BIO Exam 2

Describe Thyroid hormones

Triiodothronine (T3) -Thyroxine (T4) Female •Increased risk of miscarriage •Premature delivery •Impair brain development of the fetus Male •Testosterone production (libido) •Erectile dysfunction •Decreased sperm production

What are the effects of alcohol?

diminishes inhibitions (grasp, snuggle) -slows down body functions ("sword can't rise") -Dramatic reduction of T4 production Chronic Alcohol -Liver metabolizes ethanol>>> by-product directly interacts with production of T4 in Leydig cells (oxidative radicals can damage Leydig cells!!!) -Endorphins (makes us feel relaxed)>>negatively impact T4 production -Converts more T4 to E4 -A rat study showed about 50% reduction in testicular size (Van Thiel, 2009) -Beer worst culprit (phytoestrogens from hops!!)- decreased libido, erectile dysfunction, gynecomastia (breast development)! Describe DHT~ In men: • Sertoli cells convert T4 to DHT (Reductase) • Prostate also converts T4 to DHT(Reductase) • Associated with development of facial and body hair, vocal cords and increased musculature. Testosterone>> >>>>>> 5DHT 5 Alpha Reductase Deficiency (male fetus) • Ambiguous (neither male nor female) external genitalia at birth (DHT indispensable for external genitalia development in males) • Stunted penis (clitoris), scrotal sac not fused, testis not descended!

Describe where the post-deposition sperm voyage process happens.

i) Vaginal acidic pH (~4 normal) environment affects motility [seminal fluids raise pH [6-6.5] ii) Activate female immune (defense) system iii) Urine acidic leakages [incontinence, fistula, infibulation] iv) Vaginal trauma>>blood>>gamma globulin, known to be spermatotoxic v) 20-30 minutes seminal (gelling agent-seminal vesicle) clot vi) vi) Prostate gland- liquefying agent breaks the clot (Goal is to propagate sperms only towards cervical os)

3rd month

~Arms, hands, fingers, legs, feet, toes fully formed ~By this stage the fetus has developed most of its organs/tissues

2nd month

~Circulatory system (Heart beat) ~Ear, nose, lips, Eyes & teeth formation ~Penis in boys

1st month

~Circulatory system (Heart) ~Digestive system ~Backbone (Spinal cord) ~Placenta

What are olfactory cues?

• A certain smell animals can pick up when animals are in heat to know to initiate sex

What is menstrual synchrony?

• Also known as the mclintock effect or Wellesley effect • When women life together and their menstrual cycles get synchronized • This is because pheromones are being released and synchronizes them

Explain the menarche cycle.

• At age 6-8 there is androgen production (hair, breast development, attitude) • Androgen is then converted to estrogens and starts priming the H-P-G axis • Low concentrations of GnRH can delay the onset of puberty • When it begins is dependent on body mass • Irregular estrogen patterns leads to patchy endometrial growth. • Death of the endometrium due to undulating hormone leads to some discharge and bright red blood, which can by scanty and brief. • First menstruation cycles are anovoulatory, meaning no egg is released. • Once ovulation is established a regular pattern is created.

 Ways to Estimate Day of Ovulation?

• Basal body temperature- measure temperature in the morning before getting around, as soon as you wake up. There's a small rise in temperature indicating ovulation is over • Ovulation predictor kits- similar to pregnancy tests. Noted amount of lh surge/ estrogen in urine 12-36 hours before ovulation • Saliva- measure concentration of range of electrolytes, increase as ovulation gets closer • Cervical mucus- toilet paper, externally, or internally by inserting finger. Thinner, stringy stretch discharge means fertile. Thicker, sticky, tacky, gluey means infertile. • Pattern of cervical mucus- ferning pattern = fertile • Apps - pink pad period, etc.

Describe the contraception basal body temperature method.

• Body temperature increases the morning of the ovulation stage (which is the stage between the proliferative and secretory phase)

Describe the contraception natural method.

• Checking the mucus pattern is natural • After the period the mucus is thick, opaque, sticky • During fertile time it is clearer, thinner, and slippery • Then it returns back to thick stick mucus before the period again • Probability of pregnancy begins to decline after ovulating, causing the pain in the pelvic region

Describe steroids

• Derived from cholesterol • Mainly produced in ovaries and testes • Aldosterone & corticosterone's (adrenal glands)

How to treat menstrual abnormalities?

• Endometrial ablation- born away the endometrial lining • Hysteroscopy- go in and clean out everything • Measure blood concentrations

Why is it important to track ovulation for contraception?

• For some religions, this may be the only time they are allowed to try to conceive

What are the effects of hormones?

• Growth inhibition/stimulation • Mood "temperament" • Activation/inhibition of immune system • Fight, flight & fright • Hunger/Metabolism • Puberty • Arousal • Coupling • Fertility • Orgasm • Parenting • Menopause

What is menarche?

• Menarche is a young woman's first menstrual cycle and bleed. Throughout history, menarche has been an important social rite, marking a girl's passage to adulthood/ puberty. • Usually however a young girls first menstruation cycles are different to those of adults in that she usually does not ovulate. About 80 percent of menstrual cycles within a year of menarche are anovulatory (no egg is released). This reduces to 50 percent in the third year and 10 percent by the sixth year. That said, some girls can ovulate on their first period. If you are a teenage girl who has not started her periods by the age of 15, you should see your doctor.

List some menstrual abnormalities.

• No menses • Less than normal periods or intervals between periods • More than normal and/or interval between periods begin to decrease • It gets skewed, impossible to predict each stages of cycles and when they will happen

-Narcotics

(heroin, methadone)- Babies may become physically dependent (abnormal reflexes, highly irritable)

-Marijuana

(psychoactive substance Hydrocannabinol)- Development of respiratory system & passed into breast milk

What are the characteristics of a semen allergy?

- 20, 000 to 40, 000 women in USA - Burning, itching, swelling (severe cases hives, swollen eyes, breathing difficulties) - Some women may also react to oral sex (contact with semen) [men too develop semen allergy in same-sex relationships] - Can be mistaken for an STD*** or yeast/bacterial infection - If one stops having sex for a period of time and later resume again, he/she may notice the allergy for the first time - May have to undergo sensitization treatment with protein extracts from semen plus increase frequency of sex - Condom use, but may have to use IVF to conceive

-Cocaine

- Attention, alertness, intelligence, fine motor-skill developments

Describe the Vaginismus process & draw diagram.

- Triggered in young and old - Can occur in women with no sexual experience to those with years of experience - Severity of condition varies: insert nothing including a tampon to partial tightening (tolerate for years not knowing the condition) - Primary: First time intercourse>> consummating marriage (infibulation) - Secondary: Difficulties later in life [Urinary tract infections, STI, pelvic surgery, difficult birth (Episiotomy) - Left untreated>> condition normally worsens over time

Aerosome Reaction

-Attaches to the "reinforced" (Zona Pellucida) cover. -Activates a "Chemical" drill (Acrosin, Hyaluronidase) to penetrate the "reinforced" cover (Glycoproteins) Cortical reaction- Zona Pellucida becomes impenetrable (prevent polyspermy)

Toxoplasmosis

-Cat feces -Eating undercooked meat (forms cystic structures) [Lamb, pork, venison etc] -leads to brain damage/miscarriage

Affinity for the egg

-Egg releases chemical cues to attract the sperm Hundred of sperms required to pierce through (collective endeavor)

Placenta

-Formed by 15 weeks - Amnion: watertight sac with amniotic fluid • Cushioning against bumps/thuds • Temperature regulation • Weightless environment for movement - Chorion: becomes lining of placenta - Allantois: forms umbilical cord

Explain the biochemical process.

-Hospitable ("Rest-stop") -pH is Alkaline -Converts non-fertile sperms to fertile sperms -Mucus acts like a 'filter" to remove abnormal sperms/ or microorganisms -Remove seminal plasma

How does obesity affect females?

-PCOD -Increased menstrual cycle abnormalities -Decrease in conception rates -Infertility (anovulation) -Early pregnancy loss -Increase in congenital abnormalities (ventral wall, cardiac, Neural tube) -Increase in Pregnancy complications (Preeclampsia, Diabetes, delivery complications) -Large offspring syndrome -Decrease success with IVF -Increase spontaneous abortions with IVF Increased insulin secretion -> Increased androgen secretion -> Increased peripheral aromatization (Estrogen)

Postnatal

-Slow physical growth, poor motor skills, -attention difficulties, verbal learning difficulties -Subnormal intellectual performance

Define capacitation. Draw the diagram.

-Sperm has to be in the female reproductive tract for a finite period before acquiring egg penetrating/fertilizing capability (Chang and Austin, 1951) -Peeling off the protective "Cover" off the head of the sperm -Activation of sperm motility (strong & forceful)

Teratogen

-Teratogen- Any agent that can cause harm to embryo/fetus -Most serious when organs are in the formation stage -Some effect immediately (malformation) -Others may show later on in life -Dose/length of exposure- Impact the outcome (long term more lethal) -Rubella (German measles) -Blindness, deafness, cardiac abnormalities, mental retardation (1st trimester most harmful)

Ectopic Pregnancy

-When an embryo implants in a place other than lumen of the uterus (womb)

Delayed Implantation (Embryonic Diapause)

-evolutionary strategy in which the embryo does not implant into the uterus but remains in a "dormant" state

List and describe the 3 classes of sex steroids:

1. Androgens- testerone and dihydrotesterone (DHT) 2. Estrogens - estradiol 3. Progestins - Progesterone

What are the 3 phases of the menstrual cycle?

1. Menstrual (recovery phase) - lowest levels of hormonal contraction. This is the stage where menses happens, there is over bleeding and blood discharged. There is a simple layer of epithelial cells and stumps of blood vessels. (day 1-5) 2. Proliferative phase - During the proliferative phase in the uterus, the wall of the endometrium begins to thicken (2-8 mm). This phase of the uterus begins at the end of menstruation and lasts until ovulation, when the egg is ejected from the ovary. There is proliferation of blood vessels, meaning they grow again. (day 6-14) 3. Secretory phase- proliferation (the growing of blood vessels) is restricted. This is the portion of the cycle between ovulation and menstruation. The endometrium changes to secretory, edematous and highly vascularized. Meaning that it becomes thicker and more water, blood and nutrition is being supplied. (Days 15-28)

Diet

1st trimester malnutrition - miscarriage, spinal cord malformation 3rd trimester malnutrition - low-birth-weight, small heads

Conception to birth -Trimester

1sttrimester >> weeks 1-12 2nd trimester >> weeks 13-27 3rd trimester >> weeks 28-42

What are pheromones?

A compound released by one organism that triggers a specific behavior in another member of the same species • Ex: an animal releases a smell that makes the other animal in heat/want to have sex

What are the two hormones in the posterior pituitary?

ADH -> Kidney Oxytocin-> Female - smooth muscles: uterus and mammary gland Oxytocin-> Male -smooth muscles: prostate, ductus deferens

List visual cues in humans and nonhumans.

Animals- ball sacks get bigger, they behave more aggressive, can last during sex longer Humans- ?

How does diabetes affect sexual activity in men? And how does weight affect their reproduction?

Diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, liver disease (Fatty liver), reduced life expectancy -Sexual Function & semen quality -Decrease in sperm density (counts) -Decrease in sperm motility -DNA fragmentation is higher -Decrease physical activity & prolonged sedentary position -Increased fat deposition (thigh, abdomen, scrotum) -Increased scrotal temperature (spermatogenesis)

What are the classes of hormones?

Fat Soluble: Derived from lipids [cholesterol]- (Steroids) estrogens, androgens and progesterone • Water Soluble: [Amino Acid]- made of shorter chains [Polypeptides]- made of longer chains

What are differences in menstruation practices of religion?

Judaism: • Menses: Unclean/impure • Physical contact: Not allowed (Orthodox) (kissing, holding hands, passing objects, food sharing, sharing beds, sharing cushion etc) • Sex: Prohibited until after ritual bath (purify) • Ritual bath: 7th day of cycle (menses) • Offer prayers: Yes • Other: "belief that if a menstruating women walked between two men, cause strife. If she passed at the beginning of her period, one of the men would die Christianity: • Meses: unclean/ orthodox • Sex: prohibited-orthodox • Other: -Not allowed to receive Holy communion (orthodox) -can't attend church service, touch raw food (orthodox) Alter server (catholic)** Islam: • Menses: unclean/impure • Sex: Prohibited until after ritual bath (purify) • Ritural bath: yes - cleanse • Offer prayers - no, including fasting • other -Cannot enter a mosque -Some Sects do not allow mingling with visitors or sharing a meal Hinduism: • menses- unclean/impure • physical contact: -Not allowed to cook -Separate utensils • sex- prohibited • ritual bath - sort of • offer prayers - Can't enter prayer room/temple • other- Maybe isolated from rest of the family -No bathing/combing hair (communal) -travel maybe restricted

What are disorders of gonadotropins?

Kallmann Syndrome ~50% of cases have either Total lack of sense of smell (anosmia) or markedly reduced sense of smell (Hyposmia) ~1 in 8, 000 males ~1 in 50, 000 females -Hypogonadism -Incomplete or partial pubertal maturation -Infertility A number of gene mutations -Excessive exercise can cause hypogonadism - nutrient intake is too low (anorexis nervosa) in males this produces impotence, in females amenorrhea, it is an energy imbalance -You can see it in athletes

What is semenarche?

Male's first release of semen.

Describe Estradiol

Males: • Leydig cells • Maturation of sperm in epididymis • Terminates the growth of the limb bones at puberty • Maintains normal bone density In women: Developing follicle (granulosa cells) • Important in menstrual cycle • Produced during follicular growth • Major estrogen

Embryo Development

Neural Tube ~3rd wk (Spina Bifida, Anencephaly) ~4th wk (heart beat) ~7th wk (rudimentary skeleton) ~12 wk Digestive & Reproductive system ~Some movement (Mother may not feel)

Placental Function

Passive sieve -Allows nutrients and gasses from mother -Metabolic/waste gasses from embryo -Shields fetus from mother's immunologic attack -Cushions external impacts -Provides room for fetal growth/movement -Endocrine organ- hCG, PL, E4, P4

Describe Progesterone

Secreted by the granulosa cells (after ovulation) • Menstrual cycle • Makes the endometrial lining suitable for implantation and pregnancy • Placenta and adrenal glands

Teratogen STDs

Syphilis • transmitted to fetus ~18th week • Damages eyes, ears, bone, heart, brain • Can result in miscarriage • Early treatment prevents harm Genital Herpes • Crosses the placenta • Infection through birth canal • Can kill newborns • Cause blindness, brain damage (25-30%) • Cesarean section (reduce birth canal contact) HIV/AIDS • Crosses the placenta, breast milk, birth canal • Compromises the immune systems • Can kill newborns • Cesarean section (reduce maternal blood exposure) Drugs Fetal Alcohol Sydrome Prenatal -Microcephaly -Malformation of heart, limbs, joints and face -Hyperactivity, seizures, tremor

Describe testerone

Testosterone (T4) • Present in men and women • Secreted by gonads + adrenal cortex • Men: Leydig cells • Women: Ovarian (Thecal) cells

Describe how hormones change during a menstrual cycle.

• On Day 1 of the menstrual cycle, estrogen and progesterone levels are low. Low levels of estrogen and progesterone signal the pituitary gland to produce Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH). FSH begins the process of maturing a follicle (fluid-filled sac in the ovary containing an egg). • The follicle produces more estrogen to prepare the uterus for pregnancy. At ovulation, usually around Day 12 - 14, increased estrogen levels trigger a sharp rise in Luteinizing Hormone (LH) from the pituitary gland, causing release of the egg from the follicle. • The ruptured follicle (corpus luteum) now secretes progesterone and estrogen to continue to prepare the uterus for pregnancy. If the egg is not fertilized, estrogen and progesterone levels drop and, on Day 28, the menses begin. • Enzymatic (MMP) tissue breakdown • "sloughing off process"- triggered by a drop in the circulating level of the hormone progesterone. Blood levels of estrogen also drop at this time. Sloughing is the shedding of dead tissue cells from the endometrium. This is bleeding are inevitable, can't be avoided. • There is natural anticoagulant to assist blood flow • Uterine contracts causing cramps • 35-55mls blood and tissue absorption- not all blood is lost, some is reabsorbed into the body

Embryo Development Issues

At Risk of Embryo Development Issues: 1. History of hereditary congenital disorders - Genetic counseling 2. Good prenatal care is paramount 3. If not sure, test for rubella & STD's 4. Avoid undercooked meat/ keep a distance from cats 5. Take medication after consultations with healthcare provider 6. Avoid X-rays or radiation therapy 7. Avoid recreational drugs/cigarettes 8. Good diet (CHO, Proteins, minerals, vitamins)

How does steroid hormones affect body over time?

Belly, breasts, buttocks, hips, thighs Belly fat Low E4, High insulin, High cortisol, Low T4 Buttocks, hips fat High E4 Greater E4:P4 ratio Breast fat, small hips Less E4, more P4 Greater P4:E4 ratio

What are hormones?

Chemical signal produced in one part of the body bloodstream acts in another part • Hormones are produced at various "centers" (glands) located within the body, known as Endocrine Glands (Endocrine System) • Brain issues the command for release of hormones by glands

Explain how cholesterol turns into estradiol and DHT?

Cholesterol -> 4 enzymatic steps ->progesterone ->3 enzymatic steps -> testosterone -> aromatase is the enzyme that converts testosterone to estradiol; 5a-reductase is the enzyme that converts testosterone to DHT

What are the major endocrine glands and where are they located?

Hypothalamus, Pituitary - Brain Ovary, Uterus, Teste- Genitals

Describe Development of Blastocyte.

Implantation: ~8 days after conception ~Tapping mother's blood supply through uterine wall Embryonic Period [before 8th week]: ~When organogenesis is initiated Fetus [After ~8-10 week]: ~When organogenesis is completed (including formation of placenta)

Describe the characteristics of fertile vs infertile mucus.

Infertile >> Thick, creamy, Tacky "gluey" Fertile >> Egg-white, Stringy (stretch) Post-Deposition Sperm Voyage Isthmus (narrowest): Utero-tubular junction -sperm [100-1000] "rest stop" Ampulla: fertilization takes place Uterus: alert female immune system will engulf some abnormal and good sperms (reduce the sperm number) Infundibulum: oocyte captured here

What is initiating copulation?

Initiating sex. (described with gorillas and organgutan in class). • One male mating structure- the male is passive and female Is more assertive and initiating it • Multi male mating structure- there is competition between the males and the males are asking the females for sex

Name other characteristics of menstruation cultural beliefs.

• Pharaohs: Encouraged their priests to ingest to develop spiritual connectivity (used rolled papyrus) • Native American: "Rite of relaxation/ Period of reverence" for their women (spiritual guidance or with special requests or prayers) [time to themselves]- (small leather piece) Affect men's virility (contact) and root of sickness If menstruation blood smeared onto a knife (kill a person) • Chinese: Affect men's virility (contact) and root of sickness If menstruation blood smeared onto a knife (kill a person) • Polynesian/Aboriginal- Girl secluded to a separate dwelling after menarche, followed by female only rituals (bath). Thereafter community celebrations to welcome her into society as a woman • Tlingit (kolosh, Alaska)- Secluded for a year, followed by a ritual feast • Wawalik (Australia) - Women are chased & penetrated by snakes>> this bring about the menstruation • Hawaii: menstruating females secluded to a one room menstrual hut (hale pe'a) [hut off-limits to general population] • Dogon (Mali): Women are isolated to a "menstrual" hut (Ponulu)- Recognized as a fertile woman and would soon be ready to conceive (men in their paternity assessment) -Farm labor, but restricted from village streets, no cooking for hubby or sexual intercourse • Gimi (Papua New Guinea): Cosmic belief- Menarche is due to the "Moon-penis". Moon is the first husband & father to unborn child. Full-moon penetrates all women & causes them to bleed. The menarchal blood is considered blood from stillbirth of first child. Women are responsible for cultivating "root" plants (yams, cassava, potatoes etc). When menstruating avoids going to the field (blood burns the crop) • Aguaruna (Peru): Women are isolated to a "menstrual" hut (Ponulu)- Recognized as a fertile woman and would soon be ready to conceive (men in their paternity assessment) -Farm labor, but restricted from village streets, no cooking for hubby or sexual intercourse • Aymara (Bolivia): Human reproduction and potato production considered cosmic. Moon is "feminine" & its cyclicity is tied to women's cycle (moon blood) & new potatoes are asexually conceived in the girdle of earth by contact between earth's menses and sprouting potato

What could abnormal bleeding mean?

• Pregnant (miscarriage, ectopic pregnancy) • HPO dysfunction (less t4 or e4) - no ovulation • Uterine abnormalities (polyps, endometritis, carcinoma) • Cervical abnormalities (cancer, cervicitis) • Vaginal abnormalities (cancer, laceration, vaginitis) • Systemic disease (clotting, hepatic, renal)

How does hormones effect menstrual abnormalities?

• Shortage of E4 leads to thin endometrium • Excess of E4 leads to a thickened endometrium • Excess of P4 leads to a vascularized endometrium (more tissue is formed causing excess of bleeding)

What are the target organs of testosterone? How does it changes these areas?

• Skin - hair growth, balding, sedum production • Liver- synthesis of serum proteins • Male sexual organs - penile growth, spermatogenesis, prostate growth and function • Bone- accelerated linear growth. Closure of epiphyses • Brain- libido, mood, aggression • Muscle- increase in strength and volume • Kidney- stimulation of erythropoietin production • Bone marrow-stimulation of stem cells

What are ways pheromones are released?

• Sweat, saliva, urine, genital secretions • Humans get aroused by this because of pheromones

Describe the contraception calendar method.

• Take diligent notes of everyday • On a 28 day cycle, days 8-17 may be your ovulation days which is 'unsafe days' because eggs are present=pregnancy • Eggs may still be present on day 17 • The days before that cycle may still be unsafe if your cycles vary and intercourse during these days may leave sperm alive long enough to still fertilize the egg - there is no guarantee • If you have a highly regular cycle then your window for pregnancy is narrower, if it's less regular then the window is wider

What is Amenorrhea?

• The absence of menstruation • Can happen during pregnancy, lactation, and menopause • Happens primarily when a girl is "normally" supposed to start- expected to have it at age 16 and she doesn't could mean there are genetic or anatomical abberations (kallmann's syndrome, POF, MRKH) • Secondarily happens when there's an absence of menstruation for more than 90 days (three cycles) and could be due to low body weight from anorexia or bulimia, endurance sports, stress, or hormonal imbalances

Describe how the uterus prepares for pregnancy.

• The menstrual cycle changes • the endometrium thickens each month for preparation • if a woman does not become pregnant, the top layers of the endometrium with blood from the blood vessels sheds • levels of hormones flunctuates during this process

List characteristics of hormonal undulations.

• Up and down of hormones • Premenstrual syndrome- bloating, breast swelling, headache, mood swings, loss of libido, poor sleep patterns)

What are ancient Greek cultural beliefs related to menstruation?

• negative attitude ("curse") [men= month, menus= moon and power] • Menstrual blood turned new wine sour • Menstrual blood render crops barren • Menstrual blood dulls the "gleam of ivory" • Menstrual blood would drive dogs mad • Menstrual blood would make ants to turn away in disgust • "Lint wrapped around a stick"