forming the American Birth Control League, she helped inform people about contraception.

Margaret Sanger

This proprietary colony was established in 1634 by the English Lord Baltimore who wished to create a haven for English Catholics. Although a policy of religious toleration was created, Anglicans, Puritans, Catholics and Quakers struggled for power in this colony.

Maryland Colony

This colony was founded by Puritan merchants who formed a joint-stock company and acquired a charter from the king. In 1630, a large group of settlers (mostly Puritans) sailed to Massachusetts and established several settlements, including Boston, which grew rapidly.

Massachusetts Bay Colony

This written agreement set up a basic government for the Plymouth Colony. The adult male settlers signed the document in 1620 while still aboard their ship and agreed to combine themselves into a "civil body politic" that would make "just and equal laws for the general good of the colony."

Mayflower Compact

During the early 1950s, Joseph McCarthy waged an obsessive "witch hunt" for communists in the government. Historians created this term to describe the Senator's unfair tactics of bullying and accusing witnesses of disloyalty without providing any evidence.

McCarthyism

This federal law requires federal monitoring of the slaughter and processing of meat in the United States. It was created in 1906 in response to Upton Sinclair's book that detailed the unsanitary conditions in the meatpacking industry. President Theodore Roosevelt played a key role in promoting this legislation.

Meat Inspection Act

This Great Society federal program provides health insurance for low-income Americans. It was created by LBJ and Congress in 1965.

Medicaid

Created in 1965 by President Johnson and Congress as part of LBJ's Great Society domestic agenda, this federal program provides low-cost medical insurance to Americans aged 65 and over.

Medicare

President Jefferson commissioned these two men to lead an expedition into the Louisiana territory. From 1804 to 1806, these men and their Corps of Discovery (about 50 men) traveled from Missouri to the Pacific and back. They created maps, studied the area's plants, animal life, and geography, and establish trade with local Indian tribes.

Meriwether Lewis William Clark

Responding to continued European expansion and a decline in the animal population, this chief of the Wampanoag tribe in Massachusetts formed an alliance with most of the remaining New England tribes to oppose the colonists.

Metacomet (called King Philip by the colonists)

This historical term refers to the region that Mexico ceded to the U.S. in the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo in 1848. The region consisted of what is today California, Nevada, Utah, most of Arizona, and western portions of New Mexico, Colorado, and Wyoming.

Mexican Cession

President Wilson's intervention in this Latin American country is an example of his Missionary Diplomacy. Wilson viewed the neighboring country's leader as a dictator and supported an opposition group with guns. However, after several incidents, many people in this Latin American country began to oppose U.S. intervention in their nation. Pancho Villa struck out against the U.S. by conducting raids into Texas and New Mexico. In response, President Wilson sent U.S. Army troops on an unsuccessful nine-month incursion into this Latin American country to capture Pancho Villa.

Mexico

This term refers to the transatlantic voyage of slaves from Africa to the New World. To maximize their profits, European slave traders tightly packed their ships. It is estimated that 15% of the slaves died from malnutrition, disease, and suicide during the voyage.

Middle Passage

After the passage of the Judiciary Act of 1801, President Adams attempted to quickly fill the newly created judgeships with Federalist appointees. Adams wrote a few of the commissions during his last hours as president and didn't have time to deliver them. These late-term appointments are commonly called these.

Midnight Judges

This statesman was the leader of the Soviet Union during the mid and late 1980s. His policies for political and economic reform (glasnost and perestroika) and his easing of the Soviet government's grip on the satellite nations helped bring about the end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991.

Mikhail Gorbachev

These were the results of the First Great Awakening.

Ministers of different Christian groups spread their faith, which resulted in the growth of denominations (e.g. Baptists, Presbyterians, Methodists) in the colonies. This denominational growth promoted the colonists' freedom to share their beliefs and exercise their own judgment, increased the need for toleration of religion and dissent, weakened the old strict Puritan churches, and led to creation of many denominational colleges.

This term refers to the American militia forces (non-professional citizen soldiers) who helped support the Continental Army but typically returned home after battles to defend their own communities.

Minutemen

President Woodrow Wilson believed that America had the duty to advance democracy and moral progress in the world. He attempted to oppose Latin American governments that he viewed as oppressive, undemocratic, and hostile to U.S. interests. President Wilson's foreign policy has been given this nickname by historians.

Missionary Diplomacy (a.k.a. Moral Diplomacy)

This secret society of Irish-Americans was associated with violence in the coal mines of Pennsylvania.

Molly Maguires

By the early 1820s, a number of Latin American colonies had gained their independence from Spain and Portugal. These newly independent Latin American countries were weak and vulnerable to conquest by more powerful European nations like Britain. To help promote the independence of these new nations and exert the United States' influence and status in the Western Hemisphere, President Monroe announced this policy in 1823.

Monroe Doctrine

Outraged by Rosa Park's arrest, and inspired by her defiance and the federal government's support for black civil rights, the black community in Montgomery launched this event to protest the city's bus segregation law.

Montgomery Bus Boycott

Founded by the Baptist minister Jerry Falwell in 1979, this political organization opposed liberal behavior and policies and worked to support political candidates who favored traditional values, such as prayer and Bible study in schools and the prohibition of abortion. With a membership of millions of conservative Christians, this organization became one of the largest conservative lobby groups in the United States during the 1980s.

Moral Majority

These were the results of King Philip's War.

More than half of the English towns in New England were attacked, but the colonists finally won. Thousands of Indians died. Some captives were sold as slaves in the Caribbean. The war effectively marked the end of Indian resistance in New England.

This religious movement was founded by Joseph Smith in New York in the 1820s. Smith claimed to have found and translated written tablets left by ancient Hebrews in America. These writings became one of the chief religious books of this faith. Smith gained a following, but after being persecuted he and his church members moved to Illinois, where Smith was later killed by a mob. In the late 1840s, Brigham Young led Smith's followers west and settled near the Great Salt Lake in what later became Utah.

Mormons (members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints)

This is how many European colonists viewed Native American Indians.

Most European colonists viewed American Indians as: 1) a foreign race of wild pagans 2) incapable of properly using the land 3) an impediment to the Europeans' economic and spiritual goals

These are characteristics of the colonial population in North America.

Most immigrants were young and arrived poor. There were more men than women, especially in the Southern Colonies. Although many settlements struggled during their early years, the colonial population grew rapidly during the 1700s and became increasingly diverse (English, African, Native American Indian, Scottish, Irish, German, Dutch, etc.). In time, the abundance of resources helped the settlers to become more prosperous and healthy than most people in Europe.

This was perhaps the worst atrocity committed by U.S. forces in Vietnam. During this event, a company of American soldiers intentionally murdered over 300 Vietnamese civilians. News of this slaughter was published in the United States in 1969. The event helped convince many Americans to oppose the Vietnam War.

My Lai Massacre

These were the main sectional differences between the North and South prior to the Civil War.

NORTH: 1) many factories and cities 2) smaller farms 3) many immigrants 4) few blacks, slavery illegal 5) favored federal power and tariffs SOUTH 1) few factories and cities 2) many plantations and small towns 3) fewer immigrants 4) many blacks, slavery legal, dependent on slave labor 5) favored state rights, opposed tariffs

This slave uprising in Virginia was led by a slave who was allowed to act as a preacher to other slaves. In 1831, this slave preacher and a group of his followers began stealthily killing whites and freeing other slaves. The uprising grew to about sixty slaves, and many whites were killed. Ultimately, a white militia was organized and the rebellion was put down within a few days. The revolt frightened Southern whites and stimulated the creation of stricter slave codes.

Nat Turner's Rebellion

Angered by Governor Berkeley's Indian policy, this leader of colonial frontiersmen in Virginia commanded unauthorized attacks on Indian towns, marched on Jamestown, and attempted to take control of the Virginia government in 1676. His eponymous rebellion quickly collapsed after he suddenly fell ill and died of dysentery.

Nathaniel Bacon

This woman suffrage organization was formed in 1890 by a merger of two suffrage groups. During the 1890s, the organization was led by Susan B. Anthony, and during the early 1900s it was led by Carrie Chapman Catt. This women's rights organization focused on changing state laws by lobbying politicians and holding parades and street rallies.

National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA)

Founded during the early 1900s, this organization works to improve the civil rights and living conditions of African Americans. In its early years, the organization concentrated on providing legal services and using the courts to overturn Jim Crow laws. Slowly, this legal strategy yielded important victories that ultimately helped to enable and inspire the Civil Rights Movement of the 1950s and 1960s. Below are a few key court rulings on cases filed and argued by this organization. 1915: grandfather-clause exemptions for literacy tests ruled unconstitutional 1930s-1950: a number of rulings allowed blacks into colleges and required equal, desegregated college facilities 1946: segregation of interstate buses and trains ruled unconstitutional 1954: segregation in public schools ruled unconstitutional

National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP)

This African-American civil rights organization was founded in 1909 by W.E.B. Du Bois and a number of other reformers. The organization concentrated on using the courts to overturn Jim Crow laws.

National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP)

Created in 1933, this federal law guaranteed workers the right to unionize and created the National Recovery Administration (NRA), which could set prices and wages and establish industrial standards. However, because this law granted an executive agency (the NRA) the ability to make regulations having the force of law (making laws is a power normally reserved for Congress), the U.S. Supreme Court declared sections of this law unconstitutional in 1935.

National Industrial Recovery Act (NIRA)

Created in 1935, this federal law strengthened the labor union provisions of the NIRA. This New Deal legislation protects workers' right to join a labor union and engage in collective bargaining (negotiations between employers and union representatives). The law also created the National Labor Relations Board to investigate unfair labor practices.

National Labor Relations Act (a.k.a. Wagner Act)

Formed in 1960, this was the Vietnamese resistance organization in South Vietnam that was committed to overthrowing the South Vietnamese government and reunifying North and South Vietnam. Its members were commonly called Vietcong by U.S. officials and military forces.

National Liberation Front

Founded by Betty Friedan and other activists in 1966, this is the largest, most influential women's organization in the U.S. During the Women's Liberation Movement of the 1960s and 1970s, members of this group engaged in marching, lobbying government, and disseminating information to create changes in sexist attitudes and behavior and create legal reforms for equal educational opportunities, equal pay and employment opportunities, and legalized abortion.

National Organization for Women (NOW)

This woman suffrage organization was co-founded and led by Alice Paul. It focused on gaining an amendment to the U.S. Constitution that would enfranchise women. To accomplish this, the organization used more aggressive tactics, such as non-stop picketing of White House, hunger strikes in jail, and directly criticizing President Wilson.

National Woman's Party (NWP)

These were a series of British trade laws made in the mid 1600s. They required that (1) European goods imported to the colonies be first sent to England to be taxed, (2) goods exported from the colonies be sent only to England and travel on English ships, and (3) taxes be paid on coastal trade between the colonies. These laws were frequently defied, especially by the northern coastal colonies.

Navigation Acts

This radical ideology was promoted by Adolf Hitler and his Nazi Party from the 1920s to 1945. This racist brand of fascism emphasized: 1) the superiority of Aryans (pure Germans) 2) hatred toward other races (especially Jews) 3) the belief in an Aryan destiny of world domination 4) all the general characteristics of Italian fascism (e.g. dictatorial rule, extreme nationalism, propaganda, militarism)

Nazism (a.k.a. National Socialism)

In response to the growing military aggression in Europe and Asia during the mid 1930s, the U.S. government created a series of federal laws called this. These laws attempted to prevent the U.S. from being drawn into another costly European war by prohibiting Americans from selling arms or issuing loans to nations at war. These laws demonstrate the popular support by Americans for isolationism during the 1930s.

Neutrality Acts

This term refers to President Franklin Roosevelt's domestic policies to alleviate and end the Great Depression. The numerous laws, programs, and agencies created by FDR and Congress focused on three goals: relief, recovery, and reform.

New Deal

This European colony in the North America spanned from Northeast Canada through the Great Lakes region and down the Mississippi River Valley.

New France

In 1960, John F. Kennedy used this term to confidently describe America's prosperity, technology, and potential for new levels of progress. Historians sometimes use this term to refer to President Kennedy's proposed goals, such as creating medical care for the elderly, rebuilding poor urban areas, aiding education, increasing defense and international aid, and advancing the space program. Although Congress supported many of his plans related to the Cold War, Republicans and Southern Democrats blocked many of JFK's social plans.

New Frontier

In response to the Virginia Plan, this plan was submitted at the Constitutional Convention. The proposal called for establishing a unicameral (single house) congress that would feature equal state representation and be given the powers to tax and regulate commerce.

New Jersey Plan (a.k.a. Small-State Plan)

In this colony the Dutch established a fur trade with the Iroquois Indians and built numerous trading posts. By the mid 1600s, the colony became a major port for trade in the North Atlantic, developed a diverse population, and guaranteed religious freedom.

New Netherland

This group of English Protestants wanted to start a new church instead of reforming the Church of England.

Separatists

After a brief economic recession that followed WWI, the U.S. experienced a long period of economic expansion. The booming economy of the 1920s involved increasing industrial production, high employment and consumer spending, products of convenience, and rising incomes for the middle and upper classes. This economic expansion was mainly caused by this.

New technology and products (e.g. affordable automobiles, air travel, radios, motion pictures, and home appliances) stimulated business creation, job growth, production, and spending.

This was the leader of the Soviet Union during 1950s and early 1960s. He was responsible for the partial de-Stalinization of the U.S.S.R. (eliminated the cult of personality, Gulag labor-camp system, and dictatorial rule). However, he believed that communism was a superior system that would triumph over capitalism. He was the leader of the U.S.S.R. during several tense Cold War developments, such as the nuclear arms race, the Hungarian uprising, and the Cuban Missile Crisis.

Nikita Khrushchev

Ratified in 1920, this amendment to the U.S. Constitution guarantees women the right to vote.

Nineteenth Amendment

Stalin's Berlin Blockade convinced the U.S. and its Western European allies that further Soviet aggression was likely. To guard against future Soviet attacks and territorial expansion, the U.S., Canada, and ten Western European nations formed a defensive alliance in 1949 called this. The members of this alliance pledged that an attack on one would be an attack on all.

North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)

In 1950, after most of the Allied forces had left Korea, this invasion occurred.

North Korean troops invaded South Korea in an attempt to unify the nation under a Communist government.

Made by the Congress of the Confederation in 1787, this law established a system of government in the Northwest Territory, prohibited slavery in that territory, and set up a process of how states could be created from U.S. territory. Arguably the most important piece of legislation passed by the Congress of the Confederation, the law established a precedent that the U.S. would expand westward with the admission of new states rather than the expansion of existing states.

Northwest Ordinance of 1787

Although the Congress of the Confederation had many problems, it is credited with having taken successful action with this land, an area that covered the modern states of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and Wisconsin.

Northwest Territory

These German anti-Semitic laws were created in 1935. They defined Jews and Aryans and outlawed marriage and sexual relations between those groups. Subsequent racial laws barred Jews from obtaining government and university jobs, attending public schools, and visiting many public places.

Nuremberg Laws

During these criminal trials in Germany after WWII, a number of Nazi leaders were tried for waging aggressive war and committing war crimes (killing prisoners, plundering) and crimes against humanity (extermination, slavery). Most of the Nazis placed on trial were found guilty and were either imprisoned or executed.

Nuremberg Trials

This government agency was created during WWII to fight inflation by freezing wages, prices, and rents. Additionally, this agency rationed scarce foods like meat, coffee, and sugar.

Office of Price Administration (OPA)

This is the nickname of President Harding's cabinet (advisors), who were mostly his poker-playing friends. Some of them used their governmental positions to profit and were caught taking bribes.

Ohio Gang

During the Great Depression, thousands of farmers in the Dust Bowl packed up their belongings in their cars, abandoned their farms, and moved west to the Pacific Coast states. These migrants were commonly called this nickname.

Okies

In 1838 the U.S. Army forcibly gathered about 15,000 Cherokee Indians in Georgia and marched them to the Indian Territory in this present-day state. During that 800 mile trip, which occurred during the fall and winter, 4,000 Indians died, and armed government "escorts" stole from the Indians.

Oklahoma

Hoping to make a compromise settlement with the British government and avoid an all-out war, the Continental Congress sent this document to King George III in July of 1775. In the document, the colonists professed their loyalty to Britain, begged for an end to the hostilities, traced the history of the disagreement, and affirmed their aim to fight for their rights.

Olive Branch Petition

These were the results of the Townshend Acts.

Once again, many colonists rose up in protest. Anonymous essays were written and reprinted. Several colonies petitioned the King. Boycotts were organized, and violent clashes occurred. In 1770, Parliament repealed several of the Townshend taxes but retained a tax on tea and the requirement to use the revenue to pay colonial officials.

The acquisition of the Philippines in 1898 increased U.S. interest in trade with China, but American merchants struggled to gain full access to Chinese markets. This was due to the fact that a number of European nations had carved up China into "spheres of influence" where they monopolized trade and investment. In response, U.S. Secretary of State John Hay sent notes to the world's major powers and proposed this policy, which pledged to keep China open to trade with all countries. Although the major powers never formally accepted Hay's request and foreign competition for trade in China continued, the policy demonstrates the U.S.'s growing role as a world power and economic competitor at the turn of the 20th century.

Open Door Policy

This federal agency was created in 1961 by President Kennedy and the U.S. Congress. Using volunteer college graduates as advisers, teachers, and health care workers, this agency provides assistance to developing nations in Asia, Africa, and Latin America.

Peace Corps

This historical region, composed of the northwestern United States and western Canada, was claimed by both Great Britain and the United States. In the 1840s, American expansionists called for annexation of this area and created the slogan "Fifty-Four Forty or Fight!"

Oregon Country

With this treaty, made in 1846, the United States and Great Britain agreed to a peaceful division of the Oregon Country. According to the treaty, the region was split about in half along the 49th parallel. In 1848, the U.S. portion was organized as the Oregon Territory and opened for settlement.

Oregon Treaty

Women's clubs in America played this role in the Progressive Movement.

Originally, women's clubs were established to provide middle- and upper-class women an intellectual and social outlet. However, by the turn of 20th century, these clubs became less concerned with cultural activities and more concerned with discussing reform efforts. During the Progressive Movement, women's clubs helped build support for reforms like child labor laws, worker safety laws, accident compensation, pure food and drug laws, and woman suffrage.

From a wealthy Saudi Arabian family, this man joined mujahideen forces in 1979 to fight against the Soviet Union in Afghanistan and gained popularity among Arabs. He adopted an ultraconservative brand of Islam and was greatly angered by the presence of U.S. troops in Saudi Arabia during Persian Gulf War. During the early 1990s, he formed the terrorist organization al-Qaeda and declared a holy war on America, Israel, and the Saudi monarchy. Under his leadership, al-Qaeda carried out a number of terrorist attacks around the world, including the 1993 bombing of the World Trade Center and the September 11 attacks on the United States. He was eventually killed by American special forces in 2011.

Osama bin Laden

This term refers to a series of government raids on alleged radical centers throughout the U.S. in 1920. Led by the U.S. Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer, the raids resulted in the arrest of thousands of suspected radicals in more than 30 cities and the deportation of over 500 non-citizens. In the end, no evidence was found of illegal activity or revolutionary plotting.

Palmer Raids

During the cease fire, Allied leaders engaged in this meeting in 1919.

Paris Peace Conference

During the Colonial Era, Great Britain and its empire was ruled by a monarch and this legislative body, which consists of the House of Lords and the House of Commons. The Thirteen Colonies had no representation in the House of Commons.

Parliament

In order to establish a larger military presence in the Pacific and create a refueling station for American ships, the United States negotiated a treaty with Hawaii in 1887 and built this naval base.

Pearl Harbor

This colonial silversmith was a close friend of Samuel Adams and a member of the Sons of Liberty in Boston. A number of his engravings, such as "The Bloody Massacre," promoted the revolutionary cause. Although he served as an officer in the Revolutionary War, he is perhaps best known for his "midnight ride" that helped to warn of the British advance on Lexington and Concord.

Paul Revere

This U.S. naval base was attacked by Japanese planes on Dec. 7, 1941. Most of the U.S. Pacific fleet was destroyed, and 2,400 soldiers were killed. The surprise attack on this base shocked Americans and unified them in support for war. The day after this attack, the U.S. government officially declared war on Japan. Thus, the attack marked the entrance of Japan and the U.S. into World War II.

Pearl Harbor

Garfield's assassination stimulated the federal government to pass this law in 1883.

Pendleton Civil Service Act

This proprietary colony was founded in 1681 by William Penn. King Charles II gave Penn a large tract of land in North America to satisfy a debt the king owed to Penn's father. A Quaker from England, William Penn designed his colony as refuge for Quakers. Its colonial government guaranteed religious freedom, allowed Christians of any denomination to vote and hold office, and required fair dealing with Indians.

Pennsylvania Colony

This secret U.S. government document detailing the history of America's involvement in the Vietnam War was leaked to the public in 1971 by a former military analyst. The document revealed that President Johnson had been dishonest with the American public and lacked a plan to end the war. The document confirmed many American's belief that their government not been truthful about its war intentions (a credibility gap) and helped harm public opinion of the Vietnam War.

Pentagon Papers

The war between this American Indian tribe and an alliance of English colonists of Massachusetts and Connecticut and their Indian allies occurred during the 1630s. Efforts among competing tribes, English, and Dutch to control the fur trade in New England led to escalating incidents and the outbreak of this war.

Pequot

This colony was founded in 1620 by a group of "Pilgrims" (Separatists) and "strangers" (other English settlers) who sailed on the Mayflower. The group got permission from the Virginia Company to settle in Virginia, but errantly landed in Massachusetts and decided to settle there.

Plymouth Colony

In the summer of 1777, British troops sailed from New York up the Chesapeake Bay and then marched into Pennsylvania to seize this American capital. Washington attempted to block the redcoats at Brandywine Creek but was defeated and forced to withdraw. The Continental Congress fled this city just before it was captured by the British.

Philadelphia

After the Spanish-American War, Filipinos rose up against the United States' occupation and annexation of the Philippines. Between 1898 and 1902, a brutal conflict called this occurred, which resulted in the deaths of about 4,000 American troops and over 20,000 Filipinos.

Philippine-American War

After Congress and President McKinley approved a declaration of war against Spain, the U.S. fleet sailed to this island chain in the Pacific and defeated a Spanish fleet. American ground troops and local rebel forces seized the islands from Spanish control.

Philippines

This conservative political activist opposed feminism and organized the "STOP ERA" campaign. She argued that the ERA would lead to drafting women into the military, an expansion of federal power, taxpayer-funded abortions, and same-sex marriage.

Phyllis Schlafly

In September of 1939, German and Soviet troops invaded and divided this European country. Angered by Hitler's continued aggression, Britain and France abandoned appeasement and finally declared war on Germany. The invasion of this country marks the beginning of World War II.

Poland

This is a basic historical description of the Plains Indians, and these are a few notable tribes.

Plains Indians refers to the Native American tribes who traditionally lived on the Great Plains. Horses, which were first introduced to the region by early European explorers and traders, enabled these tribes to more effectively hunt bison, colonize the prairies, and develop horse cultures. Some tribes—such as the Sioux, Cheyenne, and Comanche—developed fully nomadic cultures, followed the vast herds of buffalo, and occasionally engaged in agriculture. Other tribes—such as the Pawnee, Mandan, and Arikara—were more sedentary. They hunting buffalo, but often lived in permanent villages, regularly raised crops, and actively traded with other tribes.

The U.S. did not annex Cuba after the Spanish-American War. However, with this legislative addition passed by Congress in 1901, the U.S. was able to hold power over the Cuban government.

Platt Amendment

In its ruling on this case in 1896, the U.S. Supreme Court established the "separate but equal" doctrine and validated segregation.

Plessy v. Ferguson

In this landmark court case, activists challenged a Louisiana segregation law that required railroads to have separate train cars for whites and blacks. In its ruling on this case in 1896, the U.S. Supreme Court declared that separate train cars didn't deprive blacks of equal rights if the accommodations were equal. This "separate but equal" ruling validated segregation and encouraged Southern governments to enact more segregation laws. Although this ruling required accommodations to be equal, most segregated facilities were not equal.

Plessy v. Ferguson

This is the chief method by which political machines gained power.

Political machines aided immigrants and organized their political support.

This Indian war with the British colonists occurred in 1763. Native American tribes of the Ohio River and Great Lakes regions were dissatisfied with the outcome of the French and Indian War, gathered together under the leadership of an Ottawa chief, and attacked British frontier forts and settlements. Both sides engaged in brutal tactics (targeting civilians, diseased blankets). The failed but costly Indian uprising hastened the British government to create policies to protect the colonies.

Pontiac's Rebellion

This term refers to the political movement of farmers and laborers that occurred during the late 1800s.

Populist Movement (a.k.a. Populism)

Created in 1892, farmers created this national political party.

Populist Party (a.k.a. People's Party)

These were some of the main results of the Great Society.

Positive Effects: The programs reduced hunger and poverty, helped the elderly and poor to afford medical care, and improved racial justice in the U.S. Negative Effects: In the following decades, the costly programs contributed to bigger deficit spending and produced widespread doubts of the federal government's ability to solve social problems.

During this final wartime Allied meeting held in 1945, President Truman (FDR had died) was alarmed by Stalin's refusal to fulfill the Yalta-Conference agreement to allow free elections in Poland. Truman consequently abandoned FDR's trust of Stalin and objected to the Allies taking reparations from Germany. Ultimately, the leaders agreed to take reparations from their own occupation zone within Germany.

Potsdam Conference

After the passage of the Kansas-Nebraska Act, a militant abolitionist named John Brown moved to Kansas to help make it a free state. In 1856, in response to attacks on "Free-Staters" in Lawrence, John Brown and six followers carried out this massacre, in which they murdered and mutilated five pro-slavery settlers in Kansas. This was one of the many bloody episodes in Kansas preceding the American Civil War, which came to be known collectively as Bleeding Kansas.

Pottawatomie Massacre

This is a statement of purpose that introduces the U.S. Constitution. It lists the goals of forming a more perfect union, establishing justice and peace, providing for the national defense, promoting the general welfare, and securing the people's liberty.

Preamble to the United States Constitution

After the creation of the Geneva Accords in 1954, President Eisenhower sought to contain communism in Vietnam by taking these actions.

President Eisenhower: 1) helped to install a democratic government in South Vietnam 2) assisted Ngo Dinh Diem (a politician who favored the U.S. and opposed communism) into power as president of South Vietnam 3) created the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO) to extend official U.S. protection to South Vietnam 4) sent military equipment and about 900 U.S. military advisers to train a South Vietnamese army

Although President Gerald Ford continued Nixon's policy of detente with the Soviet Union and China, he was criticized for these two problems and thus failed to win reelection in 1976.

President Ford was criticized for: 1) pardoning Nixon for all offenses against the United States 2) failing to solve the economic recession of the mid 1970s

This was how President Hoover responded to the Bonus Army.

President Hoover ordered the army to clear the veterans' campsites. General Douglas MacArthur led a force of infantry soldiers, mounted cavalry, and six tanks into the capital. The Bonus Army marchers with their wives and children were forcefully driven out, and their shelters and belongings were burned. This incident harmed Hoover's reputation.

In 1832, the South Carolina legislature passed an ordinance that nullified the Tariff of Abominations within its state borders. This was President Andrew Jackson's response to South Carolina's rejection of federal law.

President Jackson argued that nullification would cause the union to collapse and was therefore treasonous. He urged Congress to lower the tariff, sought authority to invade by submitting the Force Bill, and then send U.S. troops to the border of South Carolina. Ultimately, war was avoided during this "Nullification Crisis." Congress passed a lower tariff as well as the Force Bill, and South Carolina backed down and repealed its nullification ordinance.

This is how President Jackson responded to the Supreme Court's decision in the case Worcester v. Georgia.

President Jackson chose not to enforce the decision against Georgia and instead called on the Cherokees to relocate or fall under Georgia's jurisdiction.

Unlike his predecessors, Andrew Jackson had a willful, commanding style as president. He was not concerned with the balance of power between the branches of the federal government and was not reluctant to use his presidential veto. His political philosophy, later called Jacksonian Democracy by historians, featured these principles.

President Jackson favored these principles and policies: 1) spoils system (Political appointees should be replaced by the new president.) 2) laissez-faire economics (Business and trade should be free from governmental regulations and privileges.) 3) expansive use of presidential power to protect the Union 4) territorial expansion (Indians should be removed, and white farmers should settle the West.)

This historic event occurred in Dallas, Texas, on November 22, 1963.

President Kennedy was assassinated.

During the early 1960s, President Kennedy sought to contain communism in Vietnam by taking these actions.

President Kennedy: 1) increased the number of U.S. military advisers in Vietnam from 900 to 15,000 2) approved of a coup led by ARVN generals to remove President Diem from power (Diem was assassinated.)

Created in 1935, this New Deal law established an insurance program to provide aid for old-age retirement, disabled people, and families with dependent children.

Social Security Act

This is how President Lincoln dealt with the border states and public dissent in the North.

President Lincoln sent federal troops to occupy and "secure" several of the border states (prevent them from seceding). To restrain pro-Confederate citizens who attempted to obstruct the Union, aid the Confederacy, or promote secession of the border states, Lincoln sometimes took unconstitutional measures. His administration jailed thousands of Confederate sympathizers, suspended the writ of habeas corpus (requires an arrested person to be brought into court), and seized telegraph offices.

These actions of President Diem helped caused the renewal of a subversive independence movement in Vietnam.

President Ngo Dinh Diem: 1) held rigged elections in 1955 only in South Vietnam 2) declared South Vietnam an independent nation 3) launched a violent campaign against communists in South Vietnam 4) was corrupt and favored Catholics and an urban elite in South Vietnam

After the press discovered that the Watergate burglars were connected to the White House, the U.S. Congress and the FBI spent several years investigating what became known as the Watergate scandal. President Nixon attempted to cover up his administration's role in the Watergate break-in by paying off White House officials to remain silent, ordering the FBI to stop its investigation, and withholding evidence. Finally, in 1974 after he was forced to give up this "smoking gun" evidence to a Congressional investigative committee, Nixon resigned from office before Congress could formally impeach him.

President Nixon's recorded phone conversations

In order to intimidate and thwart the Soviet Union, this is how President Reagan engaged in a military build-up.

President Reagan: 1) increased the federal government's purchase of bombers, fighter jets, tanks, and naval vessels 2) began production of advanced "Peacekeeper" ICBMs 3) oversaw NATO deployment of nuclear missiles in West Germany 4) began the Strategic Defense Initiative (nicknamed "Star Wars"), a program that attempted to create a missile defense system

This is how the U.S. and United Nations responded to the 1950 invasion of South Korea.

President Truman hoped to contain the spread of communism and appealed to the United Nations. The U.N. authorized the deployment of U.N. forces. The U.S. Congress didn't declare war but instead authorized Truman to take military "police action" in Korea. Twenty-one countries of the United Nations eventually contributed to the defense of South Korea, with the United States providing 88% of the U.N.'s military personnel.

Immediately after taking over the government from Queen Liliuokalani, American sugar planters requested that the U.S. annex Hawaii. President Cleveland refused annexation but also chose (out of a fear of harming Americans) to not restore the Hawaiian monarchy. Five years later in 1898, this United States President supported annexation, and Hawaii became an official U.S. territory.

President William McKinely

Like Teddy Roosevelt and Taft, Woodrow Wilson is labeled a progressive president. While in office, he attacked what he called the "triple wall of privilege" (the tariff, the banks, and the trusts). These are some of President Wilson's progressive reforms and actions.

President Wilson: 1) lowered tariffs 2) created a more powerful antitrust law 3) created a banking reform law 4) attempted to outlaw child labor (He helped pass a federal child labor law, but the law was quickly ruled unconstitutional by the Supreme Court.) 5) eventually supported woman suffrage and the Nineteenth Amendment

This is the head of the executive branch of the federal government. This official serves a four-year term and is chosen by the Electoral College (a group that is elected directly by the people). If this official leaves or dies in office, he or she is replaced by the vice president.

President of the United States

Collectively, the vice president and the heads of the executive departments make up this group, which helps to advise the president.

President's Cabinet

Upon assuming the presidency in 1865, Andrew Johnson sought to quickly readmit the Confederate states to Union and restore former Confederates' political rights. He offered a pardon to anyone who took an oath of allegiance (no percent requirement like the Lincoln's plan or the Wade-Davis Bill) and required states to draft new constitutions, outlaw slavery, and give up secession. In response to the president's lenient plan, white Southerners cheered and quickly reorganized their governments according to Johnson's requirements. This initial rebuilding of the Union in 1865 is known as this.

Presidential Reconstruction

The terms liberal and conservative are broad political labels. Prior to the Cold War, liberals tended to favor this, and conservatives tended to favor this.

Prior to the Cold War: 1) Liberals typically favored change, social experimentation, and a larger, more active government. 2) "Classical conservatives" typically favored tradition and a smaller, less active government.

This is the historical significance of the American bison.

Prior to the settlement of Europeans, it is estimated that there were about 50 million bison in North America. With the adoption of the horse, Plains Indians became much more efficient at hunting bison, which in turn enlarged their tribes and promoted the Plains Indian horse culture. However, during the 1800s, American settlers, ranchers, hunters, and tourists preyed on the bison to near extinction. By 1890 there were only about 750 American bison left. Since these animals were the Plains Indians' primary source of food, clothing, and shelter, the decimation of the American bison was a major cause of the impoverishment of the Plains Indians during the late 1800s.

This royal order issued by King George III prohibited the colonists from settling beyond the Appalachian Mountains. The decree angered many colonists who wanted to expand westward and profit from new territory.

Proclamation of 1763

In response to the war in Europe, President Washington made this proclamation.

Proclamation of Neutrality (Washington formally announced that the U.S. would remain neutral in the conflict between France and Britain. Washington warned that U.S. citizens who aided either side in the hostilities could be punished by those nations and would not receive protection from the federal government.)

Occurring during the late 1800s and early 1900s in the United States, this broad reform movement sought to solve the problems created by industrialization, urbanization, immigration, and corruption in government. This movement consisted of many separate groups working for different reforms.

Progressive Movement (a.k.a. Progressivism)

This terms refers to the outlawing of alcoholic beverages. It also refers to the period from 1920 to 1933 in the U.S. when the manufacture, sale, and transportation of alcoholic beverages was illegal.

Prohibition

These are some of the main principles of international conduct highlighted in Wilson's Fourteen Points.

Proposing specific international conduct to prevent future wars, the Fourteen Points called for: 1) open treaties and a reduction of arms 2) freedom of the seas and trade 3) national self-determination (the right of a people to be independent and determine their own form of government) 4) a League of Nations (an international organization for peace)

These Native Americans were the first corn growers in what is today the U.S. They made elaborate irrigation systems to draw water away from rivers to grow corn, and they lived in adobe houses (made of dried mud) that were often stacked one on top of the other. Their colloquial tribal name is the Spanish word for "town" or "village."

Pueblo Indians

During this 1894 strike near Chicago, members of the American Railway Union walked off the job, paralyzed transportation in the western half of the U.S., and burned 600 freight cars.

Pullman Strike

This federal law banned ineffective and harmful foods and medicines. Like the Meat Inspection Act, it was created with the support of President Theodore Roosevelt in 1906 in response to Upton Sinclair's book The Jungle.

Pure Food and Drug Act

During the 16th and 17th centuries, this group of English Protestants wanted to "purify" the Church of England of what they considered to be Roman Catholic practices. Because they were persecuted in England in a variety of ways, many migrated to the New England Colonies.

Puritans

Formally known as the Religious Society of Friends, this is one of many dissenting Christian groups who emerged out of a dissatisfaction with the Church of England. They stress a direct and personal relationship with God and in the past were known for their pacifism, plain dress, and opposition to slavery. Persecuted in England during late 1600s, many immigrated to North America. Some, like those who settled in Puritan Massachusetts, continued to experience persecution. Others were able to establish thriving communities in colonies like Rhode Island and Pennsylvania.

Quakers

Created in 1765, this British law required the colonies to supply British troops with barracks and provisions. If the barracks were too small, colonies were to house soldiers in local inns, vacant buildings, and barns.

Quartering Act

Since Southern Democrats had left Congress when their Confederate states seceded, the Republican Party dominated the federal government and national politics during the Era of Reconstruction. Of the Republican politicians in Congress, a group nicknamed this wanted to destroy the political power of former slaveholders and establish free labor and equal rights in the South. This group of Republicans opposed Lincoln's Ten-Percent Plan, believing that it was too lenient on the South.

Radical Republicans

This New England essayist and lecturer was the most influential spokesman for transcendentalism. Criticizing organized religion and American intellectual and social conformity, he urged people to "go alone; to refuse the good models, even those most sacred in the imagination of men, and dare to love God without mediator or veil." His most famous essay is entitled "Self-Reliance."

Ralph Waldo Emerson

This term refers to the period of rebuilding that followed the American Civil War. This historical era lasted from 1865 to 1877.

Reconstruction

One of the main components of Congressional Reconstruction was a series of laws that were created by the Republican-dominated Congress in 1867. These laws, which are collectively referred to as this, established new requirements for the Confederate states to be readmitted to the Union. President Johnson vetoed these laws but was overridden by Congress.

Reconstruction Acts of 1867

This federal agency was created in 1932 by President Hoover and Congress. It attempted to stabilize the collapsing economy by providing federal loans to troubled banks, railroads, and businesses and loans for local governments to build public works projects. Ultimately, this agency failed to make a real impact, for it was was too strict with its loan requirements and didn't loan enough money out.

Reconstruction Finance Corporation

In spite of the Fort Laramie Treaty of 1851, peace was difficult to keep on the Great Plains as some white migrants wandered into Indian lands. After gold was discovered at the headwaters of the Missouri River in Montana, miners created the Bozeman Trail in 1863, a route that crossed through Sioux lands. Several thousand miners and settlers traveled this trail during the 1860s, which resulted in an increase in violence between white trespassers and Native Americans. After Indian leaders rejected the U.S. government's attempt to negotiate a new treaty, a Sioux chief led this war against U.S. armed forces and the flow of white trespassers from 1866 to 1868.

Red Cloud's War

This term refers to a panic in the U.S. during 1919-1920 in which many Americans feared radicals (communists, socialists, anarchists), economic instability, and revolution. These widespread fears resulted in new state sedition laws, public violence against radicals, aggressive governmental investigation, and injustice.

Red Scare

For most of his political career, Theodore Roosevelt was a member of this political party.

Republican Party

This political party was formed in 1854 by Northerners who were alarmed at the creation of the Kansas-Nebraska Act. Later during the late 1850s, the issue of expanding slavery into the territories split many parties, and many Northern anti-slavery Whigs and Democrats joined this party. By 1860, it had grown into a large political party in the North by appealing to many groups. This party: 1) favored high tariffs and federal roads and canals, which appealed to businessmen 2) favored the creation of laws that would provide free land in the West, which appealed to poor farmers 3) opposed allowing slavery to expand into the western territories, which appealed to abolitionists and free-soil laborers

Republican Party

This is who won the presidential election of 1912 and why.

Republicans split their vote between Taft and Roosevelt, which allowed the Democrats (who were united) to elect their candidate, Wilson.

In the 1644, Providence, Portsmouth, and several other neighboring settlements joined together and received a charter to form this colony, which developed as a refuge for religious dissenters who believed that government had no right to coerce religious beliefs. It was the first colony to establish religious freedom and the separation of church and state.

Rhode Island Colony

In its first attempt to establish a permanent settlement in the New World, Britain planted this colony on an island off North Carolina in the 1580s. The first settlement was quickly abandoned, and the second attempt became known as the "Lost Colony."

Roanoke Colony

This general commanded the Confederate Army of Northern Virginia and in 1865 was promoted to general-in-chief of all Confederate forces. Although he was considered a brilliant battlefield commander and won most of his battles, his two major offensives into Union territory ended in defeat.

Robert E. Lee

This American served as the Secretary of Defense in both the Kennedy and Johnson administrations. Committed to the notion of containing communism in the world, he advised LBJ during the mid 1960s to deploy regular ground troops in Vietnam and engage in a limited escalation of the conflict.

Robert McNamara

In its ruling on this landmark case in 1973, the U.S. Supreme Court declared that women have some constitutional right to terminate their pregnancies. The court established a trimester framework that prohibited states from regulating abortion during the first trimester of pregnancy, permitted regulations designed to protect a woman's health in the second trimester, and permitted states to prohibit abortion during the third trimester, so long as the health of the mother was not at risk. Note: In a subsequent ruling in 1992, the Supreme Court replaced the trimester framework with a viability framework which allows states to forbid abortions once the fetus is viable and the mother's health is not at risk. Prior to viability, states can regulate abortion but cannot pose an undue burden on a woman's right to an abortion.

Roe v. Wade

This Puritan minister was exiled from Massachusetts in the 1636 because of his beliefs in religious freedom, the separation of church and state, and respect for Indians' land rights. He and a number of his followers traveled south to the banks of Narragansett Bay and established a new settlement that he called Providence.

Roger Williams

This Hollywood actor and Republican Governor of California served as U.S. president from 1981 to 1989. He was a prominent leader of the neoconservative movement.

Ronald Reagan

In 1955, this civil rights activist in Montgomery, Alabama, refused to give up her bus seat to a white man and was arrested for violating a city segregation law.

Rosa Parks

During WWII, many women were drawn into the workforce to replace male workers who had joined the military. Most of these women were employed in service jobs and government bureaucracy, but some took industrial jobs making war weapons. Women's contributions to the war economy were promoted and celebrated by this fictional character who appeared on many government posters.

Rosie the Riveter

This U.S. volunteer regiment led by Theodore Roosevelt helped to defeat the Spanish forces on Cuba.

Rough Riders

About this many people were murdered in the Holocaust.

Roughly 11 million people were murdered (about 6 million were Jews).

This was the structure of government in each royal colony.

Royal colonies were ruled by: 1) a governor who was usually appointed by the King but paid by the colonists through local taxes 2) a two-part legislature (law-making body) composed of a governor's council (representatives appointed by the governor) and a general assembly (representatives chosen by the colonists).

In 1920, these two Italian immigrants were charged with murder and executed. Because of the widespread nativism in the U.S. and fear of radicals, the two immigrants were unfairly tried and convicted. Their trial is an example of the Red Scare and nativism.

Sacco and Vanzetti

Accusations by a number of girls during this event led to paranoia, unrest, and injustice in Massachusetts in 1692. Almost 200 people were arrested and 20 were executed. The event is an example of the Puritans' superstition, religious fervor, and powerful government.

Salem Witch Trials

He was the general of the Texas rebel army that defeated Santa Anna's forces at the Battle of San Jacinto. After the Texas Revolution, he was elected president of the Republic of Texas.

Sam Houston

This Harvard graduate and unsuccessful businessman became one of the leaders of the American Revolution. Strongly opposed to British control of the colonies, he helped to found the Sons of Liberty, organize several protests in Boston, write colonial letters of protest, and organize the Committee of Correspondence in Boston.

Samuel Adams

This was the 1925 criminal trial of a man in Tennessee who broke state law by teaching the theory of evolution to his students. The trial became a media circus as famous lawyers (William Jennings Bryan vs. Clarence Darrow) travelled to the small Southern town, joined the prosecution and defense, and argued over evolution and interpretation of the Bible.

Scopes Trial

When news of Lincoln's election reached the South, militant leaders demanded that their states separate from the Union. Within a couple months after the election of 1860, seven states seceded from the Union. After the American Civil War began, four more Southern states seceded. These are the eleven states that seceded.

Seceded after Lincoln's Election: 1) South Carolina 2) Georgia 3) Florida 4) Alabama 5) Mississippi 6) Louisiana 7) Texas Seceded after Civil War Began: 8) North Carolina 9) Virginia 10) Tennessee 11) Arkansas

Amid the spreading warfare between American militiamen and British troops in New England in 1775, colonial delegates met again in Philadelphia. This group assumed the role of a revolutionary government of the colonies for the duration of the war.

Second Continental Congress

This Protestant religious revival movement took place in the U.S. during the 1820s and 1830s. Reacting against the rationalism and religious skepticism of the Enlightenment and the spread of deism and Unitarianism in America, evangelistic ministers attempted to revitalize religious faith by travelling the U.S. and holding camp revival meetings. These ministers delivered enthusiastic, emotional sermons and typically emphasized universal salvation for those who repented, turned away from sinful behavior, and embraced moral action.

Second Great Awakening

Created in 1933, this federal agency regulates the stock market by monitoring the trading on stock exchanges, tracking the activities of stock brokers and investors, and enforcing securities laws. This New Deal program helped restore confidence in the nation's stock markets.

Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC)

This is the decision-making body of United Nations. It is composed of fifteen member nations (five permanent members and ten nonpermanent members that are chosen by the General Assembly every two years). If at least nine of the members approve, this decision-making body can provide aid, impose economic sanctions, and organize military force.

Security Council

This federal law was created by Congress in 1918. It outlawed any disloyal or abusive language about the U.S. government, constitution, flag, or armed forces.

Sedition Act

To draft American men into military service, Congress passed this federal law in 1917. During the First World War, 3 million American men were drafted and 2 million American men voluntarily enlisted in the military.

Selective Service Act

In 1965, to promote African-American voting rights, the SCLC conducted a protest campaign in this Alabama city. After several thousand blacks were arrested and one activist was killed, SCLC leaders attempted to march with protesters from this city to the state capital, Montgomery. During their first attempt at this fifty-mile march, the protesters were attacked by state troopers and the violence was shown on TV. In response, President Johnson delivered a speech to a televised session of Congress and asked for the creation a voting-rights bill. A few days later, Martin Luther King, Jr. and protesters in Selma were given federal protection and successfully completed their fifty-mile march to Montgomery.

Selma

In 1856, during the Bleeding Kansas crisis, this senator gave an anti-slavery speech in the U.S. Senate and harshly criticized Senator Andrew Butler of South Carolina. Several days later, Congressman Preston Brooks (Butler's nephew), who had been told of the insults made against his uncle and Southern slaveholders, entered the Senate and severely beat this abolitionist senator with a cane. This violent event outraged Northerners but was applauded by Southerners.

Senator Charles Sumner (The event is often referred to as the "caning of Charles Sumner.")

This was the first public women's rights meeting in the United States. It was held in New York in 1848 and was organized by Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott. About 300 women and 40 men (including Frederick Douglass) attended the convention. The participants discussed the social, civil, and religious rights of women and wrote a statement of beliefs and grievances.

Seneca Falls Convention

This was the system of sharecropping.

Sharecropping was a system in which landowners allowed farm workers to use their land in return for a portion of the crops they raised. Since most Southern blacks after the Civil War had no money to buy or rent land, they typically engaged in this type of farming arrangement. Unfortunately, sharecropping usually led to a cycle of poverty for African Americans. Initially without any money, black farmers had to go into debt to buy supplies. The profit from their crops was typically just enough to pay their debts but not enough to pay for new supplies. So, most often blacks were forced to go into debt each year and were never able to make enough to save money and buy their own land.

During this 1786 uprising in Massachusetts, over 1000 angry war-veteran farmers shut down county courts to stop tax and debt collection and then attempted to seize a government armory. Lacking a sufficient national army, Massachusetts elites resorted to creating a privately-funded militia to put down the revolt in 1787. This event promoted leaders to call for a stronger national government.

Shays' Rebellion

Created in 1890, this federal law prohibits monopolies by outlawing any "combination or conspiracy" of businesses that restrains competitive trade or commerce. This law was not enforced until progressive presidents like Teddy Roosevelt and William Taft took office during the early 1900s.

Sherman Antitrust Act

This book, written by Rachel Carson and published in 1962, documented the use of pesticides, such as DDT, and their effects on the environment. Her book helped to inspire the creation of a number of environmental laws and the development of the modern environmental movement in the United States.

Silent Spring

This is how the U.S. economy has changed over the last fifty years.

Since the 1970s, American businesses have faced increasing international competition (nations ruined by WWII have rebuilt and modernized). In response, U.S. companies have attempted to cut costs, increase efficiency, and expand their production and sales into foreign markets. They have embraced technological advances and factory automation, supported the reduction of tariffs, and "outsourced" some production and labor. Ultimately, over the last few decades, these factors have helped create economic globalization, a process in which the world's nations are becoming increasingly interconnected by trade. These changes have caused a shift in the U.S. labor force. Today, fewer Americans are engaged in manufacturing work and more are engaged in service jobs. This has also resulted in a decline of labor-union membership in the U.S.

This English official was the governor of the Dominion of New England during most of its three-year existence. Because he strictly enforced the Navigation Acts and restricted colonials' rights, he was despised by many colonists.

Sir Edmund Andros

This English adventurer sponsored several expeditions to the New World during the 1580s. Members of the first expedition claimed and explored a portion of the eastern coast of North America, which was named "Virginia" in honor of the reigning queen, Elizabeth I. Subsequent expeditions attempted to establish a permanent English settlement in North America but failed.

Sir Walter Raleigh

Formed in 1901, this U.S. political party advocated democratic socialism. During the Progressive Era, the party elected to office over seventy mayors, dozens of state legislators, and two members of Congress.

Socialist Party of America

This theory argues that people are inherently unequal and that competition ensures the survival of the fittest and a strong society. The theory was sometimes used during late 1800s and early 1900s to defend economic inequality, class systems, and imperialism.

Social Darwinism

These are characteristics of Puritan society.

Society was dominated by religion and men. Families were considered essential (single women were not allowed to live alone). Each settlement drew up a covenant (agreement) that tightly bound the residents together. There were strict rules, and the settlers kept a watchful eye on one another. All residents had to pay church taxes and attend church services.

Illiterate but a powerful speaker, this female ex-slave became an abolitionist and women's rights activist during the mid 1800s. She took a pseudonym and traveled the North giving speeches in support of equal human rights for women and blacks.

Sojourner Truth

This secret organization was formed to protect the rights of the colonists and to fight taxation by the British government. Its members often engaged in violent and destructive acts.

Sons of Liberty

This is how the Glorious Revolution affected the American colonies.

Soon after news reached Boston of the downfall of King James II, colonists of Boston rose up and arrested Sir Andros and other Dominion officials. The new monarchs (William and Mary) abolished the Dominion of New England and authorized the re-creation of separate colonial governments. However, they combined the Massachusetts Bay territories with the Plymouth Colony to form a single Massachusetts Colony, and required the new Massachusetts charter to guarantee religious toleration and non-Puritan representation in its assembly.

This organization of black ministers and churches was founded in 1957 after the Montgomery Bus Boycott. Led by Martin Luther King, Jr., the group organized and led a number of highly publicized protest campaigns during the 1950s and 1960s.

Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC)

From 1492 until 1898, Cuba was owned and ruled by this European nation.

Spain

In 1779, this European nation signed a military alliance with France and agreed to fight the British in Florida.

Spain

These were the terms of the Treaty of Paris of 1898.

Spain agreed to (1) free Cuba (allow it to become an independent country) and (2) give Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines to the United States. The U.S. agreed to pay Spain $20 million.

In the Adams-Onis Treaty of 1919, the U.S. and Spain agreed to this.

Spain ceded Florida to the United States. The two nations defined the western limits of the Louisiana Purchase, and the United States gave up its claim on parts of Texas.

In 1957, the Soviet Union launched this, the first space satellite, into orbit. This technological achievement alarmed Americans and prompted the U.S. government to encourage more science education in schools, fund more research labs, and speed up the nation's exploration of outer space. These developments led to the Space Race between the U.S. and Soviet Union during the 1950s and 1960s.

Sputnik

This British law levied a tax on many paper documents (e.g. newspapers, pamphlets, deeds, contracts, licenses, diplomas, playing cards) sold in the Thirteen Colonies. Like the Sugar Act, this law allowed vice-admiralty courts to have jurisdiction for trying violators. The law was created in early 1765 and scheduled to go into effect 10 months later.

Stamp Act

In 1948, a group of Southern conservatives who favored racial segregation and opposed Truman's civil-rights agenda left the Democratic Party and formed this political party. Despite the split of his own party, Truman out-campaigned his political opponent, Thomas Dewey, to win the presidential election of 1948.

States' Rights Party (a.k.a. Dixiecrats)

This American from Missouri acted as an empresario for Mexico (land agent who brought settlers into Texas). During the 1820s and 1830s, he helped to bring thousands of Americans into Texas and petitioned the Mexican government to allow Texans greater self-government.

Stephen F. Austin

This African American became the chairman of SNCC in the late 1960s. He and other members became critical of Martin Luther King's leadership, adopted a black nationalist philosophy, and excluded white students from membership in the SNCC.

Stokely Carmichael

In 1969, police officers raided a gay nightclub in New York and began arresting its patrons. Gay onlookers taunted the police, and violence erupted. This riot marked the beginning of the gay liberation movement, as it helped to inspire the creation of new organizations like the Gay Liberation Front and the use of protest events like gay pride marches.

Stonewall riots (Stonewall Inn uprising)

These conferences involving the U.S. and U.S.S.R. took place in Finland in 1969 and resulted in the SALT I Treaty, which froze the number of nuclear missiles at existing levels.

Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT)

This civil-rights organization, abbreviated SNCC, was formed in 1960 by college students. Members of this group participated in sit-ins, freedom rides, voter registration efforts, marches, and other forms of nonviolent protest.

Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC)

This organization was formed in 1962 by college students. Declaring their beliefs with the Port Huron Statement, members of this organization criticized American society for its racial injustice, Cold War policies, nuclear weapons, maldistribution of wealth, and manipulated democratic system. This group helped to lead anti-war demonstrations during the Vietnam War.

Students for a Democratic Society (SDS)

These were the successes and failures of Reconstruction.

Successes: 1) The Union was restored (Confederate states were brought back into the government). 2) African-Americans' rights were "identified" (13th-15th Amendments were created). 3) Black literacy increased, and black colleges were founded. Failures: 1) Former slaves were not given land. 2) Blacks' rights were not protected. (harmed by Jim Crow Laws, Plessy v. Ferguson, and failure of federal and state government to enforce 14th and 15th Amendments) 3) White supremacy was restored in the South. 4) These failures resulted in a cycle of poverty for most Southern blacks.

Created in 1764, this British law levied taxes on molasses, sugar, coffee, wine, textiles, and indigo imported into the colonies. Calling for strict enforcement, the law required that violators be tried in vice-admiralty courts where a judge decided the case, not a local jury.

Sugar Act

This provision in the U.S. Constitution establishes the U.S. Constitution and federal laws as the highest law in the nation, which state and local laws must not contradict.

Supremacy Clause

This is the highest legal court of the judicial branch of the federal government. It is responsible for ruling on court cases involving federal law and judging whether laws violate the U.S. Constitution. Currently, nine justices sit on this court. They are appointed by the President (with the consent of the Senate) and may serve for life.

Supreme Court of the United States

During the last year of John Quincy Adam's presidency, Congress passed the Tariff of 1828, which established higher taxes on foreign goods. Intended to protect American businesses, the tariff forced Americans to buy more expensive U.S. goods. Many Southerners saw this trade law as an attempt to enrich the North at the expense of the South. These Southern critics often used this nickname when referring to the Tariff of 1828.

Tariff of Abominations

This was the biggest scandal of President Harding's administration. The Secretary of Interior (a member of Harding's Ohio Gang) took $400,000 in bribes in return for secretly leasing out emergency federal oil lands to private oil companies.

Teapot Dome Scandal

These are some reasons why Theodore Roosevelt was such a popular political leader.

Teddy Roosevelt: 1) was charismatic, energetic, and bold 2) was intelligent and highly educated 3) was a sportsman, outdoorsman, and conservationist 4) was independent in his politics (rejected being controlled by his party) 5) often worked to promote and defend common, working-class Americans

Created in 1933, this federal agency built dams along the Tennessee River in the South. This New Deal program aided people and stimulated the economy by creating jobs and generating inexpensive electricity.

Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA)

Beginning on January 30, 1968, during the Vietnamese New Year holiday, the Vietcong launched a wave of attacks against U.S. and ARVN forces in over 100 towns and cities and twelve airbases. Although the Vietcong were eventually beaten back, these sudden, simultaneous attacks contradicted American claims that the U.S. was winning the war and thus helped to shift public opinion against war.

Tet Offensive

This was the result of the Embargo Act of 1807.

The Embargo Act was a failure. Because many American merchants resorted to illegal shipping, the law didn't significantly harm Britain. In 1809, the act was repealed.

This is the "Gospel of Wealth," and these are the author's main arguments.

The "Gospel of Wealth" is an article written by Andrew Carnegie in 1889 concerning philanthropy and the defense of great wealth and inequality. Carnegie claimed that money is too often squandered by charities and misguided givers. He argued that society's surplus wealth is best put to use when it is administered carefully by wealthy people. He believed that entrepreneurs should spend their lives amassing fortunes, and when they are old spend the bulk of that wealth enriching their community. Carnegie opposed giving welfare money, believing that it would be misspent by the poor. Instead, he urged entrepreneur philanthropists to establish cultural and educational institutions like colleges and public libraries that would uplift the poor.

As agreed to in the Treaty of Paris of 1763, Britain gained this from France and Spain (France's ally during the war).

The British gained: 1) almost all of the French territory in North America east of the Mississippi 2) Spanish Florida

This was the British government's reaction to the Battle of Bunker Hill and the Olive Branch Petition.

The British government rejected the Olive Branch Petition. King George III declared the colonists to be in rebellion (enemies) and began hiring German mercenaries for an invasion of the colonies. Parliament ordered the colonies closed to all commerce.

After the Battle of Saratoga, the British devised this new war strategy, which it carried out with some success during 1778-1780.

The British sought to gain control of the Southern states, where they hoped to recruit large numbers of Loyalists and stop the region's exportation of cash crops.

These were the effects of the Coercive Acts.

The Coercive Acts backfired on Britain. The colonists viewed the laws as cruel, unnecessary punishment and a threat to the rights of all American colonists, not just those in Massachusetts. Nicknamed the "Intolerable Acts," the laws convinced many moderate colonists to oppose British rule and encouraged the colonists to form an inter-colonial assembly to find solutions to their difficulties.

The Emergency Quota Act of 1921 established this immigration system, and the Immigration Act of 1924 increased the restrictions of that system by setting these limits on immigration.

The Emergency Quota Act set up a national-origins quota system that set numerical limits on immigration based on the immigrants' country of origin. The Immigration Act of 1924 tightened the national origins formula. It limited the annual number of immigrants who could be admitted from a country to 2% of the number of people from that country who were already living in the United States as of the 1890 census. These laws sharply cut the immigration of Southern and Eastern Europeans to the U.S. The law also banned the immigration of Arabs and Asians. There was no limit on immigration from Canada and Latin America.

In response to the Intolerable Acts, the First Continental Congress took these actions.

The First Continental Congress: 1) sent the King a petition that stated the colonists' grievances, desire to maintain relations with Britain, and request for help 2) declared the Coercive Acts null and void 3) agreed to a colonial-wide boycott of British goods 4) urged the colonies to mobilize militias 5) agreed to meet again in 1775

This was the Great Recession.

The Great Recession was the largest economic crisis for the U.S. since the Great Depression. Triggered by the crash of the housing market in 2008, the recession resulted in high unemployment (peaked at just over 10% in 2009), a sharp drop in stock markets, a spike in home foreclosures, and the collapse of many businesses. President Bush and President Obama responded by helping to enact tax cuts, stimulus programs to create jobs, and relief programs to provide emergency loans to big banks and auto manufacturers.

After gold was discovered in the Black Hills, thousands of white miners flooded into Sioux territory, violating the Fort Laramie Treaty of 1868. The U.S. government struggled to keep white trespassers out of Indian lands, and violence erupted between the Sioux Indians and white migrants. After Sioux leaders refused the federal government's offer to buy the Black Hills and relocate the tribe, the U.S. government in 1876 ordered the Sioux to leave the unceded hunting territories in Wyoming and Montana and return to their reservation. The government announced that those Indians who refused would be considered hostiles. That year a number of Sioux failed to comply with the government order, and in response the U.S. Army sent out the 7th Cavalry Regiment to defeat and round up the free roaming Indians. The series of battles that resulted between the Sioux (and their allies, the Cheyenne and Arapaho) and the government of the United States is known as this war. After winning this conflict, the U.S. annexed the Black Hills. The Sioux were stripped of their hunting rights in the unceded territory and forced to remain on reservation land and accept government rations.

The Great Sioux War of 1876

During the Era of Reconstruction, Republicans in Congress grew increasingly frustrated and angry at President Johnson's obstruction (vetoes) of Congress's reconstruction policies. In 1868, after President Johnson violated the Tenure of Office Act by firing the Secretary of War who favored Congressional Reconstruction, the U.S. House of Representatives did this.

The House of Representatives impeached President Johnson, which means he was officially charged with misconduct (violating a federal law) and put on trial by Congress. At the conclusion of his trial in 1868, the Senate vote to convict the president fell short by one vote, and Johnson was acquitted (i.e. found not guilty and therefore not removed from office).

The Kennedy Mystique was this.

The Kennedy Mystique refers to the widespread public fascination that developed around JFK during his presidency. JFK was charismatic, very intelligent, learned, and charming. He had a beautiful, fashionable wife (Jacqueline) and several young children. He was inspiring and represented a new generation in America. He offered hope and a commitment to better America ("ask not what your country can do...").

This is the long-term legacy of the New Deal.

The New Deal: 1) began the American welfare system 2) enhanced the power of the federal government and the presidency 3) increased the public's expectations of government 4) strengthened and shaped the Democratic party (The Democratic Party dominated 1930s-1940s and continued in its development as the party with a more liberal, progressive agenda and the belief in the growth and use of government.)

These were the positive accomplishments of the New Deal.

The New Deal: 1) provided public relief and stimulated economic recovery (although full recovery not achieved until WWII) 2) built roads, schools, airports, etc. 3) improved rural areas (dams, electricity) 4) established greater regulation of American banks and stock markets

This is what the Reconstruction Acts of 1867 required and accomplished.

The Reconstruction Acts of 1867 divided the Confederate states into five military districts. Federal army troops and a military commander were stationed in each district to ensure that white Southerners complied with newly created laws and amendments aimed at protecting African Americans. For their states to be admitted back into the Union and hold seats in the U.S. Congress, the Reconstruction Acts required Southerners (white and black) to create new state governments, write new state constitutions that gave voting rights to black males, and ratify the Fourteenth Amendment. With the exception of Tennessee (which Congress had allowed to reenter the Union in 1866 before military reconstruction), all of the Confederate states by 1870 were readmitted into the Union by completing the process set forth in the Reconstruction Acts.

This is the reason why Russia withdrew from World War I before the war's end and signed a peace treaty surrendering land to Germany.

The Russian Revolution of 1917 occurred. An uprising of Russian peasants, workers, and soldiers resulted in the removal of Czar Nicolas II from power and the creation of a communist government. Vladimir Lenin and other communist leaders viewed their nation's costly participation in WWI as an impediment to the creation of their new communist order and therefore sought peace with the Central Powers and withdrew Russia from the war.

These are the main powers given to the U.S. Congress.

The U.S. Constitution gives Congress the power to: 1) collect taxes 2) borrow money 3) coin money 4) regulate commerce (business and trade) with foreign nations and between the states 5) raise an army and declare war 6) impeach and remove federal officials

These are the main powers given to the U.S. president.

The U.S. Constitution gives the president the power to: 1) sign or veto proposed laws 2) enforce federal laws 3) command the armed forces 4) make treaties (with the consent of 2/3 of the Senate) 5) appoint federal judges (with the consent of a majority of the Senate)

The U.S. Constitution was ratified in this year and the new government began (President and members of the U.S. Congress assumed office) in this year.

The U.S. Constitution was ratified in 1788, and the new government began to operate in 1789.

In the agreement known as Jay's Treaty, Britain promised to evacuate forts in the Northwest Territory and pay for the American ships and cargo it had seized. In return, the United States agreed to do this.

The U.S. agreed to favor British trade. (i.e. Goods imported from Britain would be taxed at a lower rate than goods imported from other countries.)

This is how the United States entered a new phase of imperialism during the late 1800s.

The U.S. began acquiring overseas territories.

During the late 1800s, the federal government supported farmers and promoted the farming industry by creating the Morrill Act, which did this.

The U.S. government donated federal land to a number of states and territories for the creation of colleges that promoted agriculture and mechanic education. The University of Idaho is an example of a land-grant university that was established with the assistance of the Morrill Act.

Like many U.S. politicians before and after him, TR believed that Latin America was a special "sphere of interest" for America. In 1904, President Roosevelt announced what has become known as the Roosevelt Corollary. This was his addition (corollary) to the Monroe Doctrine.

The U.S. had right to intervene in the affairs of its neighbors if they proved unable to maintain order and control.

This is how President Truman responded to the spread of communism in China.

The U.S. provided money and weapons to the nationalist government in power. However, because he wanted to avoid another world war, Truman was not willing to intervene militarily.

These were the clashing world views of the U.S. and U.S.S.R. during the Cold War

The U.S. values democracy, capitalism (private property, economic freedom), limited government, many civil rights, and an emphasis on the individual. The U.S.S.R. valued communism, government control of property and the economy, strict rule, severely limited civil rights, and an emphasis on the state.

This was the status of women during the early 1800s.

The U.S. was a patriarchal (male dominated) society in the 1800s, and women's status was similar to that of a minor. With few exceptions, women: 1) were barred from the ministry and professional jobs 2) faced significant limitations in higher education 3) could not vote nor hold public office 4) could not serve on juries 5) who married had no control of their property and children and could not make contracts

The War Powers Act was of 1973 was created as a direct result of the government's dishonesty and lack of military success during the Vietnam War. This federal law limits the president's war-making powers by requiring these two actions when the president commits U.S. forces to military action abroad.

The War Powers Act of 1973 requires the president to: 1) notify Congress within 48 hours of committing armed forces to military action 2) return the armed forces within 90 days, unless Congress authorizes a further use of force or passes a declaration of war

These are the results of the Alien and Sedition Acts.

The acts made the federal government appear overly powerful and abusive, and therefore damaged the reputations of President Adams and the Federalists. This damage helped Thomas Jefferson and the Democratic Republicans win in the federal elections of 1800.

The Sixteenth Amendment made this change to the U.S. Constitution.

The amendment authorized the federal government to collect taxes on the incomes of individuals and corporations. It was a progressive reform because Congress, with this new power, immediately created a graduated income tax which requires wealthier citizens to pay a higher percentage of their income than poorer citizens.

These were the results of the September 11 attacks.

The attacks, which killed over 3,000 people, shocked and scared Americans and impelled President Bush and Congress to: 1) create new domestic security laws like the USA PATRIOT Act 2) form the Department of Homeland Security (a new executive department of the federal government which oversees border security, immigration and customs, and anti-terrorism efforts within the U.S.) 3) commence the "War on Terrorism"

This was the baby boom.

The baby boom was a spike in the national birth rate that occurred from the late 1940s to the early 1960s. The boom was caused by a popular desire for stability and family after years of disruption, economic hardships, and separation during the Great Depression and WWII.

These were the border states.

The border states were slave states in the upper South that did not secede from the Union. The borders state were: 1) Missouri 2) Kentucky 3) Maryland 4) Delaware 5) West Virginia (which broke off from Virginia in 1861 and became a new state of the Union during the war)

This is why Eli Whitney's cotton gin helped to increase slavery in the South.

The cotton gin is a machine that quickly and easily separates the seeds from harvested cotton. It allowed for profitable farming of short-staple cotton (a type of cotton that was packed with seeds but could be grown all over the South). Consequently, cotton production boomed in the South and dominated the region's economy. And, because picking the cotton required many laborers, the rise of cotton farming created an enormous demand for slaves.

This is how the Harper's Ferry raid affected Southerners.

The event terrified Southerners. Many Americans in the South ultimately blamed the Harper's Ferry raid on abolitionists who Southerners believed were inspiring Northerners to violently destroy the South's economy, culture, and property. The Harper's Ferry raid convinced many Southerners that they could no longer live safely in the Union.

During the Reconstruction Era, the federal government had to deal with these three issues.

The federal government had to deal with: 1) readmitting the Confederate states back into the Union 2) rebuilding the society, economy, and state governments of the South 3) guaranteeing rights to the newly-freed slaves Key Idea: These issues led to significant disagreement, controversy, and even violence during this period.

This is the principle of limited government that is featured in the U.S. Constitution.

The federal government is given specific, limited powers. All other powers belong the people (or perhaps their state governments).

This is the separation of powers established in the U.S. Constitution.

The government is divided into three branches, each with separate and independent powers and areas of responsibility: 1) legislative branch (Congress that makes federal laws) 2) executive branch (president and executive agencies that enforce federal laws) 3) judicial branch (Supreme Court and lower federal courts that administer federal criminal and civil trials as well as judge and interpret the laws)

This is how the Pendleton Civil Service Act reformed the patronage system.

The law created a Civil Service Commission which made appointments to federal jobs through a merit (exam) system.

This is how the Pendleton Civil Service Act negatively affected politics.

The law made politicians more reliant on campaign contributions from wealthy donors and corporations.

After the Revolutionary War, the states were over $70 million in debt. Hoping to further unify the nation and improve its prosperity, security, and ability to borrow, Alexander Hamilton proposed his "assumption" plan which called for this.

The plan called for the federal government to assume (take up and combine) all the states' war debts and then pay off that total debt by levying tariffs and a whiskey tax.

These were the main results of the Birmingham campaign.

The police violence against the demonstrators, which was shown on TV and reported in newspapers, shocked many Americans and increased public support for black civil rights. President Kennedy was compelled to submit to Congress a civil rights bill aimed at fighting segregation and discrimination.

The Tenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution states this.

The powers not given to the federal government belong to states and the people.

Although technically the U.S. Constitution may be amended by special national and state conventions, this is the two-step procedure by which all of the amendments have been created.

The proposed change must be approved by a two-thirds vote in both houses of the U.S. Congress and by three-fourths of the state legislatures.

These are characteristics of the economies of the New England Colonies.

The region has a colder, snowy climate, a shorter growing season, and poor, rocky soil. The economies of the New England Colonies emphasized fishing, whale oil, timber, shipbuilding, rum, and intercontinental trade (importing and exporting goods).

These are characteristics of the economies of the Middle Colonies.

The region has a temperate (moderate) climate. Although it is colder and has a shorter growing season than the South, the region has good soil and is well suited for growing food crops. The economies of the Middle Colonies featured commercial food farming (wheat, corn), raising livestock, and the production of iron and timber.

In response to the Gulf of Tonkin incident, the U.S. Congress passed the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution which authorized this.

The resolution gave President Johnson the authority (without a formal declaration of war by Congress) to use conventional U.S. military forces in Southeast Asia.

The Ninth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution states this.

The rights listed in Bill of Rights are not the people's only rights.

Although the theory of nullification originated with the Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions of 1798, the ideas were revived and expanded by John C. Calhoun during the late 1820s. Calhoun's more developed and radical theory of nullification argued this.

The theory of nullification argues that, since the states formed the Union and created the federal government, the states (not the federal courts) are the ultimate interpreters of the federal government's power and therefore may reject (nullify) federal laws that the states believe to be unconstitutional. Calhoun added to this theory by claiming that, if federal government refused nullification, a state had the right to leave the Union.

This is why Germany was able to end the long stalemate along the Western Front and launch a massive offensive deep into France in 1918.

The withdrawal of Russia from the war enabled Germany to send its troops in the Eastern Front to the Western Front.

This is how the presidential election of 1800 was unusual and problematic.

There was a tie in the Electoral College. Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr (both Democratic Republicans) each received 73 electoral votes. The election was then sent to the House of Representatives to decide. The voting in that body also was tied between the same candidates, and the Representatives spent weeks debating and revoting in an effort to break their tie. Ultimately, the deadlock was broken when the Federalist Alexander Hamilton (a long-time critic of Burr) influenced the vote toward Jefferson.

These are the causes of the French and Indian War.

There was no clear boundary between British and French territory in North America. In the mid 1700s, both nations made efforts to secure their claims on the Ohio River Valley. France constructed forts and expelled British traders. In 1754, war erupted in that valley when a British colonial militia ambushed French troops and, in response, French forces captured the newly-built British outpost, Fort Necessity.

This joint-stock company received a charter from James I and established the Jamestown settlement.

Virginia Company of London

The society of the Southern Colonies developed these characteristics.

There were large numbers of blacks, but whites dominated society. Large plantations developed, and a rich, ruling, upper class emerged. Rural communities of dispersed farms were common; fewer cities developed than in the North. The main church was the Anglican church, but many people were not active members.

This is how women gained the right to vote during the Progressive Era.

They created large organizations that: 1) gained popular support for women by publishing articles, delivering speeches, and organizing demonstrations 2) changed voting laws by lobbying and pressuring state and national governments

These were the reasons why teetotalers (supporters of the temperance movement) wanted to ban alcoholic beverages.

They argued that alcohol was the source of a number of harmful social problems, such as: 1) family violence 2) unemployment and poverty 3) disease 4) economic inefficiency Additionally, many Christian women argued that drinking alcohol led to the sin of drunkenness.

These were a few of the main arguments made by members of the anti-imperialist movement in the United States.

They argued that taking the Philippines: 1) was immoral (stealing property from the native people) 2) was anti-democratic and inconsistent with U.S. constitutional principles (natives not allowed self-rule, did not give their consent to be governed, denied their rights to liberty and property) 3) would be expensive and difficult to defend

These are the main reasons why Jefferson, Madison, and many other Democratic Republicans opposed the creation of the Bank of the United States.

They argued that the Bank of the United States: 1) would increase the power of the federal government 2) was unconstitutional (a national bank is not specifically listed in the U.S. Constitution) 3) would benefit merchants and investors at the expense of the majority of the population

This is why "gold bugs" wanted the gold standard.

They hoped that a gold standard would prevent inflation, which would ensure that the loans they issued were paid back in valuable dollars.

This is why silverites wanted bimetallism.

They hoped that bimetallism would create inflation, which would raise crop prices and enable farmers to more easily pay off their debts (which did not increase with inflation).

This is how the Spanish and Portuguese responded to the rapid decline of the native Indian labor force.

They imported African slaves to the New World.

Although the idea of completely outlawing slavery proved to be too controversial at the Constitutional Convention, the delegates did agree to this limitation on slavery.

They prohibited the national government from banning the international slave trade for at least 20 years.

This is how settlement workers felt about the theory of Social Darwinism.

They rejected the idea. Settlement house workers typically felt that people's development was primarily shaped by their environment not inherited traits.

One of the three "Reconstruction Amendments," this change to the U.S. Constitution was ratified in 1865. It outlawed slavery throughout the United States.

Thirteenth Amendment

This amendment to the U.S. Constitution was introduced in Congress midway through the Civil War and was finally ratified by the states in 1865. The amendment banned slavery and involuntary servitude in the United States (except as a punishment for a crime).

Thirteenth Amendment

Despite coming from a poor family and suffering from hearing loss, this self-educated man became one of the most prominent American inventors and businessmen during the late 1800s and early 1900s. Awarded over 1,000 patents, he invented the phonograph, improved the telegraph, light bulb, and movie camera, and built an electric power plant in New York City that electrified homes, businesses, and streets. In 1900, he established the General Electric Laboratory, the country's first industrial research facility.

Thomas Edison

This famous revolutionary leader, Virginia statesman, and American diplomat was appointed by President Washington as the nation's first Secretary of State.

Thomas Jefferson

This statesman succeeded John Adams as president of the United States. Although he was a Democratic Republican who believed in reducing the size and power of the federal government, as president he was often compelled to expand the government in order to promote the nation's safety and prosperity.

Thomas Jefferson

This wealthy lawyer and planter was a member of the Virginia colony's House of Burgesses. He wrote resolutions protesting the Intolerable Acts and, as a member of the Continental Congress, drafted the Declaration of Independence. During the Revolutionary War, he served as Governor of Virginia.

Thomas Jefferson

This English writer and political activist moved to the Thirteen Colonies in 1774. He authored influential pamphlets that promoted the ideas of liberty, encouraged colonials to declare independence from Britain, and boosted American morale during the war.

Thomas Paine

This term refers to corn, beans, and squash that were planted by various Native Indian groups, including the Eastern Indians of North America. Using the technique called companion planting, the three crops were planted close together. Corn grew in a stalk providing a trellis for beans. Beans grew up the stalk, and squash's broad leaves kept the sun off the ground and thus kept the moisture in the soil.

Three Sisters

Another issue that was debated at the Constitutional Convention was whether slaves would be counted as part of the population in determining representation of the states in Congress. Southern delegates wanted slaves to be fully counted, and Northern delegates didn't want slaves to be counted at all. Ultimately, the members of the Constitutional Convention agreed to this compromise.

Three-Fifths Compromise (Slaves would be counted as ⅗ a person when determining representation of the states in Congress.)

This attorney for the NAACP argued many important civil-rights cases, including Brown v. Board of Education in 1954. He was appointed to the U.S. Supreme Court by President Johnson in 1967 and participated in many court decisions that extended civil rights in America.

Thurgood Marshall

This is why Americans began settling in the Mexican province of Texas (Tejas) during the mid 1800s.

To gain more tax revenue, the Mexican government began inviting in the 1820s American settlers into Texas to become Mexican citizens. Tensions eventually developed by the 1830s as thousands of Americans and their slaves flocked to Texas, outnumbering native Mexicans and disobeying Mexico's ban on slavery.

In 1767, Parliament created this series of laws which levied taxes on glass, lead, paint, paper, and tea imported into the colonies. The law required the tax revenue to be first used to pay the salaries of colonial governors and officials, which effectively stripped the colonial assemblies of their "power of the purse".

Townshend Acts

The series of forced relocations of members of Native American Indian tribes in the South (e.g. Choctaw, Seminole, Cherokee) during the 1830s is referred to as this.

Trail of Tears

By 1814, both Great Britain and the U.S. were weary of their costly war that offered little but stalemate. That year, representatives from both sides met at a neutral site in what is today Belgium and negotiated a peace treaty known as this. The treaty was ratified by Congress in February 1915 and officially ended the War of 1812. In the treaty, the U.S. and Britain agreed to return occupied land to its pre-war owner and resume friendly trade relations.

Treaty of Ghent

This is the treaty that ended the French and Indian War.

Treaty of Paris of 1763

Signed in 1783 by representatives of Britain and the U.S., this was the treaty that officially ended the American Revolutionary War.

Treaty of Paris of 1783

After Spanish forces on Cuba surrendered, the U.S. and Spain negotiated and signed this treaty that ended the Spanish-American War.

Treaty of Paris of 1898

With this treaty, signed in 1494, Spain and Portugal agreed to divide the Western Hemisphere between them. Lands to the west of an imaginary vertical line drawn in the Atlantic, including most of the Americas, belonged to Spain. Lands to the east of this line, including Brazil, belonged to Portugal. Ultimately, the plan proved impossible to enforce. The English, Dutch, and French did not recognize the division of the New World and later claimed portions of North America.

Treaty of Tordesillas

The peace treaty that was negotiated by the Allied leaders in 1919 and brought World War I to an end is called this.

Treaty of Versailles

This Union general was aggressive and willing to sacrifice men to win the war. For much of the conflict, he served in the Western Theater, where Union forces fought to secure the Mississippi River region. President Lincoln promoted him to chief general of the Union Army in 1864.

Ulysses S. Grant

President Truman believed that the Soviet domination of Eastern Europe violated the principle of self-determination and that all of Europe was in danger. In response, Truman announced this foreign policy in 1947 when he pledged to stop the spread of communism in the world and sent $400 million in aid to Greece and Turkey.

Truman Doctrine (a.k.a. the policy of containment)

This is how President Truman responded to the Berlin Blockade.

Truman had supplies airlifted into West Berlin for almost year. In 1949, Stalin lifted the blockade.

These were the Allies' post-war visions and hopes for Europe.

Truman wanted: 1) democratic governments in Eastern Europe 2) a unified Germany 3) moderate treaty to help Germany prosper Stalin wanted: 1) communist governments in Eastern Europe 2) Soviet control of Germany 3) heavy reparations from Germany

Ratified in 1933, this amendment to the U.S. Constitution repealed the Eighteenth Amendment and ended Prohibition. Supporters of this amendment argued that the legalization of alcoholic beverages would create jobs, provide governments more tax revenue, and help boost the economy.

Twenty-First Amendment

In the summer of 1950, U.S. and U.N. forces under the command of General MacArthur landed in South Korea and pushed back the Communist North Korean army. However, when U.S. and U.N. troops drove deep into North Korea and approached the Chinese border in the fall of 1950, this happened.

Two hundred thousand Chinese troops entered North Korea and quickly pushed U.S. and U.N. forces back to the 38th parallel, where a statemate ultimately developed in 1951.

During the late 1950s, the CIA began secret reconnaissance flights over the Soviet Union using U-2 spy planes. In 1960, this incident occurred during which the Soviets shot down an American U-2 plane, imprisoned the pilot Francis Gary Powers, and Khrushchev and Eisenhower exchanged accusations of spying and cancelled a planned peace summit. Although Francis Gary Powers was later released in a prisoner exchange, the incident helped to increase American-Soviet tensions during the Cold War.

U-2 incident

This is the name of the legislative (law-making) body of the U.S. federal government. It's composed of two houses.

U.S. Congress

This is the lower house of the U.S. Congress. Members of this house are elected directly by the people of their state and serve two-year terms. Representation of the states in this house is determined by population (i.e. more populated states get more seats).

U.S. House of Representatives

This is the upper house of the U.S. Congress. Members of this house serve six-year terms and were originally chosen by the state legislatures. Since the creation of the 17th Amendment, its members have been directly elected by the people of their state. The states have equal representation in this house (each state has two members).

U.S. Senate

This American battleship exploded and sank while docked in Havana Harbor (Cuba) in 1898. Yellow journalists quickly blamed the incident on Spain. The incident angered many Americans and was a factor in causing the Spanish-American war.

U.S.S. Maine

In the presidential election of 1868, the Democratic Party rejected Andrew Johnson as their candidate and instead nominated Horatio Seymour, who was the Governor of New York. The Republican Party nominated this man, who went on to win the election and serve two terms as president.

Ulysses S. Grant

This Republican and former general served as U.S. president from 1869 to 1877. He supported Congressional Reconstruction by attempting to oppose the KKK and promote voting rights for freedmen in the South. Unfortunately, his reputation was harmed by corruption scandals in his administration and his failure to take decisive action to alleviate the economic recession known as the Panic of 1873.

Ulysses S. Grant

This emotional, antislavery novel was written in 1852 by Harriet Beecher Stowe. It quickly became the best selling novel of the century. Stowe's depiction and arguments about the injustice and cruelty of slavery convinced many Northerners to disdain slavery and increased resistance to the Fugitive Slave Law. The book and the public reaction it produced in the North during the 1850s outraged people in the American South.

Uncle Tom's Cabin

This term refers to the network of abolitionists who aided fugitives in their escape from slavery. The escape routes and methods used in this network varied. Although some slaves escaped to Mexico, most of the fugitives who traveled along this network fled to the Northern free states or even to Canada. During the first half of the 1800s, Southern slave owners became increasingly angered by the efforts of this network and the loss of (what they considered) their slave property.

Underground Railroad

This Christian theology gained acceptance in some U.S. churches during the early 1800s. It emphasizes the belief that: 1) God is one (rejection of the Trinity) 2) Jesus was human (not God) but was inspired by God in his moral teachings 3) reason and conscience override creeds and dogma 4) humans are inherently good and salvation is available for all (rejection of "predestination") The churches which embraced this theology mainly appealed to deists and intellectuals, especially in New England.

Unitarianism

Cesar Chavez co-founded and led this farm workers' union during the 1960s and 1970s.

United Farm Workers (UFW)

Formed in 1890 to represent coal miners, this labor union is an example of an industrial union (membership limited to a specific industry). Its main goals were to improve mine safety, develop mine workers' independence from the company town, obtain fair pay (in legal currency not company script), and end child labor.

United Mine Workers

Created in 1945, this international organization of countries seeks to maintain world peace, security, and cooperation. It replaced the ineffective League of Nations.

United Nations

During the Progressive Era, this novelist became an active socialist and a muckraker. In 1905, he wrote an "investigative novel" called The Jungle about an immigrant who worked in a Chicago slaughterhouse. His book became a best-seller in the U.S. and helped stimulate the creation of several federal health laws. Referring to the public reaction to his novel, the author famously said, "I aimed at the public's heart, and by accident I hit it in the stomach."

Upton Sinclair

This was the urbanization of America, and these were the main causes of that development.

Urbanization is the process of a country becoming more urban (i.e. the development of cities and large towns). During the late 1800s, increasing numbers of Americans (and new immigrants) moved to cities, and the U.S. began to rapidly develop into an urban nation. The main causes of this urban growth were: 1) industrialization (Factory jobs and big businesses were more often located in cities.) 2) urban lifestyle (Many people were attracted to the modern conveniences, inventions, and entertainment found in cities.) 3) heavy immigration (During the late 1800s and early 1900s, millions of immigrants came to the U.S. Often poor and with little education, many of these immigrants settled in cities where low-skill factory jobs could typically be found.)

This was the urbanization of America, and these were the main causes of that development.

Urbanization is the process of a country becoming more urban (i.e. the development of cities and large towns). During the late 1800s, increasing numbers of Americans (and new immigrants) moved to cities, and the U.S. began to rapidly develop into an urban nation. The main causes of this urban growth were: 1) industrialization (Factory jobs and big businesses were more often located in cities.) 2) urban lifestyle (Many people were attracted to the modern conveniences, inventions, and entertainment found in cities.) 3) heavy immigration (During the late 1800s and early 1900s, millions of immigrants came to the U.S. Often poor and with little education, many of these immigrants settled in cities where low-skill factory jobs could typically be found.)

During the winter of 1777-1778, while the British army wintered comfortably in Philadelphia, Washington and the Continental Army camped at this site in Pennsylvania. Living in make-shift huts, 2,500 (of the 10,000) American soldiers died from exposure and disease.

Valley Forge

By 1945, Allied forces had invaded northern Italy and western and eastern Germany. In April of that year, Soviet troops began the final assault on Berlin. In early May, after Adolf Hitler committed suicide, German generals begin surrendering. News of the Allied victory in Europe reached the West on May 8, 1945, a date that Americans refer to as this.

Victory in Europe Day (a.k.a. VE Day)

On September 2, 1945, Japanese officials boarded the U.S. battleship Missouri anchored in Tokyo Bay and signed the official surrender documents. This day is known in the United States as this.

Victory over Japan Day (a.k.a. VJ Day)

This term was commonly used by U.S. forces to refer to the Vietnamese communist rebels in South Vietnam.

Vietcong

This term refers to President Nixon's plan to gradually draw down U.S. troop levels in Vietnam while at the same time increase the number and combat role of South Vietnamese troops (ARVN).

Vietnamization

Drafted by James Madison, this plan was presented and debated at the Constitutional Convention. The proposal called for abandoning the Articles of Confederation, writing a new constitution, separating the powers of government among three branches (legislative, executive, judicial), and forming a bicameral (two house) congress in which representation in both houses would be based on population.

Virginia Plan (a.k.a. Large-State Plan)

This federal law was enacted to carry out the intent of the Eighteenth Amendment. Formally known as the National Prohibition Act, this law defined "intoxicating liquors" and provided penalties for making, selling, and transporting alcoholic beverages.

Volstead Act

Created in 1965 by President Johnson and Congress, this federal law prohibits unjust barriers to voting (literacy tests, poll taxes, intimidation, harassment) and empowered the federal government to oversee voter registration and elections. This law resulted in an enormous increase in the number of registered black voters.

Voting Rights Act of 1965

This intellectual leader of the early 1900s was the first African American to graduate from Harvard. He advocated immediate racial equality and believed that blacks' civil rights could be best advanced by the efforts and leadership of a black "talented tenth." He helped to found the NAACP in 1909.

W.E.B. Du Bois

This man was the first African American to graduate from Harvard and was the most prominent black civil-rights leader during the first half of the 20th century. Unlike Booker T. Washington who called for blacks to tolerate their inferior status and focus on gaining economic power, this leader advocated for immediate racial equality and the advancement of a black "talented tenth" who, as leaders, could help defeat racial injustice and inequality in America.

W.E.B. Du Bois

This plan for reconstructing the Union was proposed in a federal bill by two Radical Republicans in 1864. For a state to be readmitted into the U.S. government, the plan required that 50% of the state's white males take a loyalty oath, the state abolish slavery, and the civilian and military leaders of the Confederacy be stripped of their political rights. Fearing that the plan was too harsh and would make it more difficult to restore friendly relations between Northerners and Southerners, President Lincoln vetoed the bill, which angered the Radical Republicans.

Wade-Davis Bill

This U.S. government agency was created during WWI to coordinate the purchase of war supplies. The organization set production quotas, helped to allocate raw materials, and encouraged companies to use mass-production techniques to increase efficiency. To gain businesses' cooperation, this agency offered lucrative contracts and sometimes resorted to economic threats.

War Industries Board (WIB)

This government agency was created during WWII to convert factories and maximize war production. This agency also rationed fuel, rubber, metal, and plastics and organized nationwide drives to collect scrap iron and other recyclable materials.

War Production Board (WPB)

Often thought of as America's second war for independence, this military conflict between the U.S. and Britain lasted almost three years.

War of 1812

Just days after JFK's funeral, President Johnson organized this commission to investigate Kennedy's death. Named after the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court who was appointed as its chairman, the commission announced in 1964 that investigators found no evidence of a conspiracy in JFK's assassination and concluded that Oswald fired the shots that killed JFK.

Warren Commission

This U.S. president served from 1921 to 1923. Hoping to return the nation to "normalcy," this Republican president favored pro-business policies and a small federal government which minimizes it own activities. His administration is associated with a number of scandals.

Warren G. Harding

In an attempt to counter NATO, the Soviet Union and seven Eastern European satellite nations formed this military alliance in 1955.

Warsaw Pact

These were the some of the difficulties that our new government faced during the 1790s.

Washington and Adams struggled to: 1) manage the nation's financial debt 2) deal with local rebellion in the United States 3) avoid war with Britain and France 4) resist using federal power to harm others

In 1796, George Washington announced in a letter addressed "To the People of the United States of America" that he would not run for another term as President. In this letter, which was printed in newspapers across the nation and became known as his Farewell Address, Washington gave this advice to Americans.

Washington urged Americans to: 1) support the Union and avoid sectional rivalry (He reasoned that Americans' liberty, safety, and prosperity are all dependent upon the unity between the states. He urged people to place their identity as Americans above their identities as members of a state or region, and warned Americans to be suspicious of anyone who seeks to abandon the Union.) 2) beware the growth of political parties and political factions (He warned that these groups tend to seek more power than other groups and take revenge on political opponents.) 3) avoid foreign entanglements (He argued that alliances and rivalries with other nations will only cloud the government's judgement.)

During the third stage of the War of 1812, Britain (having just defeated Napoleon in Europe) sent larger invasion armies to the U.S. and focused its attacks on the American South. In 1814, British forces captured and burned this important U.S. city.

Washington, D.C.

In the summer of 1963, as JFK's proposed civil-rights legislation was held up in the Senate, the "Big Four" civil rights groups organized a massive demonstration in this city to pressure Congress to pass Kennedy's civil rights bill. Over 250,000 people participated in a protest march around the city, and Martin Luther King, Jr. delivered his "I Have a Dream" speech.

Washington, D.C.

During the 1972 presidential campaign, burglars working for the Nixon Administration were caught breaking into the Democratic National Committee's headquarters located in this office and apartment complex in Washington D.C.

Watergate

This is why "big business" wanted high tariffs.

Wealthy industrialists and business owners wanted higher tariffs to protect their industries from foreign competition. (i.e. Higher tariffs make foreign goods more expensive and thus push Americans to buy U.S. products)

During the Gilded Age, workers struggled to organize and promote their welfare. This is the main reason why workers made few gains during that era.

Wealthy, powerful corporations often used threats, espionage, and brute force to stifle workers' attempts to organize and strike. Big business typically had the support of lawmakers, courts, and government authorities.

Elected in 1908, this man succeeded Teddy Roosevelt as president of the United States but only served one term.

William H. Taft

During the 1670s, this colonial governor of Virginia angered frontier farmers when he refused to authorize a war against raiding Indians. Attempting to run the royal colony for the benefit of Britain, he favored protecting the colony's fur trade with the Indians.

William Berkeley

These are the basic facts of Lincoln's assassination.

Where: Ford's Theater in Washington, D.C. (Lincoln and his wife were attending a play.) When: April, 1865 (just several days after Lee's surrender at Appomattox) Who: Lincoln was assassinated by John Wilkes Booth How: Booth entered Lincoln's theater box and shot him in the head. Why: Booth hated abolitionism and Lincoln. He was a strong supporter of the Confederacy and was angry with the outcome of the war.

This political party was created in the early 1830s in opposition to Andrew Jackson's presidency.

Whig Party

This political party was established in 1834 in opposition to Andrew Jackson and the Democratic Party. Its Northern and Southern members generally favored businesses, tariffs, the Bank of the U.S., and internal improvements. This party totally collapsed during the mid-1850s when its members couldn't agree on the issue of slavery in the territories and consequently joined other parties.

Whig Party

In 1791, as part of Hamilton's financial plans to reduce the national debt, the federal government levied a tax on the production of hard liquor. This "whiskey tax" was resisted by frontier farmers who were accustomed to distilling their excess grain into alcohol. Resistance came to a climax in 1794 when farmers in western Pennsylvania gathered together and assaulted federal tax collectors. This uprising is commonly known as this.

Whiskey Rebellion

Exposed in 1875, this was one of the political scandals that harmed President Grant's administration. Millions of dollars in federal taxes on liquor was embezzled by distillers, distributors, government tax collectors, and Republican politicians. Although President Grant was not involved, his own private secretary was indicted (Grant pardoned him). This scandal and others committed by federal employees in Grant's administration helped produce public doubts about the honesty and ability of Grant's administration and contributed to the nation's weariness of the government's Reconstruction efforts.

Whiskey Ring

This politician was the "boss" of Tammany Hall, the political machine that dominated New York City and state politics during the late 1800s.

William "Boss" Tweed

This lawyer and former presidential candidate was an ardent supporter of Christian fundamentalism. In 1921 he sparked a drive to ban the teaching of evolution in public schools. Several states in the South enacted such laws.

William Jennings Bryan

This is why the Populists didn't nominate their own presidential candidate in 1896 but instead supported the Democratic candidate, William Jennings Bryan.

William Jennings Bryan helped to convince the Democratic Party to adopt the goal of bimetallism.

This radical white abolitionist published the antislavery newspaper called The Liberator. His demand for immediate emancipation and his use of combative language angered many Southerners.

William Lloyd Garrison

This general became the commander of the Union forces in the West after Grant was promoted supreme commander of all Union Armies in 1864. He is most remembered for his destructive campaign through the South.

William Tecumseh Sherman

This American served as the commander of U.S. forces in Vietnam from 1964 to 1968. He believed that ARVN was incapable of defeating the Vietcong and urged for an escalation of U.S. troops and combat operations in Vietnam. In 1967, he reported to Congress that the Vietcong's morale and organization was deteriorating, that the American military was successfully fighting the war, and that the U.S. would prevail in Vietnam.

William Westmoreland

In 1846 when the Mexican-American War started, politicians began discussing the possibility of acquiring new territory from the war. A Northern Congressman presented this addition (to a federal bill) that would outlaw slavery in any land acquired from the war. Extreme pro-slavery Southerners responded by threatening secession. Although the bill was passed by the House of Representatives, it was ultimately rejected by the Senate. This legislative proposal helped to reignite the sectional debate over slavery in America.

Wilmot Proviso

This man served as the British prime minister during WWII. His courage and resolve helped to strengthen the British people during the war.

Winston Churchill

This was the status of women in the American colonies.

Women were like second-class citizens: They could not vote, hold office, preach, etc. Married women were expected to obey their husbands and had fewer property rights. Women had many duties: clean, cook, sew, tend animals, garden, etc. Wealthy women often had servants or slaves.

During WWII, about 15 million men were either drafted or volunteered for military service. Additionally, about 150,000 women volunteered for service in this female branch of the U.S. military that was created during WWII. These women served in noncombat positions, such as nurses, radio operators, and secretaries.

Women's Army Corps (WAC)

During the time of President Jackson's removal of the Southern Indian tribes, the Cherokee resisted relocation and declared that they were a sovereign nation that could not be removed without their consent. An infuriated Georgia legislature responded by making state laws that stripped the Cherokees of their land rights. In this U.S. Supreme Court case (concerning a Georgia law that prohibited whites from visiting Indian lands without a license from the state), Chief Justice John Marshall and the court rebuked Georgia for its actions and declared the Cherokee a separate, sovereign nation with a legitimate right to its national territory.

Worcester v. Georgia

This is how laborers attempted to match the power of big business during the Gilded Age.

Workers formed large national unions.

Created in 1935, this was the largest and most ambitious New Deal agency. It employed millions of unemployed people (mostly unskilled men) to carry out public works projects, such as the construction of schools, hospitals, courthouses, parks, roads, and bridges.

Works Progress Administration (WPA)

This global military conflict lasted from 1914 to 1918. The war began in Europe but quickly spread to Africa, the Middle East, and the seas. The participants' use of modern war weapons resulted in tremendous destruction of people and property.

World War I (originally called the Great War)

Many American settlers and government officials became increasingly alarmed by the practice of the Ghost Dance. In an attempt to suppress the Ghost Dance movement, U.S. officials decided to take a few Indian chiefs into custody. In December of 1890, tribal police attempted to arrest Sitting Bull, but a shootout occurred and Sitting Bull, several of the Sioux chief's supporters, and a number of policemen were killed. Fearful of reprisals by the U.S. government, a large group of Sioux from Sitting Bulls' band fled from their reservation to another Sioux reservation. About 500 U.S. Cavalry solders were sent to subdue this group. While the Sioux were camped along Wounded Knee Creek, the U.S. soldiers attempted to confiscate the Indians' weapons. When a scuffle ensued and shots were fired, the U.S. forces engaged in an all-out attack. Of the 350 Sioux in the camp, approximately 300 were killed, including women and children. This slaughter is known as this. It was the final clash between the federal government and the Sioux. It represents the symbolic end of Indian military resistance in the United States and the final conquest of the West.

Wounded Knee Massacre (a.k.a. Battle of Wounded Knee)

In response to France plundering over 200 American ships, many Americans called for war. In 1797, President Adams sent negotiators to France with the aim of preventing such a war. When in Paris, these American diplomats were met by three French agents who demanded bribes and a large loan before formal negotiations could begin. Although such demands were not uncommon in European diplomacy of the time, the Americans were offended by them and left France without ever engaging in formal negotiations. This diplomatic incident is commonly called this.

XYZ Affair

During this Allied meeting in the Soviet Union in 1945, Roosevelt, Churchill, and Stalin discussed their different visions for post-war Europe and made these compromise agreements: 1) Germany would be temporarily divided into occupied zones 2) Germany would pay reparations, including forced labor 3) Free elections would take place in Poland 4) USSR would join the war against Japan

Yalta Conference

After gaining control of much of Georgia and the Carolinas, the British focused on subduing Virginia in 1781. In response, American and French troops in the North marched south and surrounded the British fort at this town in Virginia. At the same time, French warships defeated the British fleet in the Chesapeake Bay and cut off the British army's escape. After a two-day siege, the British General Cornwallis surrendered his entire army.

Yorktown

In 1917, British agents intercepted and decoded this secret German telegram and gave it to U.S. officials. In the message, Germany proposed a military alliance with Mexico and promised to assist Mexico (if the U.S. declared war) in conquering the U.S. This telegram, which was released to the media, angered many Americans.

Zimmermann Telegram (a.k.a. Zimmermann Note)

To help convince a few key states to ratify the U.S. Constitution, the Federalists promised to later add this to the Constitution.

a bill of rights

In a number of ways, President Kennedy attempted to promote civil rights for African Americans. He issued several executive orders that banned racial discrimination in government housing and by government contractors. He utilized federal troops to force Southern governors to allow blacks into college. Ultimately, President Kennedy's most important and impactful contribution to improving civil rights in America was his proposal of this in 1963.

a civil rights bill aimed at outlawing segregation and discrimination

One of the best examples of President Roosevelt's "Big Stick Diplomacy" involves his actions to secure this from Colombia in 1903.

a lease on land in Panama to create a shipping canal

The U.S. Constitution established this form of government in which citizens elect representatives to govern for them.

a republic

The effects of the economic recession of 1973-1975 lingered throughout the rest of the decade. The U.S. presidents of that era—Nixon, Ford, and Carter—struggled to solve the unusual stagflation that afflicted the nation. Stagflation means this.

a situation in which the inflation rate is high, the economic growth rate is slow, and unemployment remains steadily high (Stagflation is very difficult to solve. If the government attempts to lower unemployment by increasing public works projects or welfare payments, the increased money being flushed into the economy will increase inflation. If the government attempts to lower inflation by decreasing spending and raising taxes, the economy will slow and unemployment will rise.)

This movement aimed to free slaves and end slavery. In the U.S., it was centered in the North. This movement was stimulated by the Enlightenment spirit of reason and natural rights, the religious revivalism of the Second Great Awakening, and the popular enthusiasm for reform during the early and mid 1800s. Black and white activists in this movement worked to educate and persuade the public (lectures, books, newspapers), purchased slaves' freedom, filed lawsuits, and helped fugitive slaves escape.

abolitionism

This portion of all the colonists who settled in the Middle and Southern Colonies were indentured servants.

about half

This term refers to the policy of favoring minorities in hiring, promotion, college admissions, and the awarding of government contracts. Initiated by JFK and further expanded by his immediate successors, this policy was originally intended to force defense contractors, like Boeing and General Electric that were paid with taxpayer revenue, to end their overt practices of racial discrimination. Over time, the intent of this policy has widened. Proponents of the policy argue that it creates more opportunities for minorities, remedies the effects of past discrimination, and creates more diverse, educational college settings.

affirmative action

This is a change or addition to a constitution.

amendment

This economic event further harmed western farmers, as well as much of the rest of the nation, and helped to make the country's money standard the central issue of the 1896 presidential election.

an economic depression known as the Panic of 1893

The major U.S. economic recession that occurred during the mid 1970s was primarily caused by this crisis.

an oil crisis (In response to the U.S. supporting Israel with weapons and supplies during the Yom Kippur War, the Arab OPEC nations instituted an oil embargo against the U.S. in 1973. The sudden, dramatic decline in the supply of oil in the U.S. caused gas prices to spike, which resulted in rapid inflation.)

This term means to incorporate a territory into an existing political unit. In other words, it means to make some land an official part of a country's territory.

annex

This term refers to the diplomatic practice of making political or material concessions to an enemy in order to avoid conflict. European leaders engaged in this with Adolf Hitler during the late 1930s.

appeasement

During the summer and fall of 1918, the Central Powers began collapsing. Bulgaria, Austria-Hungary, and the Ottoman Empire were all overpowered by Allied forces. When the U.S. and the Allies finally pushed the German army back to the German border, German generals initiated this, which is basically a cease fire.

armistice

In response to the Soviet Union developing atomic weapons, the U.S. quadrupled its defense spending and began developing more powerful weapons like the hydrogen bomb. These efforts sparked a competition, often referred to as this, between the U.S. and the Soviet Union to develop more powerful weapons to intimidate the other.

arms race

These were "gold bugs," and this is what they wanted.

bankers and businessmen who wanted the gold standard

Centered in artistic communities in New York, San Francisco, and Los Angeles, this was a small movement in America that opposed the social conformity of the 1950s. Participants of this movement shunned the era's emphasis on materialism and consumerism, regular work and dress, traditional religion and suburban family life, and the growing military-industrial complex. These participants sometimes read free-verse poetry aloud in coffeehouses.

beat movement (Followers of this movement were often called "beatniks" or "beats".)

Under Johnson's lenient Presidential Reconstruction, former Confederates leaders were able to organize new state governments and gain election to political positions of power. In an attempt to restore white supremacy in the South, the new state governments created these discriminatory laws, which existed from 1865-1866. These laws pushed black orphans and unemployed adults into semi-slavery, subjected blacks to unequal forms of punishments for crimes, and restricted blacks' rights to vote, marry whites, and own land and weapons. These Southern laws outraged Northerners.

black codes

From the late 1940s until the mid 1960s, the Hollywood Ten and hundreds of other actors, writers, directors, and producers with "suspicious loyalty" (i.e. suspected of communist sympathy or membership in the Communist Party) were placed on this list and banned from employment in movie industry.

blacklist

During the first stage of the War of 1812, British naval forces did this.

blockaded the Atlantic coast of the U.S. and attacked American merchant ships

This term refers to the U.S. military policy of ordering combat forces to count the number of dead enemies after each conflict. This practice was used to measure military success and legitimize U.S. war efforts in Vietnam. It was also coupled with rewards in an attempt to motivate soldiers to fight hard. The policy resulted in a number of harmful unintended consequences, such as inflated, false reports and unnecessary killings and war atrocities.

body count

Fearing nuclear war with the Soviet Union, many Americans built these in their basements and backyards during the 1950s and 1960s.

bomb shelters

These were huge, single-crop farms (most grew wheat) that were typically owned by corporations (investors) and run like factories. These megafarms in the West developed as a result of the availability of cheap land, the expansion of railroads, and the growth of Eastern populations and their demand for food. Between 1875 and 1890, these farms became highly profitable through the use of new machinery and huge labor crews. However, over time the land was exhausted, and the great farms were no longer profitable. Most investors sold or rented the land to smaller farmers.

bonanza farms

Concerned that the assumption plan would result in a dangerous increase in the power of the federal government and high taxes, Thomas Jefferson and many Democratic Republicans opposed Hamilton's financial program. Ultimately, the plan was approved when leaders made a deal to accept federal assumption of the debt in return for this.

building the nation's new capital in the South rather than in the North

This is the risky practice of buying stocks on credit. In effect, brokerage firms allow investors to borrow money and purchase large quantities of stock. Investors utilize this practice with the intent of quickly selling the stock at a higher price, repaying the loan, and making a profit. The practice increased stock speculation and helped create a massive bubble in stock prices, which led to a stock market crash and the Great Depression.

buying on margin

Immediately after the Civil War, many Northerners traveled to the South. Some were Republicans seeking election to public office. Others were businessmen who hoped to buy cheap land. And, some were teachers, ministers, and Freedmen's Bureau agents who hoped to assist the newly emancipated slaves. Most white Southerners, however, distrusted these migrants from the North and often called them this nickname. White Southerners believed that these Northerners wanted to exploit the South's post-war condition for their own profit.

carpetbaggers

By issuing this document, an English monarch authorized a person or group to establish a colony in North America and granted them governing powers over that colony.

charter

This ideology was practiced and promoted by the Soviet Union. It emphasized: 1) the rejection of capitalism 2) the goal of economic equality (a classless society) 3) strict rule by a one-party state 4) government control of all property and planning of the economy 5) nationalism and conformity

communism

During WWII, millions of Jews and other groups died in these crowded camps, where SS guards exercised unlimited power.

concentration camps

These soldier-explorers from Spain and Portugal conquered the native tribes of the Caribbean and Latin America during the late 1400s and 1500s and claimed possession of much of the New World.

conquistadors

This is a document that outlines a country's structure of government, fundamental laws, and basic principles. In the United States, each of the fifty states has one as well as our national government.

constitution

This term refers to a popular enthusiasm and obsession with buying products, particularly items that are for convenience and pleasure. During the 1920s, this enthusiasm for buying became widespread and helped to fuel the booming economy.

consumerism

This term refers to the popular habit of spending lots of money on goods and services that are often for luxury and convenience. This attitude and habit became a hallmark of middle-class culture of the 1950s. Americans eagerly purchased cars, televisions, home appliances, and the like, often in an attempt to "keep up with the Joneses."

consumerism

Upon declaring war in 1917, the U.S. took immediate action on the seas. American naval forces aided the British navy to assault German U-boats and laid mines in the North Sea to bottle up German ports. To protect merchant vessels delivering weapons and supplies, the U.S. practiced this system, in which U.S. naval ships surrounded and escorted merchant vessels across the Atlantic.

convoy system

This is a type of business organization in which the ownership of the business is divided into shares of stock. Often these shares can be bought and sold on stock exchanges. These businesses are owned by investors and run by a board of directors and executives. During the mid and late 1800s, the size and power of these businesses grew rapidly in the U.S. due to factors such as: the ability of these organizations to raise money through investors and the sale of stock, the economic advantages they wield as a result of their size, their focus on efficiency, innovation, and technology, the influence they gained in government, and the ambitious, talented, and sometimes ruthless leadership of their owners. Although some have been a source of significant corruption, pollution, and exploitation in America, overall these businesses have helped to greatly increase production, markets, trade, and wealth in the U.S.

corporation

Although President Jefferson and Congress passed a federal law in 1807 that prohibited the importation of slaves, slavery rapidly increased in the United States during the early and mid 1800s because of this invention.

cotton gin (invented by Eli Whitney in 1793)

The first factories in the United States were these.

cotton textile mills (i.e. Factories that used spinning and weaving machinery to produce yarn and cloth from cotton. The early factory machines were powered by foot levers, but by the early 19th century most were powered by water wheels or steam engines.)

This term refers to the youth movement against mainstream American culture during the late 1960s and 1970s. Participants of this movement, sometimes called hippies, were disillusioned and disgusted by the racial turmoil, unsuccessful war, and government corruption of the era. At the time, these events tended to shatter many people's faith in the U.S. government and their beliefs in traditional American values and norms. In response, many young people involved in this cultural movement rejected the proper behavior, materialism, technology, and war of the mid 20th century and adopted new lifestyles that emphasized peace, love, music, and drugs.

counterculture

This term refers to the popular attitude of the 19th century that a woman should be pious, pure, domestic, and submissive. The proper role for women in society should be limited to a domestic "sphere" of maintaining the home, serving her husband, and raising the children.

cult of domesticity

This term refers to the tradition and popular belief in the U.S. that a woman's proper place was in the home as a wife, homemaker, and mother. This tradition idealized women's role in civilizing their children and husbands by teaching and promoting morals in the home.

cult of domesticity

This 1898 letter from a Spanish minister in Washington, D.C., was stolen by a Cuban spy and published in U.S. newspapers. In the letter, the author criticizes President McKinley as a "weak...low politician." The letter angered many Americans and was a factor in causing the Spanish-American war.

de Lome letter

This is the government policy of spending more money than the government receives in revenue. In other words, the government borrows money (sells bonds) and goes into debt. It was used to help fund the New Deal programs.

deficit spending

Some American colonists, like Thomas Paine and Thomas Jefferson, attempted to reconcile the Christian religion with their Enlightenment thinking by adopting this belief which promotes God as a distant creator who set the universe in motion. This belief rejects religion based on dogma (a set of beliefs authoritatively proclaimed by a church), holy books, divine revelation, and miracles. Instead, it promotes human reason and observation as the source of religion.

deism

American soldiers who fought in Europe during WWI were nicknamed this. The fresh, enthusiastic American troops boosted the spirits of the demoralized, battle-weary Allies, helped halt the 1918 German offensive, and pushed the armies of the Central Powers along the Western Front back to German border.

doughboys

Although the Union and the Confederacy were able to muster large numbers of volunteers to fight during the American Civil War, both sides eventually had to resort to conscription, which means this.

drafting men into military service

As president, Eisenhower followed a social and economic policy he called this. Favoring nuclear deterrence and covert operations, Eisenhower reduced America's conventional forces and trimmed the defense budget following the Korean War. Although he cut domestic spending, he kept many New Deal reforms and approved an increase in Social Security.

dynamic conservatism

This French term meaning "relaxation," is used by historians to refer to the general easing of the tensions between the Soviet Union and the United States during the early 1970s. As a foreign policy of presidents Richard Nixon and Gerald Ford, it produced a "thawing out" or "un-freezing" at a period roughly in the middle of the Cold War.

détente

The settlement house movement, woman suffrage movement, and temperance movement were largely supported and led by this type of woman.

educated, middle-class, Christian women

When settling the New World, the Spanish utilized this system in which conquistadors and nobles were rewarded with control of large tracts of land and given the responsibility to convert the natives to Christianity and mobilize them for labor. In many cases natives were worked relentlessly and subjected to extreme punishment and death if they resisted.

encomienda

This term refers to an awareness of women's oppression and the belief that women should have equal rights and opportunity. It was the basis of the modern Women's Liberation Movement of the 1960s and 1970s.

feminism

After daylight high-altitude precision bombing of Japan proved ineffective, the U.S. switched to this bombing tactic of major cities in 1945. Although the tactic killed more than 100,000 people, Japan refused to surrender.

firebombing

This term refers to FDR's friendly public speeches which he gave over the radio during the Great Depression. He used these speeches to explain his New Deal programs and to help build public confidence in the economy and in his administration.

fireside chats

These young, modern women of the 1920s rejected the rigid, traditional norms for women. They bobbed and dyed their hair, wore more revealing dresses, adopted liberated attitudes, smoked and drank in public, listened to Jazz, and danced the Charleston.

flappers

This term refers to a government's strategies and practices in dealing with other nations.

foreign policy

By the end of the Colonial Era, only these colonists were typically allowed to vote and elect representatives to their colonial general assemblies and, in some colonies, elect local officeholders like sheriffs and clerks.

free, adult, white men who owned land (A few colonies also required voters to be Protestant Christian.)

The Cold War was a period of distrust and rivalry between the U.S. and the Soviet Union. It occurred during these years.

from the late 1940s to about 1991

Hoping to shield their communities from the social and cultural changes of the Roaring Twenties, many people in rural towns in the U.S. turned to this Christian movement that emphasized a literal (strict) interpretation of Bible. They believed that all of the details in the Bible are true and rejected Darwin's theory of evolution.

fundamentalism

Many Jews who lived in countries that were conquered by Germany were forced to move into closed-off areas within cities called this.

ghettos

Bimetallism is a money standard in which paper currency is backed up (i.e. could be exchanged for in a bank) by this.

gold and silver

This is the use of political power for personal gain. It typically involves taking bribes and kickbacks.

graft

This clause (written into many Southern state constitutions) allowed an exemption from literacy tests and poll taxes to voters whose ancestors were eligible to vote prior to Civil War. This clause enabled illiterate, poor whites to avoid the voting barriers that were intended to disfranchise blacks.

grandfather clause

This term refers to a clause that was typically placed in a state constitution and allowed an exemption to the literacy test requirement for voters who were (or their ancestors were) eligible to vote prior to Civil War. This legal exemption enabled illiterate whites to avoid literacy tests and easily register to vote but forced virtually all blacks to take a literacy test.

grandfather clause

Lacking powerful weapons, the Vietcong often avoided sustained, open combat with U.S. forces and commonly utilized this type of warfare, which involves hit-and-run ambushes, booby traps, sniping, and sabotage. By hiding in the mountains, jungles, and among civilians and using this type of warfare to cause a steady stream of casualties, the Vietcong hoped to frustrate and strain American combat troops, draw out the conflict, and wear down U.S. public support for the Vietnam War.

guerrilla warfare

With this system, settlers who paid their own way (or another's) to the New World were granted 50 acres of land. The Virginia Company used this system to attract new settlers and boost tobacco production. Later, several other colonies used it as well.

headright system

These were poor, homeless Americans who traveled around the U.S. looking for work, adventure, and escape during the Great Depression. They often rode on railroad boxcars.

hobos

Cold War showdowns like the Cuban Missile Crisis helped to make President Kennedy and Khrushchev aware of the potential for nuclear war and mutual disaster. As a result, the U.S. and U.S.S.R. in 1963 established a direct phone connection, which was often called this, between the White House and the Kremlin. This phone line was intended to enable fast communication and avoid future crises.

hot line

This is a system of ideas and ideals that form the basis of a nation's government and economy.

ideology

This term refers to the military, political, or economic domination of one nation over another nation.

imperialism

During the early 1800s, the British forced many captured American merchant sailors into the British navy. This practice of taking men into a navy by force is commonly called this. It became a major source of tension between the U.S. and Britain.

impressment

These settlers promised to work for a number of years in return for transportation to the New World. They signed a contract, typically served 4 to 7 years, had limited rights, and usually received "freedom dues" when their contract expired.

indentured servants

This term refers to the initial economic transition from hand and home production to mass production in factories by machines and by workers who specialize in just one or a few tasks. In the United States, this initial transformation occurred during the late 1700s and early 1800s.

industrial revolution

This type of legislation is proposed by the people (petitioners) and voted on (enacted or rejected) by voters at the polls. It was a progressive reform because it enabled voters to circumvent corrupt, unresponsive legislatures and create progressive laws.

initiative

When purchasing products like furniture, clothes, appliances, and cars, many people during the 1920s used this method of financing, which involves putting a small amount down and making payments over an extended period of time. The widespread use of this method helped to create consumerism and the booming economy of the 1920s. Unfortunately, it also resulted in tremendous personal debt and the overproduction of goods.

installment plan

While visiting the U.S. in 1946, Winston Churchill gave a speech about the Soviet domination of Eastern Europe and the growing threat of communism. He famously claimed that Europe had been divided in half by a Soviet-made "____" and urged the U.S. to stand against Soviet expansion.

iron curtain

This foreign policy, which involves pulling away from involvement in world affairs, was practiced by the U.S. government during the 1920s. Many Americans favored this policy because they were fearful of outside influences and costly foreign entanglements like World War I.

isolationism

Some of the British colonies in North America were initially established by this type of company in which investors pooled their wealth and shared the ownership, costs, and financial risks of of the colony.

joint-stock company

This is the power of a court system to examine a legislative or executive action and declare it unconstitutional and invalid.

judicial review

Meaning "divine wind" in Japanese, this term refers to the suicide attacks by Japanese air pilots during the last months of World War II. These suicide attacks sank about forty U.S. ships.

kamikaze

This was another method the Southern states used to disfranchise blacks. It required citizens to demonstrate the ability to read and interpret the Constitution in order to register to vote. These examinations were often unfairly administered and scored.

literacy test

This was a method used by the Southern states to disfranchise blacks. It required voters to demonstrate their ability to read and write and assessed their knowledge of government. Typically, many of the required tasks and questions were unnecessarily difficult, and the examinations were unfairly scored and judged.

literacy tests

This form of mob violence involves illegally hanging a suspected criminal. During the Era of Reconstruction, this method was used by the Ku Klux Klan and white supremacists to terrorize those in the South, such as blacks and Freedmen's Bureau agents, who supported Congressional Reconstruction. When Reconstruction ended and white southerners regained control of the South, these illegal hangings declined but didn't end.

lynching

The development of this food around 5,000 B.C. in Mexico was revolutionary. It enabled the hunter-gatherer people to settle down and be farmers, which in turn gave rise to towns and cities. Around 1,200 B.C. this food arrived in the region that would later become the United States.

maize (a.k.a. corn)

This term refers to the widely held belief in the U.S. during the 1800s that American settlers were destined by God and history to expand across North America. This belief was used by many Americans to justify the expansion of U.S. territory and the Mexican-American War during the mid 1840s.

manifest destiny (Manifest means obvious and clear. Destiny means a predetermined future.)

This term refers to the foreign policy and military strategy that the U.S. would, in the event of an attack from an aggressor, strike back with overwhelming, disproportionate force. The aim of this strategy was to make it public knowledge and thus deter communists nations from initiating attacks. This policy, which was based on the threat of mass destruction, helped motivate the U.S. to develop the hydrogen bomb and intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs).

massive retaliation

This economic theory and policy was used by England during the 1600s and 1700s. The theory asserted that a nation should accumulate gold by attempting to keep the benefits of trade inside its empire and minimize the loss of gold to foreigners. Accordingly, England established overseas colonies (which provided cheap resources and new consumer markets) and created regulations and taxes in order to control trade within its empire and funnel gold to England.

mercantilism

With this agreement, which was signed just before the start of WWII, Germany and the Soviet Union agreed to remain neutral with one another if war occurred in Europe. In 1941, Hitler broke this agreement and invaded the USSR.

non-aggression pact (officially called the Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Treaty)

The flow of immigrants to the Thirteen Colonies and the United States during the 1600s to the mid 1800s is called this. Most of the people who came to America during this phase of immigration were from Western and Northern Europe, especially from England, Germany, Scandinavia, and Ireland.

old-wave immigration

Although a UN resolution can be passed with at least nine "yes" votes in the Security Council, it only takes this to veto and block a proposed resolution.

one "no" vote from a permanent member nation of Security Council

This was the goal of the temperance movement.

outlaw alcoholic beverages (a.k.a. prohibition)

The spoils system is the practice of discharging officials who supported the opponent and granting those government positions to loyalists who helped the politician get elected. This practice, which was used by President Andrew Jackson and his presidential successors for fifty years until reforms were passed, helped to increase competitive party politics in the United States. The spoils system is also known as this.

patronage

This is the practice of giving civil service (government) jobs to people who helped a candidate get elected.

patronage (a.k.a. spoils system)

Begun in 1965 with "teach-ins" and student demonstrations on college campuses, this movement became intense and widespread by the late 1960s. Supporters argued that the war in Vietnam was unjust, hypocritical, and wasteful. They protested the draft and demanded an end to the Vietnam War.

peace movement

This is an informal agreement among various companies to set prices in order to limit the effects of competition and increase their profits (e.g. competing railroads in a region agreeing to set the same high price to ship goods). Business collusion like this grew quickly in the U.S. during the 19th century but was later prohibited by antitrust laws around the turn of the century.

pool arrangement

In the context of territorial settlement in the United States during the mid 1800s, this term refers to the right of settlers of a territory who are applying for statehood to determine whether their state would or would not have slavery.

popular sovereignty

During the war, the U.S. built a small navy, which was used to raid a number of English ports. Additionally, the Continental Congress commissioned over 500 of these ships to attack British shipping. Capturing or destroying hundreds of British merchant vessels, these ships helped to raise the cost of war for the British.

privateers (armed ships that are owned and manned by private individuals and authorized by the government to help fight a war)

This term refers to any message or idea that is directly aimed at influencing the opinions or behavior of people, rather than impartially providing information. It was utilized by the U.S. government during WWI to boost war support and war production.

propaganda

Since the 1970s, many affirmative action programs have been legally challenged and limited. For example, in the case Regents of University of California v. Bakke in 1978, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that this type of affirmative-action admissions policy is unconstitutional. Additionally, in the last few decades, a number of states (through ballot initiatives) have banned public affirmative action policies that give preferential treatment to groups, and the U.S. Supreme Court has further narrowed the use of race as a factor in college admissions.

racial quotas (a fixed number)

After the Revolutionary War, Northern states began outlawing slavery. African Americans made up less than 2% of the Northern population. Although free blacks in the North had more freedom to travel, learn, and own property, they typically still faced this.

racism and discrimination

This term means to give formal approval.

ratify

This is the power of voters to call for an immediate election and possibly remove an elected official from office.

recall

This type of legislation is proposed by a state legislature but referred to the voters, who then enact or reject it at the polls. It was a progressive reform because it enabled cautious politicians to make reform laws but avoid angering conservatives (since voters enact or reject these proposed laws, not the legislators).

referendum

The First Amendment to the U.S. Constitution guarantees these five freedoms.

religion speech press assembly petition

This term refers to a radical change in government or the way people live.

revolution (The American scholar Jeff Goodwin defines a revolution as any instance "in which a state or a political regime is overthrown and thereby transformed by a popular movement in an irregular, extraconstitutional and/or violent fashion." He argues that "revolutions entail not only mass mobilization and regime change, but also more or less rapid and fundamental social, economic and/or cultural change, during or soon after the struggle for state power.")

This pejorative term refers to the powerful American industrialists and bankers of the 19th century. The accuracy of this term is debatable. On the one hand, the leading capitalists of the era expanded American industry, produced immense wealth, created jobs and cheaper products, and engaged in philanthropy (charitable giving). On the other hand, it can be argued that these men exploited their workers, amassed excessive fortunes, controlled government, and attempted to create monopolies.

robber barons

This musical style originated in America during the 1950s. Typically featuring instruments like the electric guitar and drums and lyrics about youthful love and having fun, this style of music was immensely popular among teenagers.

rock 'n' roll

By the mid 1700s, most of the British colonies in North America had their original charters revoked and had become these. Two exceptions to this change were Maryland and Pennsylvania, which remained proprietary colonies until the American Revolution.

royal colonies

This term refers to President Hoover's belief that people succeed best by their own efforts and that government welfare would weaken Americans' self-respect and work ethic. This philosophy led Hoover to responded cautiously to the Great Depression.

rugged individualism

This term refers to the English government's policy of relaxed enforcement of the Navigation Acts and loosened supervision of the Thirteen Colonies. This policy was practiced during the early and mid 1700s because the Kings of England at the time (George I and II) were originally German princes and were less concerned with England's colonies. This policy is important because it helped to give the colonists the habit of self-government and economic independence.

salutary neglect

This term refers to the communist nations surrounding the U.S.S.R. These nations acted as a military buffer zone for the Soviet Union, provided economic benefits to the U.S.S.R., and expanded Stalin's power and communist ideology.

satellite nations

This term referred to white Southerners who joined the Republican Party after the Civil War. The term was used by Southerners who were frustrated with Congressional Reconstruction and angry with cooperative, opportunistic Southerners.

scalawags

Traditional methods of "taking ground" to win a war couldn't be used in Vietnam, so the U.S. commonly resorted to conducting these missions, which typically involved inserting U.S. troops into a hostile area, searching out and destroying the enemy and the enemy's resources, and then withdrawing the U.S. troops immediately afterwards. These missions often resulted in the destruction of civilian property and sometimes in brutality and war atrocities.

search-and-destroy missions

This term refers to the formal withdrawal of a state from the Union. In the South, this idea was was first spread by John C. Calhoun during the nullification crisis over the 1828 "Tariff of Abomination." Later, with the proposal of the Wilmot Proviso in the late 1840s, extreme pro-slavery Southerners began threatening a Southern withdrawal from the Union. During the 1850s, a number of menacing events and developments dramatically increased tensions between Northerners and Southerners, and the notion of a withdrawal from the Union grew more popular and intense in the South.

secession

This term refers to an overriding concern and loyalty to the interests of one's own region of the country, rather than to the country as a whole. During the early and mid 1800s, this perspective and attitude grew in the United States, and a deep rift developed between the North and South.

sectionalism

This is the social and legal practice of separating blacks and whites. After the collapse of Reconstruction, Jim Crow Laws were enacted in the Southern states that required blacks and whites to use separate schools, restaurants, bathrooms, drinking fountains, hospitals, churches, and other public accommodations. In many communities in the Northern states, racial separation of accommodations and housing existed by tradition but was not required by law.

segregation

This is the social and legal practice of separating blacks and whites. It includes residential separation (white and black neighborhoods) as well as separate public accommodations (schools, restaurants, bathrooms, drinking fountains, hospitals, churches, bus seating, etc.) In the South, this separation was required by law (de jure segregation). In many Northern communities, racial separation happened "by fact" (de facto segregation), meaning by tradition and habit rather than by legal requirement.

segregation

These community centers were set up to provide services to the urban poor, especially immigrants. They typically provided education (language, skills), child care, health care, and employment assistance. By 1910 there were about 400 of these community centers in America.

settlement houses

These are units of ownership in a corporation. They are traded (bought and sold) on stock markets for profit.

shares of stock

These residential communities located on the edge of cities were enormously popular during the 1950s and were rapidly built by developers like William Levitt. Homes in these communities were typically inexpensive and offered a level of security, space, and neighborhood community that was appealing for people wishing to raise a family.

suburbs

This is a tax on foreign goods imported (brought into the U.S.) from abroad.

tariff

This movement sought to convince people to abstain from drinking alcohol. The movement was primarily led and supported by white, middle-class, Christian women who were concerned with the many harmful effects of alcohol (e.g. family abuse, poverty, disease, religious sin, reduced work productivity). These supporters were sometimes called "teetotalers." In the U.S., this movement arose during the early 1800s and concluded with the national prohibition of alcoholic beverages in the 1920s.

temperance movement

These run-down apartment buildings were located in poor, working-class sections of U.S. cities during the 1800s. Overcrowded and unsanitary, these multi-story buildings typically featured small (often one-room) apartments, poor ventilation (some apartments had no windows), and inadequate communal bathrooms and water faucets.

tenements

These were two self-help organizations that farmers established during the 1860s and 1870s.

the Grange Farmers' Alliances

Originally from a slaveholding family in South Carolina, these sisters moved to the North in the 1820s and became abolitionists and women's right advocates. One of the sisters (Angelina) wrote the pamphlet "An Appeal to the Christian Women of the South" which encouraged Southern women to oppose slavery because it is contrary to the teachings of Jesus and the Declaration of Independence.

the Grimké sisters

This was the systematic murder of millions of Jews, Gypsies, Jehovah's Witnesses, homosexuals, religious dissidents, communists, disabled individuals, and others by the Nazi regime and their collaborators during WWII. It was part of Adolf Hitler's plans for "racial purification" in his Third Reich.

the Holocaust

During the early and mid 1800s, this geographical section of the U.S. was characterized by its prohibition of slavery and an economy dominated by manufacturing, shipping, and smaller farms that raised grains and livestock. This section is generally considered to be north of the Ohio River.

the North

During the early and mid 1800s, this geographical section of the U.S. was characterized by its long growing season, an economy dominated by larger farms (plantations) that often grew cash crops like cotton and tobacco, and widespread use of black slaver labor. This section is generally considered to be south of the Ohio River and includes Maryland, Delaware, Arkansas, and Texas.

the South

In response to the election crisis of 1800, the U.S. Congress and the states changed the voting procedure of the Electoral College by creating this.

the Twelfth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution

In this region of the U.S., where the power and control of political parties were relatively weak, progressive politicians had the most success passing state and local reform legislation.

the West

In her bestselling book The Feminine Mystique, which helped to ignite the Women's Liberation Movement, Betty Friedan analyzed the dissatisfaction of many middle-class housewives with the role forced on them by American society. Friedan used the term "feminine mystique" to describe this.

the false notion of femininity in America during the mid-20th century that women's highest value in life and only commitment should be as a wife, mother, and homemaker

To assuage the fears of Anti-Federalists who had opposed ratifying the U.S. Constitution, and to fulfill promises made at a number of the ratifying conventions, the U.S. Congress created these in 1789. They were ratified by the required number of states in 1791.

the first ten amendments (Bill of Rights)

On June 6, 1944, as Allied forces were fighting northward through Italy and westward through Eastern Europe, Allied troops launched a massive seaborne invasion along this coast of western Europe. Sometimes referred to as D-Day, this successful attack provided a foothold for the Allies to land troops, vehicles, and equipment and opened a western front against Germany.

the invasion of Normandy (northern coast of France)

The United States began as an agrarian nation, characterized by rural farming communities. During the 1790s, our country developed its first factories, and the U.S. began an industrial revolution. Years later, during these three decades, the U.S. experienced its most intense period of industrial growth and became one of the great manufacturing nations of world.

the last three decades of the 19th century (1870s, 1880s, and 1890s) (This period is sometime called the "Second Industrial Revolution.")

The Seventh Amendment to the U.S. Constitution guarantees this right.

to a jury trial in civil cases

The Sixth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution guarantees this right.

to a speedy, public jury trial and the aid of a lawyer

The Eighth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution guarantees this right.

to be free from cruel and unusual punishment and fines

The Fourth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution guarantees this right.

to be free from unreasonable search and seizure

The Second Amendment to the U.S. Constitution guarantees this right.

to bear arms

The term disfranchise (sometimes spelled disenfranchise) mean this.

to deprive someone of the right to vote

This term refers to the trade between Africa, Europe, and the Americas during the Colonial Era.

transatlantic trade (a.k.a. triangular trade)

This philosophical movement developed in New England during the mid 1800s. The philosophy emphasized these ideas: 1) People and nature are inherently good. 2) Society and its institutions (organized religion, political parties, etc.) have corrupted the individual. 3) People should rise above the conventions of society and embrace individualism, self-reliance, and anti-materialism. 4) People should access their inner spiritual self and seek truth by following their own intuition and conscience.

transcendentalism

This is the name used to describe a president who attempted to stop the dangerous accumulation of corporate power.

trustbuster

To harm British trade and inhibit merchant ships from reaching Britain, Germany engaged in this war tactic.

unrestricted submarine warfare

Springing up in the U.S. during early and mid 1800s, these communities attempted to create ideal, perfect societies. Inspired by the climate of spirituality, philosophy, and reform during the era, most of these communities featured strict equality, sharing, and hard work. Ultimately, most failed and were abandoned. New Lebanon (Shakers), Oneida community, and Brook Farm are examples of these communities.

utopian communities

To pay for the costs of war, these certificates were sold by the U.S. government during our nation's involvement in WWI. Investors who purchased these certificates were later paid back their money with interest.

war bonds (patriotically called "Liberty" bonds and "Victory" bonds)

Members of the Industrial Workers of the World were often called this nickname.

wobblies

This term refers to women's right to vote and hold office.

woman suffrage

Stimulated by the reform spirit and social activism of the early and mid 1800s, this movement sought to create equal rights for women in the United States. Leaders of this movement held conventions, published newspapers, lectured, and petitioned government. Unfortunately, for several decades the intense sectional crisis and American Civil War eclipsed their movement, and women achieved minimal change during much of the 1800s.

women's rights movement (a.k.a. women's suffrage movement)

During the 1760s, British courts issued these search warrants to help customs officials search for smugglers who attempted to circumvent the Navigation Acts. These warrants, which allowed officers to enter a place and seek evidence, angered many colonists and played a role in the increasing tensions that led to the American Revolution.

writs of assistance

This term refers to the exaggerated, biased style of reporting used by many American newspapers to attract readers during the turn of the 20th century. This sensationalistic reporting helped create American support for war against Spain.

yellow journalism