bio module 4 carbohydrate

once glucose enters the cell it can be used as fuel to make

ATP or stored for later use as glycogen

what is the orientation of beta linkages

CH2OH groups in an opposite direction relative to its neighbors this orientation is not recognized by our digestive enzymes and therefore passes through our tract without breaking them down

diagram of carbohydrates

Carbohydrates are generally categorized into simple or complex carbohydrates. Monosaccharides and disaccharides are both simple sugars that are readily metabolized for energy. Complex carbohydrates are polysaccharides with many monosaccharides bound together, often in complex structures. They are generally storage or structural molecules, such as starch or cellulose.

substrate-level phosphorylation

Late in the process, two separate reactions capture energy to form ATP at the substrate level—that is, the ATP is made by the reactions of glycolysis

what is the energy used for from the substrate molecules

With adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and inorganic phosphate (Pi) available in the cytoplasm, the energy released from substrate molecules is used to form high-energy bonds between ADP and Pi, thus forming ATP.

phosphorylation is the addition of what

a phosphate group to a molecule most often from ATP

active transport

absorption in the gastrointestinal tract (kdney tubules reguires energy because glucose is being imported into a cell against it concentration gradient ((glucose is moved from a low concentration area to a high concentration area).

monosaccharides

are single carbohydrate monomers often referred to as sugars

what happens to glucose once in the cell

becomes phosphorylated this traps it in the cell so it can not go back into the bloodstream even when levels are low

alpha linkage

bonds characterized by the monoers all having the same orientation of their respective CH2OH groups relative to one another and allow for branching of the chains

how does the glucose get transported into the cells

by transports called Glu T transporter by facilitated diffusion

disaccharides

carbohydrate made of two monosaccharids bonded together

carbohydrates are molecules made of exclusively

carbons oxygen and hydrogen known as sugars or saccharides

surose

disaccharide that composes table sugar one glucose and one frutose molecule bound together

insulin is secreted by the pancreas in response to

elevated glucose levels in the blood increases the insertion of one type of Glu T called Glu T4 increasing the rate of facilitated diffusion of glucose into those cells

what breaks down disaccharides

enzymes in our small intestines break them down to release the monosaccharides for absorption

what molecules are carbohydrates made up of

equal parts carbon and water formula is always CxH2xOx with the number of carbon and oxygen atoms being equal to the number of hydrogen atoms being twice that of the carbon/oxygen atoms

after phosphorylation what happens to the glucose

glucose is broken into two three-carbon molecules, and each molecule transfers two electrons from it to NAD+. The end products are two molecules of pyruvate and two molecules of NADH

what are the sugars primarily used for energy

hexoses and they contain six cabons glucose fructos and falactos same chemical formula of C6H12O6 but slightly different structures to distinguish them Note that each sugar molecule has the same number of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen atoms. Each red circle indicates the structural difference of that sugar compared to glucose. Also note that fructose had a five-member ring, while glucose and galactose have six-member rings. These are sometimes shown stylistically as pentagons or hexagons, respectively.

what does phosphorylation do to the molecule

it increases the energy to the molecues and phosphate bonds commonly serve as energye carrier in biochemical reaction

polysaccharides

long often very complex carbohydrage consist of tens hundred or thousand of individual sugar molecules and have several different uses

where does digestion take place for carbohydrates

mainly small intestine absorbed by the cells in the lining of the intestine the liver further catabolism and storage or release is dependent on energy needs

What are simple carbohydrates?

monosaccharides and disaccharides often referred to as sugars

carbohydrates have the suffix of

ose glucose, sucrose or cellulose

what is a five carbon sugar known as

pentoses (pent for five)

What are complex carbohydrates?

polysaccharides

beta linkages

polysaccharides of nondigestible carbohydrates (the fiber in our diets) consist of these bonds to holding sugars together

what are the two most common pentoses in the body

ribose and deoxyribose the sugars are part of the structure of nucleic acids

carbohydrates exist as monomers known as monosaccharides as well as polymers explain this

small polymers iwth two sugar molecules are known as disaccharides wile large plymers are called polysaccharides or complex carbohydrates

some uses of polysaccharides

store for energy as in the case of glycogen form various structurs as the fibrous cellulose of plants or the citin in the exoskeletons of insects used in intracellular recgnition and communication

lactose

the carbohydrate component of milk glucose and galactose

by adding ATP through phosphorylation, what happens to the glucose

the expenditure of 2 ATP raises the energy of glucose which prevent it from leaving the cell and enable it to participate in subsequent reactions the energy from phosphorylation drives the cell metabolic reation

what determines if polysaccharides are digestible by humans or not

the linkages

what do monosaccharides consits of

three to six carbon and classified by the number of carbons they possess

when does glycolysis occure

under both anaerobic and aerobic because it does not require oxygen

how much energy does glycolysis provide

very little it is capturing energy from 2 molecules of ATP during the metabolism of each three-carbon molecule, and a total of four ATPs are formed as one six-carbon glucose molecule is metabolized by glycolysis to two molecules of pyruvate. Because energy from two ATPs was used in the initial phosphorylations, glycolysis results in a net energy capture of only two ATPs

how do glucose and other monosaccharides enter the cell

via a transport protein known as glut4- the glucose is then phosphorylated to keep it within the cell

Formation of ATP via Substrate-Level Phosphorylation.

Phosphorylation of ADP to form ATP requires energy input to form the high-energy bond between ADP and Pi. In substrate-level phosphorylation, the energy comes from a reaction with another substrate, as is the case in the last steps of glycolysis.

steps of glycolysis

1. The transfer of phosphate groups from ATP to glucose. 2. Breaking of a six-carbon molecule (glucose) into two three-carbon molecules (pyruvate). 4. The transfer of two electrons to the coenzyme NAD+to generate two NADH molecules. 5. The capture of energy in ATP via substrate-level phosphorylation.

glycolysis

-series of enzyme-catalyzed steps in which a 6 carbon molecule is broke down into 2 -three carbon pyruvate moleculed -the pathway results in the net production of 2 ATP and 2 NADH molecules -substrate-level phosphorlation generates the ATP produced by glycolysis