bio module 4 carbohydrate
once glucose enters the cell it can be used as fuel to make
ATP or stored for later use as glycogen
what is the orientation of beta linkages
CH2OH groups in an opposite direction relative to its neighbors this orientation is not recognized by our digestive enzymes and therefore passes through our tract without breaking them down
diagram of carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are generally categorized into simple or complex carbohydrates. Monosaccharides and disaccharides are both simple sugars that are readily metabolized for energy. Complex carbohydrates are polysaccharides with many monosaccharides bound together, often in complex structures. They are generally storage or structural molecules, such as starch or cellulose.
substrate-level phosphorylation
Late in the process, two separate reactions capture energy to form ATP at the substrate level—that is, the ATP is made by the reactions of glycolysis
what is the energy used for from the substrate molecules
With adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and inorganic phosphate (Pi) available in the cytoplasm, the energy released from substrate molecules is used to form high-energy bonds between ADP and Pi, thus forming ATP.
phosphorylation is the addition of what
a phosphate group to a molecule most often from ATP
active transport
absorption in the gastrointestinal tract (kdney tubules reguires energy because glucose is being imported into a cell against it concentration gradient ((glucose is moved from a low concentration area to a high concentration area).
monosaccharides
are single carbohydrate monomers often referred to as sugars
what happens to glucose once in the cell
becomes phosphorylated this traps it in the cell so it can not go back into the bloodstream even when levels are low
alpha linkage
bonds characterized by the monoers all having the same orientation of their respective CH2OH groups relative to one another and allow for branching of the chains
how does the glucose get transported into the cells
by transports called Glu T transporter by facilitated diffusion
disaccharides
carbohydrate made of two monosaccharids bonded together
carbohydrates are molecules made of exclusively
carbons oxygen and hydrogen known as sugars or saccharides
surose
disaccharide that composes table sugar one glucose and one frutose molecule bound together
insulin is secreted by the pancreas in response to
elevated glucose levels in the blood increases the insertion of one type of Glu T called Glu T4 increasing the rate of facilitated diffusion of glucose into those cells
what breaks down disaccharides
enzymes in our small intestines break them down to release the monosaccharides for absorption
what molecules are carbohydrates made up of
equal parts carbon and water formula is always CxH2xOx with the number of carbon and oxygen atoms being equal to the number of hydrogen atoms being twice that of the carbon/oxygen atoms
after phosphorylation what happens to the glucose
glucose is broken into two three-carbon molecules, and each molecule transfers two electrons from it to NAD+. The end products are two molecules of pyruvate and two molecules of NADH
what are the sugars primarily used for energy
hexoses and they contain six cabons glucose fructos and falactos same chemical formula of C6H12O6 but slightly different structures to distinguish them Note that each sugar molecule has the same number of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen atoms. Each red circle indicates the structural difference of that sugar compared to glucose. Also note that fructose had a five-member ring, while glucose and galactose have six-member rings. These are sometimes shown stylistically as pentagons or hexagons, respectively.
what does phosphorylation do to the molecule
it increases the energy to the molecues and phosphate bonds commonly serve as energye carrier in biochemical reaction
polysaccharides
long often very complex carbohydrage consist of tens hundred or thousand of individual sugar molecules and have several different uses
where does digestion take place for carbohydrates
mainly small intestine absorbed by the cells in the lining of the intestine the liver further catabolism and storage or release is dependent on energy needs
What are simple carbohydrates?
monosaccharides and disaccharides often referred to as sugars
carbohydrates have the suffix of
ose glucose, sucrose or cellulose
what is a five carbon sugar known as
pentoses (pent for five)
What are complex carbohydrates?
polysaccharides
beta linkages
polysaccharides of nondigestible carbohydrates (the fiber in our diets) consist of these bonds to holding sugars together
what are the two most common pentoses in the body
ribose and deoxyribose the sugars are part of the structure of nucleic acids
carbohydrates exist as monomers known as monosaccharides as well as polymers explain this
small polymers iwth two sugar molecules are known as disaccharides wile large plymers are called polysaccharides or complex carbohydrates
some uses of polysaccharides
store for energy as in the case of glycogen form various structurs as the fibrous cellulose of plants or the citin in the exoskeletons of insects used in intracellular recgnition and communication
lactose
the carbohydrate component of milk glucose and galactose
by adding ATP through phosphorylation, what happens to the glucose
the expenditure of 2 ATP raises the energy of glucose which prevent it from leaving the cell and enable it to participate in subsequent reactions the energy from phosphorylation drives the cell metabolic reation
what determines if polysaccharides are digestible by humans or not
the linkages
what do monosaccharides consits of
three to six carbon and classified by the number of carbons they possess
when does glycolysis occure
under both anaerobic and aerobic because it does not require oxygen
how much energy does glycolysis provide
very little it is capturing energy from 2 molecules of ATP during the metabolism of each three-carbon molecule, and a total of four ATPs are formed as one six-carbon glucose molecule is metabolized by glycolysis to two molecules of pyruvate. Because energy from two ATPs was used in the initial phosphorylations, glycolysis results in a net energy capture of only two ATPs
how do glucose and other monosaccharides enter the cell
via a transport protein known as glut4- the glucose is then phosphorylated to keep it within the cell
Formation of ATP via Substrate-Level Phosphorylation.
Phosphorylation of ADP to form ATP requires energy input to form the high-energy bond between ADP and Pi. In substrate-level phosphorylation, the energy comes from a reaction with another substrate, as is the case in the last steps of glycolysis.
steps of glycolysis
1. The transfer of phosphate groups from ATP to glucose. 2. Breaking of a six-carbon molecule (glucose) into two three-carbon molecules (pyruvate). 4. The transfer of two electrons to the coenzyme NAD+to generate two NADH molecules. 5. The capture of energy in ATP via substrate-level phosphorylation.
glycolysis
-series of enzyme-catalyzed steps in which a 6 carbon molecule is broke down into 2 -three carbon pyruvate moleculed -the pathway results in the net production of 2 ATP and 2 NADH molecules -substrate-level phosphorlation generates the ATP produced by glycolysis
