Biological Molecules Part 1

ACETYLCHOLINE

* Botulinum toxin inhibits the release of this compound, causing paralysis. Reduced synthesis of this neurotransmitter, which is broken down by a namesake esterase, is often postulated to cause Alzheimer's disease * Donepezil and galantamine inhibit enzymes that degrade this compound * Organophosphates like sarin prevent the hydrolysis of this compound by inhibiting its namesake (*) esterase * compound activates sodium-potassium pumps, causing hyperpolarization, in the sliding filament model. Synthesis of this compound at the presynaptic cleft is slow in Alzheimer's patients * botulinum toxin, or Botox. For 10 points, name this neurotransmitter that stimulates muscle contractions, abbreviated ACh. * 192IgG-saporin complex is used to study the diverse functions of this molecule in the BFCS * Alpha-7 is a pentameric receptor of this molecule that is antagonized by bupropion and ketamine * L. mactans releases a toxin that causes a massive release of this molecule at peripheral nervous system synapses * Physostigmine is a compound that crosses the blood-brain barrier to prevent inactivation of this compound * two types of receptors for this molecule are (*) nicotinic and muscarinic. Antibodies interfere with transmission of this molecule in an autoimmune disorder, myasthenia gravis * formation of this neurotransmitter is catalyzed by ChAT. For 10 points, name this first discovered neurotransmitter that functions in neuromuscular junctions. * receptor for this compound is opposed by a tropane alkaloid that can be extracted from deadly nightshade * antagonist is called atropine. It binds to either a G-protein coupled receptor or a cys-loop ligand-gated ion channel * molecule can be caused by organophosphate poisoning. This compound originates in the basal optic nucleus of (*) Meyner * Myasthenia gravis occurs when this compound's nicotinic receptors are blocked by antibodies * receptors are muscarinic. This compound's transferase is deficient in Alzheimer's disease * botulinum toxin prevents this neurotransmitter from being released, causing paralysis. For 10 points, name this primary neurotransmitter for motor neurons that is required for muscle contraction. * important source of studies of this neurotransmitter is the electroplax of Torpedo californica. Work by Fatt and Katz revealed that discrete quanta of this molecule result in miniature end plate potentials. * proteins agrin and rapsyn are involved in clustering receptors for it during creation of one type of synapse. High levels of this molecule are found in the basal nucleus of Meynert. * sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions, it is the neurotransmitter for preganglionic fibers. Unusually, its action is terminated by direct enzymatic hydrolysis by a namesake esterase * Myasthenia gravis is caused by antibodies blocking its nicotinic receptors, which are paired with muscarinic receptors * synthesis of this neurotransmitter occurs in a single step and is catalyzed by ChAT * identify this first substance shown to be a neurotransmitter, which is found at the neuromuscular junction. * molecule's synthesis is inhibited by hemicholinium-3. Atropine is an inhibitor of one of this molecule's receptors * calmodulin, this molecule can stimulate the release of nitric oxide. * Myasthenia gravis occurs when this molecule's nicotinic receptors do not function properly, and it also binds to muscarinic receptors. This neurotransmitter activates sodium ion channels in muscle * neurotransmitter is found in lower amounts in people with Alzheimer's. For 10 points, name this neurotransmitter, which causes skeletal muscle movement and is synthesized from acetyl CoA. * special type of potassium channel called an M-channel is deactivated by a receptor of this molecule, and a condition caused by a decrease in the density of receptors of this molecule can be diagnosed by Tensilon testing or Single Fiber EMGs. * disorder is caused by the presence of antibodies against main immunogenic regions of its receptors and is called Myasthania Gravis * Venom derived from cobras and bungarotoxin act as antagonists to this neurotransmitter's receptors, and this molecule has two distinct types of receptors whose agonists are nicotine and muscarine * compound works by opening ligand gated ion channels that allow sodium ions to enter muscle cells. For 10 points, name this neurotransmitter that regulates neuromuscular junctions. * uptake of this compound is inhibited by vesamicol * HC-3 inhibits the synthesis pathway of this compound. Antagonists of this compound include alpha-bungarotoxin. * Myasthenia Gravis results when antibodies inhibit this molecule's nicotinic receptors. Muscarinic receptors of this compound are coupled with G-proteins. Otto Loewi first identified this substance by placing two frog hearts in separate chambers and measuring the effect of stimulating the vegas nerve on their contractile force. * name this first compound to be identified as a neurotransmitter, which is released at neuromuscular junctions and is abbreviated AcH. * metabolism of this molecule is affected by the glaucoma drug physostigmine * molecule's receptors is opposed by atropine, which is extracted from deadly nightshade * curare blocks another receptor of this molecule that class of receptors is attacked in the autoimmune disease myasthenia gravis and is called muscarinic * single molecule of it induces the miniature end plate potential. Dale's principle originally contrasted adrenergic cells with cells that produce this compound, whose receptors also bind nicotine * neuromuscular junctions, it is responsible for muscle contractions. For 10 points, name this neurotransmitter synthesized from a certain nutrient and a common group often found linked to coenzyme-A. * monomethylmercuric cation's affinity for sulfhydryl groups inhibits the enzyme that synthesizes this molecule * Repetitive nerve stimulation at frequencies of two to five Hz depletes stores of this molecule and decreases compound motor action potential amplitudes, a process termed the decremental response * electrodiagnostic study is frequently helpful in the diagnosis of botulism, as botulin blocks this compound's release * Anticholinergic agents such as scopolamine competitively inhibit this compound's binding to muscarinic receptors, and antibody inhibition of this compound's binding to nicotinic receptors causes myasthenia gravis * levels of this compound in the brain has been connected to Alzheimer's disease * neuromuscular junction to prompt muscle contraction. * basal nucleus of Meynert contains large amounts of this substance, and antibodies destroy this substance's receptors in myasthenia gravis * Galantamine inhibits its breakdown * ionotropic and G protein-coupled receptors called (*) nicotinic and muscarinic, respectively * released in pre- and post-ganglionic parasympathetic neurons, as well as at the motor end plates of skeletal muscle * deficiency of it was proposed as a cause of Alzheimer's disease, which is treated using inhibitors of its namesake esterase * neurotransmitter that mediates neuromuscular interactions * MuSK acts with rapsyn to colocalize receptors for this molecule when it binds to the proteoglycan agrin found in the basal lamina * rotation of five transmembrane M2 helices * Alpha-bungarotoxin blocks the activity of this molecule, which is broken down by a namesake esterase rather than reuptaken in the synaptic cleft * catalyzes this molecule's synthesis is at abnormally low concentrations in Alzheimer's patients. * Black widow venom stimulates excess release of this molecule, while botulinum toxin blocks its release * Injection of an agonist for this compound into the pontine tegmentum stimulates REM sleep in certain organisms, while cells producing this compound that project to the neocortex are primarily found in the basal nucleus of Meynert * Del Castillo and Katz proposed the quantal release theory for this compound, while cyanobacteria produce anatoxin-a which acts as an analogue of it * Eserine inhibits the breakdown of this molecule, which is used during cataract surgery to constrict the pupil and whose receptors include muscarinic and nicotinic varieties * Alzheimer's Disease. For 10 points, name this neurotransmitter that induces contraction of skeletal muscle. * Katz-Miledi experiement concerned its vesicular transmission * dministered during cataract surgery to contract the pupil * deadly nightshade's secretions of atropine were commonly used to dilate the pupil by blocking its metabotropic class of receptors * ionotropic class is attacked by antibodies in myasthenia gravis, and is commonly called nicotinic, while its metabotropic receptors are called muscarinic * G proteins can stimulate the synthesis of adenylate cyclase, which catalyzes one step in the synthesis of cyclic AMP * released in the pons Varolli, it stimulates the onset of REM. * Pirenzepine treats stomach ulcers by antagonizing its stimulation of stomach acid secretion, and nerve gas works by preventing its hydrolysis, while one leading hypothesis suggests that a decline in this leads to Alzheimer's disease * found in high concentrations in the basal nucleus of Meynert. * class of receptors for it is antagonized by the likes of mamba toxin and gallamine and contains five different members based on the alpha subunit of their associated G proteins * ionotropic and is targeted by auto-immune antibodies in myasthenia gravis * muscarinic receptors bind it at the end of parasympathetic nerves, while the nictonic receptors for this molecule, whose release is blocked by botulinum toxin, are found on muscle cells * serine protease that normally breaks down this compound can be permanently inactivated by di-isopropyl-phospho-fluoridate, or temporarily inhibited by neostigmine, which is used as a treatment for myasthenia gravis because it prolongs the actions of this compound * binds with two distinct classes of receptors - one that comes in five types that are coupled to G proteins, and another class of ionotropic receptors * muscarinic receptors for this molecule are found at effector organs of the parasympathetic nervous system, while nicotinic receptors for it are found at all autonomic ganglia and at motor end plates of skeletal muscles * esterase, FTP name this neurotransmitter synthesized from its two namesake constituents, one of which includes coenzyme A

ACTIN

* Cap(G), and members of the gelsolin family are all used to disassemble this protein, and it shares genetic characteristics with the prokaryotic MreB, which adjusts cell width in rod-shaped bacteria. * CAG promoter contains the start of a gene encoding this protein in chickens. This 43-kilodalton protein and GAPDH are the most common loading controls for Western blots. * cellular leading edge, it forms lamellipodia, and it can also bundle together to make stress fibers * protein labelled F is formed by ATP hydrolysis and makes up a smaller component of the cytoskeleton than microtubules. * microfilaments and separates myosin bands in sarcomeres * CDC42 and Rac1 stimulate the formation of structures composed of this protein. Staining of structures containing this protein is typically done with phalloidin derivatives * formin, while its branching is caused by the Arp2/3 complex. This protein's "barbed end," where polymerization typically occurs, can bind to the protein CapZ, which prevents assembly * binding sites are blocked by tropomyosin bound to the troponin complex within the sarcomere * protein which is bound to by myosin during muscle contraction, and which makes up the microfilaments of the cytoskeleton. * DNAse I binds this protein with very high affinity to prevent DNA auto-cleavage * Listeria monocytogenes hijacks a cell's machinery for producing this protein. Phalloidin, the poison from the death cap mushroom, inhibits the nucleation of this protein, which is catalyzed by the Arp 2/3 complex and by formins * intracellular concentration of this protein is intermediate between two critical concentrations, treadmilling occurs * monomeric, this protein is (*) globular and prefixed by the letter F * ATP binds to this protein when it polymerizes into fibers that make up the spindle apparatus in dividing cells * microfilaments and slides along myosin during muscle contraction. * calcium ions, the hydrophobic cleft between subdomains 1 and 3 of this protein is bound to by gelsolin * Arp2/3 complex causes branching in this protein and is activated by WASp/Scar proteins * ADF/cofilin family of proteins twists it, resulting in the loss of its phalloidin-binding site. A steady state condition associated with nucleotide hydrolysis in this protein is called treadmilling * polarity can be determined with S1 fragments, which give this protein's plus and minus ends a barbed or arrowhead "decoration," respectively * Tropomodulins and CapZ cap its two ends * globular, or G, form of this protein is polymerized helically to form its F form * assembly and disassembly of filaments of this globular protein is regulated by gelsolin, which modifies the viscous behavior of the cell. Vinculins anchor this intracellular protein at tight junctions * formation of fibers made of this protein initially propels the pseudopod forward. This is the smaller of two proteins that contracts to form the cleavage furrow during cytokinesis * protein is absent from the H-zone. Also in that structure, which is the sarcomere, troponin is attached to this protein, which makes up the thin fiber, and prevents it from binding to myosin * protein is bound by fascin in microspikes, and this protein binds to the cytoplasmic faces of catenins in cadherin junctions * Depolymerization of this protein is prevented by phalloidin * ADP for ATP on this protein, Profilin promotes its polymerization. Polymerization of this protein at (*) lamellipodia allows cells to move * protein is found in contractile rings that allow for cell division. * intermediate filaments and microtubules, makes up the cytoskeleton, and thin filaments are polymers of this protein * imaged using conjugated phalloidin. Discovery of its complex with DNase I helped determine its crystal structure * Microbes such as Vaccinia and Shigella can use this protein for motility within host cells, although bacteria often have MreB, an analogue of this protein * Gelsolin and cofilin help organize the assembly of this protein * light filaments of muscles, but it can be found in almost all cells, where it forms part of the cytoskeleton. Types of this protein include G and F, depending on whether it has been polymerized or not * myosin to cause muscle contraction. * 47-kD protein are associated with neutrophil disorders involving this protein, whose depolymerization often involves cofilin * protein is stained red by phalloidin, and is regulated by the Rho GTPase family. Two critical concentrations of this protein determine if it polymerizes at the (*) barbed end, the pointed end, or both * seven-unit Arp2/3 complex regulates the polymerization of this protein, whose signal transduction involves WASp, named for a syndrome in which T cells fail to reorganize (*) structures composed of this protein. * Prolifin is one of the major "binding proteins" associated with this protein, which is held in place by nebulin * double helix of this highly-conserved protein forms the polymers comprising microfilaments in the cytoskeleton, and it binds to the globular heads of its counterpart when forming thin filaments in the sarcomere * motor protein that drives muscle contraction along with myosin. * protein forms aggregates in Hirano bodies. This protein is imaged using fluorescent phalloidin, and in red blood cells it complexes with band 4.1 protein at the ends of spectrin. * binds to catenins on the cytoplasmic side of adherens junctions. Upon binding to ATP, it switches from a globular form to a more aggregation-prone form, which creates a helical string. * protein is responsible for forming the mechanism that pinches cells apart in (*) cytokinesis, and it is also responsible for extending pseudopods in amoebas * protein move closer together during muscle contraction, due to myosin attaching to this protein and pulling. For 10 points, name this protein that forms the thin filaments of the cytoskeleton. * E. coli contains a protein called MreB which is an analogue to this protein * Phalloidin is a toxin found in death cap mushrooms that interferes with this protein. Vinculin is a linkage protein that binds to this protein. * Formins facilitate processive assembly of these proteins at their barbed ends and long chains that consist of this protein reach a steady state condition known as treadmilling * F type of this protein has a distinct polarity and contains a negative end which is capped by tropomodulin and a positive end that binds to the Z disk * sliding filament theory, the binding of ATP to myosin causes the myosin to release its grip on this protein which is found in the thin filament of muscles * protein found in the microfilaments of the cytoskeleton * Listeria has a surface protein that promotes assembly of this protein, which it then uses to transfer within other cel * Proteins such as tropomodulins and CapZ prevent this protein from undergoing the process of treadmilling * Cytochalasins and phalloidin are toxins that work by binding to this protein, which comes in filamentous "F" polymers and globular "G" monomers. * abundant protein in animal cells makes up (*) cytoskeletal microfilaments. For 10 points, name this protein that also slides along myosin in the power stroke of muscle cells. * MreB is this protein's major prokaryotic homologue. This protein binds and inactivates DNase. CapZ, a calcium-independent and lipid-dependent protein, caps and stabilizes the barbed positive end of one of its forms * Bundles of this protein facilitate the formation of structures like (*) filopodia. Units of the globular type of this protein assemble to form micro- and thin filaments, which, along with thick filaments, form myofibrils and are absent in the H zone of the sarcomere * slides along myosin during muscle contraction. * platelets, much of this protein is found attached to a peptide named Fx, which was found to be identical to thymosin beta-4 * ranching of this protein is stimulated by WASp proteins * branch points are occupied by a protein typically isolated due to its ability to bind profilin. CapZ is responsible for calcium-independent capping of the plus end of one form of this protein. A toxin from the so-called "angel of death" mushroom, phalloidin, works by preventing this protein's filamentous F form from being depolymerized into G monomers * absent in the H zone of a sarcomere. * functions of this protein are inhibited by toxins such as cytochalasins and phalloidin * proteins fimbrin and villin bind to this protein in filopodia and microvilli, and this protein forms structures with a pointed end and a barbed end * protein has a magnesium ion and an ATP molecule bound to it in its globular form, which is converted to its fibrous form, and this protein composes structures in which calcium binds to troponin so that cross bridges can form, the thin myofilaments * paired with myosin in the sarcomeres of muscle tissue * p53 in a calcium-dependent fashion in order to help sequester p53 in the cytoplasm during DNA repair * adhered to integrin by the protein vinculin at focal adhesion plaques, and it is linked to cadherin by catenin * Complexes of it are disassembled by cofilin, and CapZ blocks it from depolymerization or polymerization. The (*) "F" configuration of this protein is a polymer of individual units of its "G" type, and this protein is the primary component of thin filaments, which function in cytokinesis, cytoskeletal structure, and sarcomere shortening * six genes encode this protein in humans, some plants have over sixty genes for it. This protein exhibits a phenomenon known as treadmilling, in which G monomers attach to the plus end and detach from the minus end of its F filament * intracellular protein in eukaryotic cells, this protein is absent in the H zone of the sarcomere. For 10 points, name this protein that slides along myosin to produce muscle contraction

ANTIBODIES

* IP assays use these molecules to pull targets out of solution by taking advantage of their binding to protein A and protein G. * proteins requires the use of EBV-immortalized cell lines sensitive to aminopterin * proteins have additional diversity generated through the addition of N and P nucleotides during (*) VDJ recombination, and can undergo rounds of somatic mutation to increase their affinity * Western blots, pairs of them are used to recognize proteins of interest. Plasma cells secrete these proteins into the serum, and they occur in five different isotypes that contain heavy and light chains. For 10 points, name these Y-shaped proteins expressed by B-cells that bind to antigens, which include IgG. * part of the process of affinity maturation, the genes that code for these proteins undergo somatic hypermutation * molecule of this type, called Rho(D), is injected before childbirth to desensitize an Rh-negative mother to her Rh-positive fetus * Western blot, "secondary" varieties of these molecules are linked to a horseradish peroxidase and bind to the Fc or F(ab) region of another protein of this type * myelomatous cells with spleen cells, monoclonal varieties of these epitope-binding proteins can be formed * Y-shaped glycoproteins produced by B cells that bind to foreign antigens and trigger an immune response. * residues of these proteins can be numbered using either the Chothia or Kabat numbering schemes * proteins are absent in people with mutations in Bruton's tyrosine kinase, and their namesake fold consists of two beta sheets with a greek key motif held together by a single disulfide bond * subtype of these molecules has subcomponents held together by the 15 kilodalton J-chain. * cells that produce these proteins rearrange one of their genetic loci through VDJ recombination. * two heavy and two light chains arranged in a Y shape, also called immunoglobulins. * acts on these proteins only occurs at segments flanked by two RSS sites with spacers 12 and 23 nucleotides long * pentamer containing a central J chain surrounded by 10 F-sub-a-b regions * proteins are used to precipitate a protein-DNA complex in ChIP, and they can be used to detect specific proteins in a (*) Western blot * Examples of these proteins made from identical cells which all bind to the same epitope are known as "monoclonal." Consisting of two heavy chains and two light chains, these proteins come in 5 different isotypes labeled A, D, E, G, and M * plasma B cells, for 10 points, name these Y-shaped proteins which mediate the immune response by binding to antigens. * creating these molecules involves culturing in an IL-6 rich medium or injecting into the peritoneal cavity of a mouse and collecting the ascites. * classical method of creating these molecules was developed by Cesar Milstein, and involves growing cells deficient in HGPRT in a medium containing hypoxanthine, thymidine, and aminopterin * Examples of these molecules used therapeutically include adalimumab, which inhibits TNF-alpha, and Trastuzumab, or Herceptin, used to treat breast cancer * created by fusing a single plasma cell with a mouse myeloma cell, creating a hybridoma that secretes only one heavy-light chain pair * pharmaceuticals that consist of an antibody targeting a single epitope. * proteins are cleaved by papain to release one Fc fragment and two Fab fragments * many possible paratopes of these proteins are produced by near-random assembly of variable, diverse, and joining segments during somatic recombination * HAMA or HACA response, and one method of growing these compounds involves collecting ascites fluid from mice. Medarex developed the UltiMab platform for creating fully humanized ones * substem -zu- indicates that these compounds are humanized. These compounds are created using cells that can't express HGPRT, * aminopterin present in HAT medium * immortalized myeloma cells fused to candidate B-cells to create a hybridom * Rituximab, which targets B-cells, and Herceptin, which targets the HER2/neu receptor responsible for some breast cancers * follicular lymphoma, the enhancer controlling the gene encoding one part of these molecules junctions to bcl-2. * proteins contains three CDRs interspersed between framework region * cytidine deaminase is required for the synthesis of two parts of these molecules, one part of which undergoes somatic hypermutation after joining (*) V, D, and J genes togethe * E, A, M, G, and D isotypes, which all differ in their Fc regions. These proteins, which opsonize their targets to enhance phagocytosis, consist of two heavy and two light chains joined together in a Y-shape by disulfide bonds * cytometry, these molecules bind to fluorophores to differentiate test cells, and HRP is bound to them for use in another process * Kohler and Milstein discovered that myeloma cells can produce the monoclonal variety of these molecules * hree layers of these are used in the "sandwich" variety of the ELISA technique, and these proteins exhibit disulfide bonds between their two heavy and light chains to form a Y-shaped structure. * Bence-Jones protein is a derivative of these proteins that is hypersecreted in multiple myeloma patients. * kind of these proteins is produced by combining spleen cells and myeloma cells from mice * Fab fragments are generated when Papain cleaves these molecules at their hinge region, and one subtype of them contains a J chain connecting two elements of a dimer. * applied to a PVDF membranes with proteins affixed to it in a Western blot. * monomers of these molecules contain two heavy and two light chains connected by a disulfide bond. For 10 points, identify these Y-shaped proteins secreted by the immune system to target pathogens. * exons of these proteins attach via non-homologous end joining to perform class-switching * "12/23" rule achieves efficient V(D)J recombination of these proteins. The two heavy and two light (*) chains that comprise them vary among the five isotypes of them that exist for mammals. * epitopes are uniquely recognized by the molecules they form an induced fit with. These are secreted by B cells * Two different types of these proteins are used in sandwich assays. These proteins can be further divided into classes such as opsonins and agglutinins (uh-GLUE-tin-ins). These proteins can be classified as polyclonal or monoclonal depending on the B lymphocytes they are produced by * proteins consist of two heavy and two light chains, arranged in a Y shape, and their variable regions interact with epitopes * "sandwich" held together by cysteine bonds between two beta sheets. * diversified through VDJ recombination and contain three key amino acid sequences called CDRs. * Fv and Fc regions, and interconversion among the types of these produced by a cell is called (*) class switching. * cross the placenta from mother to fetus, the G type, and the E type triggers mast cells' release of histamines * protease papain cleaves their Fc portion from their Fab portion. The antinuclear type of these molecules is present in sufferers of lupus. * participate in opsonization, and ELISA can be used to determine their concentration * Y-shaped molecules consist of two heavy chains and two light chains. Hybridomas are needed to produce the monoclonal type, which are specific for the same epitope * molecules' variable regions use induced fit to bind to epitopes. * E, involved in allergic reactions, and M, a pentamer produced in response to mismatched blood transfusions * TCRs, which are formed in a closely related process, they undergo somatic hypermutation. * Epitopes bind to these molecules' variable regions by induced fit, and recombinase forms their light chains by deleting sections of DNA to randomly join V, D, and J gene segments * light chains are joined to heavy ones by disulfide bridges. * M type can be produced in response to transfusions of a different blood type, while the E type is responsible for allergic reactions. They can cause autoimmune diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis and lupus. * genes coding for these molecules are purposefully mutated in a process called somatic hypermutation, and they sometimes undergo isotype switching * process discovered by Susumu Tonegawa, they are assembled by random selection of variable region, diversity, and joining segments, called V(D)J recombination * nonspecific and specific type of these molecules are used in (*) ELISA * nhance phagocytosis in a process called opsonization, and activate the binding of proteins C1 through C9 in the complement cascade * fall into five major classes: G, A, M, D, and E. For 10 points, identify these bivalent Y-shaped proteins consisting of two light and two heavy chains, which recognize the epitopes of specific pathogens. * beta-sheet sandwich structure is common to all types of these whose Fab and Fc regions can be separated by papain based on their crystallizability. * effector functions are increased through CSR, while somatic hypermutation occurs in their variable regions and renders a higher affinity for binding sites * Kohler and Milstein got the Nobel in Medicine for producing the monoclonal varieties of these * easily change isotypes, of which humans have five, and they attach to epitope of their targets by induced fit * y- shaped proteins produced by B Cells, that target and attack foreign antigens. * act as opsonins by binding to other molecules, making them easier to phagocytose * A form is found in colostrums and breast milk, and transfusion reactions are mediated by the M form * Monoclonal ones may be used to treat cancers. These structures consist of two heavy chains and two light chains. For 10 points, name these structures that are produced by B cells, sometimes called immunoglobulins, and bind to antigens. * Commercial examples of these include Vitaxin, which binds to vascular integrin to inhibit angiogenesis and one which binds to tumor necrosis factor-alpha, infliximab * usefulness is limited by the HAMA problem and the first step to creating them is finding myeloma cells that cannot synthesize HGPRT * method to produce them entails fusing a cancerous B-cell with a spleen cell that has already developed a response to a given antigen * immune-system molecules so named because they are all identical reproductions of the original cell and because they target only one antigen * Kohler and Milstein the 1984 Nobel Prize in Medicine

SEROTONIN

* Myo-inositol in consumed foods serves to modulate activity of this neurotransmitter * Too much of this substance in the bloodstream is the main factor behind cardiac fibrosis and pulmonary hypertension * Raphe nuclei, is mostly produced by the enterochromaffin cells of the gut * liver, monoamine oxidases metabolize this compound into 5-HIAA. * tryptophan derivative is also known as 5-HT and is inhibited by SSRIs like Prozac and Zoloft. * eurotransmitter that regulates mood, appetite, and sleep and can cause depression at low levels * Local concentrations of this molecule can be controlled using Tianeptine * SLC6A4 transporter. Much of the body's reserve of this molecule is stored in enterochromaffin cells lining the digestive and respiratory tracts and it is also found in the raphe nucleus. * monoamine oxidase A, converting it to 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid. Formally, this neurotransmitter is 5-hydroxytryptophan * en down by monoamine oxidase A, converting it to 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid. Formally, this neurotransmitter is 5-hydroxytryptophan. This molecule is * odensetron, which act as antagonists to this compound, are often administered to prevent chemotherapy induced nausea, and this compound is metabolized into 5-HIAA * catecholamine, but iproniazid and other monoamine oxidase inhibitors increase the concentration of this compound, and fluoxetine acts by regulating levels of this compound * compound is primarily secreted by raphe nuclei, and the synthesis of this indole compound is carried out by a tryptophan hydroxylase * neurotransmitter whose levels are regulated by Prozac and Zoloft, which inhibit its reuptake. * : Certain cells in the stomach are responsible for secreting neurotensin and this substance, and when it is in the bloodstream * platelets. Along with niacin and melatonin * tryptophan synthesizes this substance, the presence of which notably contributes to feelings of contentment. * reuptake is commonly inhibited by antidepressants. * compound is the final product in a process that involves cytochrome P450 used by plant seeds to remove ammonia ammonia also causes an additional increase of this compound's level in the body in an effect inhibited by valine. * excessive release of this compound into the bloodstream is the main cause of cardiac fibrosis. * enterochromaffin or Kulchitsky cells, where it is released during digestion. In the body, the enzyme (*) monoamine oxidase converts this compound into 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid * synthesis of this compound uses the enzymes TPH and amino acid decarboxylase in a process that begins with tryptophan * targeted by drugs like Asentra, Zoloc, and Prozac * neurotransmitter whose levels are elevated by a class of antidepressants known as SSRIs. * plants, production of this chemical via P450 mono-oxygenase helps eliminate poisonous ammonia. * enzyme catalyzing this compound's production depends on biopterin and is found in large abundances in Raphe neurons * substance is the end result of a process that removes poisonous ammonia by first combining it with tryptophan * 80% of this neurotransmitter in the body is synthesized by the gut's enterochromaffin cells * MAOI and TCA therapies parallel a current method of treating depression by increasing extracellular levels of this tryptophan derivative also known as 5-HT * neurotransmitter regulating mood and appetite whose reuptake is selectively inhibited by anti-depressants like Prozac and other SSRIs. * antagonists of this compound's receptor is used to treat the nausea associated with chemotherapy, and carcinoid syndrome occurs when tumors secrete this compound excessively. * hepatic portal vein, platelets commonly sequester this compound * dependent on TPH1 in the pineal gland and TPH2 in the Raphe nuclei * LSD agonizes this compound's 2A receptor, and this compound is most abundantly produced in the enterochromaffin cells of the GI tract * 5-HIAA in the liver via monoamine oxidases, and this neurotransmitter's effects can be enhanced by Celexa and Zoloft, which block this compounds reuptake * tryptophan and also known as 5-HT, for 10 points, name this neurotransmitter whose levels are lowered in depression and anxiety disorders. * compound has been shown to regulate the transglutaminase-dependent activation and depletion of RhoA, and this compound is produced in the medulla, pons, and midbrain by the raphe nuclei, though the majority of this compound in humans is produced by the enterochromaffin cells of the gastrointestinal tract * neurotransmitter activates seven families of 5-HT receptors, and its reuptake is inhibited by antidepressants. * tryptophan, For 10 points, name this neurotransmitter which regulates appetite and mood. * LSD, ecstasy, and other hallucinogens work by blocking transporters of this molecule. It is also known as 5-hydroxytryptophan * molecule stimulates motility of the gastrointestinal tract. Although ninety percent of the amount of this substance in the body is in the enteric nervous system, irregularities in its function can lead to obsessive-compulsive disorder. Its reuptake is selectively inhibited to relieve depression * substance activates its 5-HT receptors, and tyrosine (TY-ro-seen) is the metabolic precursor of this substance * Raphe (RAW-fay) nuclei. Overdoses of this neurotransmitter (NUR-oh-"TRANS"-mitt-ur) can lead to high heart rate and muscle twitching, and this neurotransmitter's levels have been shown to increase with exercise * "reuptake inhibitors" include Zoloft and Prozac * low levels of which can cause depression. * HIAA, and receptor antagonists for this compound include mirtazipine and risperidone. It is collected in blood platelets and enterochromaffin cells of the GI tract, but the main source of it in the brain is the Raphe nucleus * is neurotransmitter is a precursor to melatonin and is synthesized from tryptophan by TPH and DCC. One class of drugs targets the monoamine oxidase that breaks down this neurotransmitter, which is also known as 5-H * modulates sleep and mood and whose reuptake is inhibited by one popular class of antidepressants. * gastrointestinal parasite Entamoeba histolytica can cause persistent diarrhea by secreting high levels of this molecule, and symptoms of cardiac fibrosis in East Africans can be related to high levels of this molecule in the Matoki variety of banana. * overstimulation of the 2B form of the receptor for this molecule can lead to retroperitoneal fibrosis, and the vast majority of the body's supply of this molecule is found in the enterochromaffin cells * Proteins that regulate levels of this molecule include p11, and its breakdown can lead to the formation of 5-HIAA * 5-HT receptors, DDC and TPH catalyze the synthesis of this chemical, low levels of which correspond to intense religious experience and defective signaling of which can lead to SIDS. * neurotransmitter synthesized from tryptophan, which can be selectively reuptaken in a treatment for depression

DOPAMINE

* Tuberoinfundibular neurons secrete this neurotransmitter to inhibit Prolactin, which counteracts one of its effects. It is a precursor to other catecholamines like epinephrine and is mainly produced in the substantia nigra. * G protein-coupled receptor, which inhibits adenylyl cyclase, is targeted by many antipsychotic drugs. * beta-hydroxylase catalyzes its transformation into norepinephrine. The ventral tegmental area contains the largest group of neurons releasing this neurotransmitter in the brain * chiral precursor to this compound with (*) L-configuration is used to treat a disease in which neurons releasing it in the substantia nigra die, leading to tremors and a slow, shuffling gait. * COMT into 3-methoxytyramine * Haloperidol and clozapine are antagonists for this compound's receptor. The islands of Calleja are stimulated by this compound, which is also released by the nucleus accumbens upon activation by the VTA in the mesolimbic pathway * synthesized by decarboxylating aromatic amino acids. Low levels of this compound can cause excessively high (*) prolactin levels * Ritalin acts by increasing the rate of uptake of this neurotransmitter and norepinephrine, one of its derivatives * mostly produced in the substantia nigra, so defects in its synthesis cause tremors in patients with Parkinson's Disease * neurotransmitter that gives a sense of pleasure. * Nurr1 gene is important for the development of cells that primarily produce this molecule * Cabergoline and bromocriptine activate this molecule's receptors, while haloperidol is an inverse agonist to those receptors * transported to the nucleus accumbens from the ventral tegmental area by the mesolimbic pathway * hydroxylation then subsequent decarboxylation of (*) tyrosine. This catecholamine inhibits the secretion of prolactin, and it is primarily produced in a section of the basal ganglia known as the substantia nigra * primary neurotransmitter involved in the reward pathway, which is under-produced in Parkinson's disease. * transmitted in the tubero-infundibular pathway from the hypothalamus to the pituitary gland * produced by cells in the ventral tegmental area and this compound downregulates latrotropic cells * Prolactin acts as an antagonist to this hormone after sexual gratification * Triple Reuptake Inhibitors like (*) cocaine inhibit reuptake of norepinephrine, serotonin and this compound * produced by the melanin-containing cells of the substantia nigra. This neurotransmitter is a direct precursor to norepinephrine and epinephrine * compound is deficient in patients with Parkinson's disease. For 10 points, name this neurotransmitter implicated in reward-based learning, whose precursor is L-Dopa. * , DARPP-32 is expressed in medium spiny neurons with this molecule's receptors and is phosphorylated by those receptors, thus becoming an inhibitor of protein phosphotase 1 * Bupropion blocks reuptake of this and another molecule by binding to this molecule's transporter. That transporter is important in all four of this molecule's major pathways, which include the mesolimbic and the mesocortical * Selegiline raises the availability of this compound by selectively inhibiting MAO-B * schizophrenia is that it is related to hyperactive receptors of this compound. For 10 points, name this neurotransmitter which is used to treat Parkinson's disease. * COMT in the prefrontal cortex, which it connects to the ventral tegmental area via the mesocortical pathwayl. It can also operate via the tuberoinfundibular pathway, and it inhibits the secretion of prolactin * precursor of norepinephrine is primarily produced in the (*) substantia nigra. * this catecholamine can cause a degenerative disease whose most visible symptom is persistent tremors, since this neurotransmitter helps carry out voluntary movement * reward-seeking and pleasure behaviors. * deficiency leads to Parkinson's disease and whose precursor is L-dopa. * polymorphism in one receptor of this compound has been positively associated with novelty-seeking behaviors and ADHD * acts on the ventral tegmentum via the mesolimbic and mesocortical pathways * broken down by monoamine oxidase, and its synthesis begins with the hydroxylation of (*) tyrosine * antagonists to which can treat schizophrenia, is the precursor of norepinephrine, and a disease caused by abnormally low amounts of this compound can be treated by its precursor L-dopa * catecholamine neurotransmitter, whose deficiency can lead to Parkinson's disease. * Phenothiazines such as chlorpromazine work by blocking receptors for this molecule, which is transported to its primary location in the tuberoinfundibular pathway. * oxidase and catechol-o-methyl transferase break down this chemical, a process enhanced by the drug reserpine. A catecholamine produced in the substantia nigra and released from the hypothalamus, this compound inhibits the release of prolactin in the pituitary gland, among other functions * tyrosine and a precursor to adrenaline, disorders that result from a deficiency in this molecule include ADHD and Parkinson's disease * name this inhibitory neurotransmitter implicated in arousal and addiction and supposedly central to pleasure and reward. * major pathway involving this compound is the tuberoinfundibular one that transfers it from the hypothalamus to the pituitary gland. * compound is involved in voluntary motor control via its nigriostriatal pathway, and it binds with lactotrophs in order to inhibit the secretion of prolactin, which is a major antagonist of it. * immediate precursor of norepinephrine in the epinephrine synthesis pathway. * Antagonists of this neurotransmitter are used to treat schizophrenia, and deficiency of this neurotransmitter can lead to Parkinson's disease. * neurotransmitter associated with the brain's pleasure center whose precursor is L-dopa. * X mental retardation protein alters the relay of messages in this molecule's namesake pathway * Prolactin counteracts the effect of this molecule, which can be responsible for sexual arousal and pleasure, and one hypothesis regarding schizophrenia states that psychotic episodes are triggered specifically by the activation of its receptors

ENZYMES

* conformational change occurs when allosteric regulation inhibits its (*) active site, and this type of substance causes a specific substrate to proceed to product in the "lock and key" model * species are classified under the E.C. system with four distinct numbers. * Briggs-Haldane derivation assumes a low concentration of these species. A mass balance around this species, coupled with the (*) quasi-steady state assumption, is used to define their maximum velocity * increase in their concentration decreases the y-intercept on a Lineweaver-Burke plot, and their reaction rate is always first-order according to the Michaelis-Menten equatio * Induced fit and lock-and-key models describe them. For 10 points, name these proteins whose names usually end in "ase," which catalyze biological reactions of substrates. * equation that models the behavior of these molecules divides the product of Vmax ("V sub max") and S by the sum of Km ("K sub M") and S, and that equation is part of the Michaelis-Menten kinetics describing these molecules * controlled via allosteric regulation and by (*) competitive and noncompetitive inhibitors. * substance of this type is used as an amplifier attached to the secondary antibody in ELISA * Adenosine derivatives like FAD are often necessary in order for "apo-" ones to function. The simplest expression for their rates of reaction contains a term with maximum reaction velocity in the numerator and the Michaelis constant in the denominator. * bind via induced fit. Heterotropic allostery entails regulation of these molecules by a non-substrate compound * types of molecules that are made up of RNA include hairpin and hammerhead * kinetics of these molecules is described by the MichaelisMenten equation. An antibody is linked to one of these proteins in an immunosorbent assay that can be used to determine HIV's presence in blood * BamHI [bam H one] and EcoRI [eco R one] are examples of the "restriction" type used in cleaving DNA at specific sites * Zinc cofactors used in DNA replication are an example of this type of substance, whose kinetics are measured by the Michaelis-Menten equations * burst phase model explains the behavior of these species, which can be tracked with para-nitrophenolate formation * model of these molecules assumes passive diffusion and relates reaction rate to substrate concentratio * subject of the Michaelis-Menten model, can be inhibited either competitively or non-competitively, depending on whether the inhibitor binds to their active site. * ping pong mechanism is one method sometimes used to describe these molecules. RNA can act as one of these molecules when it assumes the hammerhead configuration * Lineweaver-Burke (LINE-"weaver" BURK) plot, which depicts Michaelis-Menten (mih-KAY-liss MEN-ten) kinetics * complimentary geometric shapes according to the (*) lock and key model * substrate which binds to a certain active site. For 10 points, name these proteins that catalyze biological reactions. * Their efficiency can be increased by hydrogen tunneling. Their dynamics are modeled through Michaelis-Menten kinetics * Inhibitors of them can act competitively or non-competitively * cooperative binding and they can be regulated through allosteric regulation. The induced fit explanation for their action is an upgrade to the lock and key model. * molecules produces either "sticky ends" or "blunt ends." The efficiency of these molecules can be expressed as kcat [k sub cat] over km [k sub m], and the Michaelis-Menten equation describes the rates of their reactions * MTT or TS assays measure the purple color produced by formazan, which correlates to the reducing ability of these substances * steady-state approximation was used for the Briggs-Haldane equation governing their behavior, a slightly different take from the double reciprocal Lineweaver-Burk and (*) Michaelis-Menten equations that govern their kinetics * "induced fit model," and another suggests a lock-and-key fit with their substrates

ATP

* discovered by Karl Lohmann * process that generates this compound is prevented by uncoupling proteins, such as thermogenin * three binding sites whose formations change as it rotates. The synthesis of this compound is driven by a proton gradient across which chemiosmosis is used to generate this molecule via oxidative phosphorylation * molecule of N-A-D-H results in 2.5 molecules of this compound after going through the electron transport chain. For 10 points, name this energy currency of the cell. * allosterically inhibits phosphofructokinase, thus creating a negative feedback loop in a process whose end product is two molecules of pyruvate. * cyclase can act on this molecule to create a second messenger that activates protein kinase A, which in turn dephosphorylates this compound. * enzyme that synthesizes this molecule uses the chemiosmotic flow of protons through it to drive a rotor-shaped subunit in the cristae of the inner mitochondrial membrane. * molecules of NADH and this energetic molecule are produced by glycolysis * molecule, which functions as the energy currency of the cell * luciferin, this molecule is responsible for the light of fireflies, and as a signaling molecule, it can activate P2 membrane receptors. * Proton gradients power the synthesis of this molecule, which is produced by an enzyme containing the F0 and F1 complexes * converted into a second messenger used in signal transduction, known as cyclic AMP. * pyruvate and NADH, two of these molecules are produced in glycolysis, and cellular respiration ideally produces 38 of these molecules. For 10 points, name this molecule that carries energy in cells. * Transporters named for this compound have transmembrane and nucleotide-binding domains * compound is recognized by P2X receptors. * namesake synthase, which consists of F-sub-O [oh] and F-sub-1 [one] portions * net total of two of these molecules are produced in glycolysis, and 34 more are made in aerobic respiration * mitochondria, this compound is required for primary active transport. For 10 points, name this energy source composed of adenine, ribose, and three phosphate groups. * transmembrane and nucleotide-binding domains. As a neurotransmitter, this compound is recognized by P2X receptors. * first shown to have Walker motifs * neurotransmitter at P2Y and P2X receptors * complex that synthesizes this molecule was imaged by affixing it to a glass slide and attaching fluorescent actin * terminal charges are coordinated to a magnesium * minus-4 anion in solution, * negative feedback, it inhibits phosphofructokinase, and in many cells, the majority of this compound is used by the (*) sodiumpotassium pump * rotor-shaped protein with an F-sub-0 base piece and an F-sub-1 active subunit * Seven of these molecules bind to GroEL, and it can activate purinergic receptors. Oligomycins inhibit its synthesis, and it can be replenished by NDKs. * Earthworms uniquely use the molecule lombricine to react with this molecule. This molecule activates P2X3 and P2X2/3, two receptors that control pain responses, and in conjunction with luciferin this molecule is responsible for the light of fireflies * muscular tissue of chordates, this compound donates a group to creatine. In proteins, this molecule, first synthesized by Alexander Todd * magnesium cofactor, and large quantities of this molecule are produced via oxidative phosphorylation in the electron transport chain * Oligomycin binds to the "F-sub-o" subunit of an enzyme that synthesizes this compound. * reacts with a free amino acid to aminoacylate tRNA * dynein in flagella. * s namesake synthase contains a rotor subunit that spins when protons flow through it, found in the cristae of an organelle * adenylyl cyclase into the secondary messenger cyclic AMP. * directly inhibits pyruvate kinase. It can be converted into a molecule which is used in signal transduction, a second messenger known as cyclic AMP. * generated by oxidative phosphorylation (FOS-for-ih-LAY-shun) in the electron transport chain using its namesake synthase. * , one glucose produces 36 of these molecules during cellular respiration. * sliding filament theory of muscle contraction, the binding of this molecule allows myosin to detach from actin * second messenger cyclic AMP is synthesized from this molecule by adenylyl cyclase * Pyruvate kinase is involved in the transfer of a phosphate group from PEP to ADP, which yields one molecule of this as well as one molecule of pyruvate in glycolysis * Produced with NADH by the Embden-Meyerhof pathway, this molecule consists of a certain purine base attached to a ribose group that is attached to three namesake ions * synthesized by an enzyme that features a rotating axle binding the enzyme's (*) F0 and F1 constituents * torsin protein, a member of the AAA protein family, is crucial for carrying out the role of this molecule, which tightly binds to the N-terminal domains of DnaK and Hsp70 * seven of these molecules can bind to the GroEL/GroES chaperone complex. * synthesizes this molecule can be inhibited by the antibiotic oligomycin * Fritz Lipmann first proposed the important role function this molecule has while one reaction producing this molecule occurs in the thylakoid. * segments called F0 and F1 connected by a rotating axle. This compound is converted into a cyclic signal transduction second messenger called cAMP * Embden-Meyerhof pathway produces two molecules of NADH and two molecules of this compound. * adenylate cyclase (aa-DEN-uh-late SIK-laze) produces a "cyclic" secondary messenger from this molecule. * "gun barrel" structure, in which an axle-like structure turns and adds a (*) phosphate group to another molecule. * signaling molecule, this molecule can activate P2 membrane receptors * Paul Boyer showed that the purpose of a certain proton gradient is to remove it from its namesake synthase * muscle contraction, the heads of the myosin molecule hydrolyze this molecule. In p * described by the Boyer model, and takes place by beta units switching between "tight" and "loose" configurations in its namesake enzyme, which consists of a knob, rod, and rotor * produced especially quickly in cells with myoglobin * DNA gyrase, the anti-tuberculosis drug R207910 inhibits the production of this molecule * he drugs suramin and caffeine are antagonists of this molecule in its role as a neurotransmitter, and F-0 and F-1 complexes make up its namesake synthase, which is bound to inner mitochondrial membranes. T * synthesis incorporates the tenets of catalytic cooperativity and rotational catalysis, which were formulated by Paul Boyer. * Walker A and Walker B motifs, and it can be synthesized via the binding change mechanism * pyrimidines, it joins with ribose 5-phosphate to form PRPP

GIBBERELLINS

* ent-kaurene in the apical meristem, and they cause sugars to be produced from starch by stimulating the production of alpha-amylase * sd-1 "green revolution" rice mutant has a defect in the production of these hormones. * facilitate the action of PIFs during the etiolation response by triggering the degradation of DELLA proteins * discovered due to fungal infections in rice causing chlorosis, a condition called (*) foolish seedling disease or bakanae * hormones trigger the synthesis of amylase in the aleurone layer when water is available, antagonizing the function of abciscic acid * Spraying one of these hormones on grapes causes them to become seedless. For 10 points, name these plant hormones responsible for seed germination. * compounds are synthesized by attaching a lactone ring to a tetracyclic ent-kaurene system in the mevalonate pathway * Arabidopsis, their signaling pathway is regulated by RGA, a DELLA protein * diterpenoids help hydrolyze starch into glucose by increasing alpha-amylase production in cereal germination, and in cabbages, they can induce bolting, the premature production of flowering stems * nduce bolting, the premature production of flowering stems. Also * seedless grapes, these hormones work with cytokinins to promote cell division in the stem * plant hormones that stimulate flowering and stem elongation * block in these compounds' biosynthetic pathway gives nana mutants their most obvious phenotypes, and Spy mutants show the same phenotypes as individuals treated with high levels of these compounds * individual with abnormal quantities of these diterpenoid compounds tend to have larger rosette sizes and high internode length * hormones stimulate alpha amylase secretion, and an excess of this hormone causes rice plants to grow extremely tall and produce inviable offspring in the foolish seedling disease * plant hormones that promote stem elongation and are not auxins. * production of these compounds contains the intermediates methyl erythritol phosphate, which is upstream of ent-Kaurene * Placobutrazol and ancymidol both work by inhibiting these compounds, which operate by triggering the degradation of the DELLA repressors * stimulate production of alpha-amylase in aleurone cells and they are used in the production of Thomson Seedless Grapes. * diterpenes, and the first one was identified by Eiichi Kurosawa after studying bakanae, a condition that causes foolish seedling disease in rice * class of plant hormones that stimulates stem elongation. * DWARF1 encodes for a receptor of one of these hormones, while plants deficient in phytochrome B tend to overexpress these hormones or their receptors. * hormones act by stimulating the degradation of DELLA proteins, and proplastids produce and export the starting material for them * synthesis of these compounds requires the cyclization of geranylgeranyl disphosphate to kaurene * Fungal infection resulting in an excess of this hormone causes bakanae, or foolish seedling disease * plant hormones that promote leaf growth and stem elongation. * group of substances was first isolated after identification of a compound that produced the opposite phenotype, fusaric acid * actions are inhibited by flurprimidol and ancymidol * Various oxoglutarate dioxygenases catalyze the interconversion of different members of this group of compounds * compounds act by enhancing SCF ubiquitin ligase-dependent degradation of DELLA proteins, and their biosynthesis involves the formation of ent-kaurene * exported from the proplastid * stimulate the production of alpha-amylase, promote flowering, and stimulate cell division * plant hormones first isolated from a fungus that causes foolish seedling disease, and which cause stem elongation. * class of hormones is synthesized via ent-kaurene. Lack of this diterpinoid acid can cause dwarfism in some plants. In grapevines this hormone is responsible for the development of tendrils, and it promotes femaleness in corn * first identified by Eiichi (*) Kurosawa, who was studying "foolish seedling" disease in rice * require SLY1 in order to degrade RGL2 proteins, while they rely on DELLA proteins for signaling * major precursor is ent-kaurene, and they are all diterpenoids * they stimulate the production of alpha amylase, and in dioecious flowers they induce maleness * affect the mature regions of trees and shrubs and can induce cell division as well as cell elongation * rejuvenating dwarf plants and delaying leaf aging, they can stimulate seed germination. FTP, identify these plant hormones best known for their use in producing seedless grapes. * essentially work by causing proteasomes to attack DELLA proteins, which normally bind transcription factors that prevent their results * discovery can be linked to a 1926 paper by Eiichi Kurosawa on the rice-killing bakanae or "foolish seedling" disease caused by fungi throughout Asia * low concentrations to dwarf beans, the regions between successive beans grow so rapidly that they are confused for pole beans * name this plant hormone responsible for stem elongation. * transcription factor for these chemicals is repressed by DELLA and they are received by a namesake "-insensitive dwarf mutant 1" complex * nineteen- or twenty-member heterocyclic rings are unsynthesizable in the presence of ancymidol, function by altering transcription, and display an atypical sigmoidal dose response * Mendel's Le gene is for a protein synthesizing these hormones which is understandable since that gene affects pea height. Discovered by Kurosawa in 1926, they were later named for the fungus that he noted as the cause of "foolish seedling" disease

INSULIN

* growth factor named after this substance has been shown to increase fat cell recruitment * artificial form of this protein contains a myristic acid molecule bound to lysine B29 * signaling leads to the closure of the Kir6.2 potassium channel, * sulfonyurea receptor. * 72-hour fast. * protein is lacking in the blood is caused by autoantibodies to glutamic acid decarboxylase * C-peptide level is a way of distinguishing between artificial and natural forms of this hormone * flux of fatty acids from adipose tissue and inhibits gluconeogenesis. * produced in the beta cells of the islets of Langerhans * Manfred Sakel put his patients into comas by giving them large amounts of this drug in an attempt to cure their schizophrenia. * Bertram Collip was the biochemist responsible for purifying this drug, which was first given to Leonard Thompson * Hans Christian Hagedorn made preparations of this drug more stable by combining it with protamine. * completely crystallized, which won Frederick Sanger the Nobel Prize in 1959. * effects were first discovered at the University of Toronto by Charles Best and Frederick Banting * abdomen of dogs * Polycystic ovary syndrome can cause a resistance to this hormone, and the enzyme trypsin was used to determine the structure of this hormone by Frederick Sanger. * inhibits glucose-six-phosphate in the liver, which increases the phosphorylation of glucose * half-life of only 71 minutes * rederick Banting discovered this hormone whose primary structure of two polypeptide chains was determined by Frederick (*) Sanger * PC1, PC2, and carboxypeptidase E must remove the C peptide portion. * released when an increased ATP to ADP ratio is sensed, which leads to the closing of potassium channels * depolarization of the cell, leading to an increase in calcium levels and secretory vesicle release of this hormone. * hormone binds to its receptor, it activates the PKB pathway, * lycogen in muscle and fat cells * precursor of this molecule is made up of three distinct portions, one of which is cleaved off by a peptidase * receptor functions as a tyrosine kinase. A set of growth factors alternatively called somatomedins get their name because they are structurally similar to this molecule. * upper limit on the amount of glycogen it can store * slets of Langerhans * streptozocin. GLP-1 triggers its release, and analogues of it include NPH and Detemir * Six molecules of this hormone are coordinated to zinc in a vesicle. It leads to increased GLUT transporter activity in target tissues through tyrosine kinase activation. * activating PP2A, this molecule inhibits triglyceride breakdown, and in the liver it stimulates glycogen formation * peripheral tissues become (*) resistant to this hormone, which is secreted from the beta cells of the islets of Langerhans * hormone's action opposes that of glucagon and serves to decrease blood glucose. For 10 points, name this hormone secreted from the pancreas, whose levels are insufficient in diabetes. * particular mutation in carboxypeptidase E exhibit increased levels of the "pro-" form of this protein * Receptors of this substance are normally stored as tetramers whose two kinase domains come together in the presence of this substance * . Banting and Best isolate an active form of this substance by ligating a certain duct in dogs. * GLUT4 proteins to cell membranes * autoimmune destruction of a body's beta cells results in one disease associated with this hormone, and this hormone counteracts the effect of glucagon * Calcium is released after this substance is released following the binding of IP3 to the endoplasmic reticulum. * biosynthesis requires the removal of the c-peptide. * s namesake "growth factors" are located in the p13 and p15 subsections of chromosome 11. * concentration of this hormone oscillates with a period of three to six minutes before returning to base levels. * contains this protein also contains a protein suspected to soften the pubis symphysis * peaks during the first trimester of pregnancy and at delivery. * gene that codes for this protein include MafA and the CAAT enhancer binding elemen * NeuroD1 regulates its synthesis. * three- to six-minute rhythm, and HGH induces the liver to secrete one of a family of growth factors with sequence similarity to it. * period of 3-6 minutes, and Frederick Sanger earned his first Nobel Prize for sequencing it. * resistance to this hormone can be caused by polycystic ovary syndrome * stress hormone norephinephrine inhibits it by binding to alpha-2 receptors * hydrochloric acid secretion by parietal cells, lowers blood potassium levels, and causes cells to absorb more amino acids, increasing protein synthesis * rain cells do not require it, ensuring that they will have a constant supply of fuel * beta cells in the islets of Langerhans, and simulates body cells to increase blood glucose absorption, opposing the action of glucagon. * deficiency of which causes diabetes mellitus. * promotes the dephosphorylation and activation of enzyme HMG-CoA * phenylalanine for leucine substitution at residue B25 results in its "Chicago" variety. * biosynthesis involves an excision of the C-peptide * binding to tyrosine kinase receptors on cell surfaces. Sanger's improvement upon the methods of Edman degradation involved its sequencing, and its production occurs primarily in beta cells on the islets of langerhans * Resistance to it is present in many cases of polycystic ovary syndrome as well as in "Syndrome X". * radioimmunoassay for it was developed by Rosalyn Yalow, * namesake "pens", and usually degrades 71 minutes * Somogyi effect is caused by an abundance of this hormone during sleep, and it is released in reaction to the presence of IP3 and the activation of the GLUT2 * three short helices, * two polypeptide chains, one of which has an intra-chain disulfide bond and consists of 21 amino acids, the other consisting of 30 amino acids. * absence of it, GSK3 is active, and its receptor acts through the PI-3 kinase pathway, which causes movement of GLUT4. F * hexamers in solution

COLLAGEN

* principal component of the extracellular matrix forms a triple helix structure, which is assembled outside the cell. For 10 points, name this most abundant protein in mammals, found in hair, skin, and the organic components of bone and cartilage. * Zyderm is an injectable liquid bovine form of this protein * third amino acid of this protein is glycine, and it also contains the uncommon amino acid hydroxyproline * Vitamin C is involved in the synthesis of this triple helical protein, whose cross-linking is performed by the enzyme lysyl oxidase. * most abundant protein in the human body can be hydrolyzed to make gelatin. For 10 points, name this protein found in bone, cartilage, tendons, and other connective tissue. * angiogenesis inhibitor endostatin is derived from the breakdown of this protein * coppercontaining enzyme lysyl oxidase catalyzes the formation of aldehydes from the epsilon-amino group of lysines, allowing cross-linking of this protein * form of this protein is defective in a disease that presents with blue sclera. Defects in it can result in EhlersDanlos syndrome, osteogenesis imperfecta, and (*) Alport's syndrome * pro form of this protein is assembled in the ER, and peptidases cleave propetides at the ends of that pro form after secretion. * glycine-proline-X and glycine-X-hydroxyproline motifs. Ascorbic acid is a cofactor in the synthesis of this protein, which possesses a triple-helix structure * fibrous protein that comprises most of the extracellular matrix * Synthesis of this protein is inhibited by a lack of the cofactor vitamin C * amino acids hydroxyproline and hydroxylysine, and glycine and proline appear at regular intervals along its length * triple-helical structure and links together to form fibrils. Gelatin is derived from this protein, and long chains of this protein are found in the extracellular matrix of animal cells * tension-bearing protein is found in connective tissue such as tendons, ligaments and bone. For 10 points, name this protein, the most common in the human body. * self-limiting disease associated with one of this protein's genes leads to irritability, swelling and abnormal bone changes in infants that hyperostosis is sometimes known as Caffey disease * partially synthesized via reactions that are catalyzed by prolyl-4 and lysyl hydroxylases. The degradation of this protein into amino acids is partially regulated by cortiso * Blood in urine is one common symptom of a nephritis caused by mutations in this protein's genes, known as Alport syndrome. * fibrillar variety is characterized by its D-periods. Defects in this protein's namesake peptidases that prevent them from creating this protein's tropo- precursor is known as Ehlers-Danlos syndrome * fibroblasts, and the "Madras" model predicts it has a triple helix. For 10 points, what is this protein, the most abundant in mammals? * degradation of this molecule in the body causes Ehlers-Danlos syndrome, and osteoblasts synthesize matrices composed primarily of this compound. Integrins bind fibronectin and the Type IV of this molecule * Every third amino acid of this protein is glycine, and it requires Vitamin C for its synthesis. This protein composed of proline and hydroxyproline has a triple helix structure and is mineralized to form bone * not affected in Williams syndrome, but lysyl oxidase produces aldehyde groups important to its function. * Integrins serve as cell surface receptors to fibronectin and this protein, and mutations in genes coding for this protein affect glomorular structure and kidney activity in Alport syndrome * Vitamin C deficiency causes scurvy because it is required for the synthesis of hyrdoxyproline which, along with proline and glycine, makes up most of this protein * protein is made up of a left handed triple helix, and this protein mineralizes to form bone * abundant protein in the human body, which makes up most connective tissue. * isoform of this protein is targeted by autoantibodies in Goodpasture's syndrome * mutation in this protein causes characteristic blue sclera. * ADAMTS2 cleaves its precursors, which is why ADAMTS2 mutation causes EhlersDanlos syndrome * glycosylated with two-sugar units, and its lysine residues are crosslinked after secretion. Hydroxylysine and hydroxyproline are unique amino acids found in this molecule, whose synthesis requires (*) vitamin C * glycine at almost every third residue, which allows it to form a compact triple helix * Xiaflex, which treats Dupuytren's contracture with Clostridium-isolated enzymes that hydrolyze this protei * N-terminal domain of this protein is cleaved by proteins such as ADAMTS-2 and ADAMTS-3. * Ascorbic acid both stimulates production of this protein and regulates hydroxylation of its lysine and proline residues * repeated Gly-X-Y motif, where X is often proline and Y is hydroxyproline * defect in the gene for this protein can cause EhlersDanlos syndrome * found in osteoid trabeculae, and a derivative of this compound found in porifera is called spongin. Deficient synthesis of Type IV of this compound can cause Alport syndrome, and absence of types I and III can lead to Ehlers-Danlos syndrom * proline and hydroxyproline, every third amino acid in this protein is glycine, and it's typically found in a coiled-coil triple-helix configuration * cofactor in its synthesis is vitamin C, and transparent versions of its "fibers" make up the cornea. For 10 points, identify this most abundant protein in mammals, found in tendons and cartilage. * error in the synthesis of this protein causes Ehlers-Danlos syndrome * main helix is a glycine * triple helix which then forms a fibrous structure in extra-cellular spaces * Gelatin is made by hydrolyzing this protein. It is a major component of cartilage. It is the most abundant protein in the human body * Cross linking in this protein occurs when two oxidized derivatives of lysine link up the amount of cross linking that occurs in this protein increases with age. This protein contains three left handed helices which combine to form a triple helix. * one third of this protein is amino acid is glycine this protein also consists of hydroxyproline * kidneys are unable to filter waste products from the blood due to a failure of the basement membranes * improper synthesis of types 1 and 3 of this molecule results in Ehlers-Danlos syndrome. * elastin, glycene and prolene are extensively prevalent in this protein, which is converted to amino acids by cortisol. * most common protein in humans * disease caused by a mutation in one gene coding for this protein involves symptoms like "basket-weave" kidneys and kidney scarring and is called Alport syndrome * Integrin is key in binding it to cell membranes, and cortisol stimulates the degradation of this protein * lens of the (*) eye contains its crystalline form, * Autoantibodies attack the alpha-3 chains of one type of this protein in Goodpasture's Syndrome * Substitution of serine for cysteine at position 1564 of the alpha-5 chain of that type of this protein leads to a severe form of Alport Syndrome * laminins, type IV of this protein forms a two-dimensional mesh in the basal lamina. This protein primarily consists of a triple helix of Gly-X-Y repeats * typically proline and hydroxyproline. Type I of this protein is secreted by chondrocytes and osteoblasts, and is mineralized to form bone matrix * most abundant protein in the human body, whose high tensile strength makes it ideal in tendons and skin. * resulting from mutations in this protein causes destruction of small blood vessels in the kidneys and is called Alport Syndrome. It possesses repeating Glycine-X-Y motifs with the glycine facing the inside * Mutations in one type of this substance cause osteogenesis imperfecta, and its synthesis is inhibited by a low intake of Vitamin C, leading to scurvy * variety of this protein that appears primarily in interstitial tissue is associated with Ulrich myopathy, and mutation in a gene for its synthesis results in Alport syndrome * colored dark blue or green by Masson's trichrome stain * Peticchiae and gum bleeding in scurvy occur because vitamin (*) C helps synthesize this protein by hydroxylating certain amino acids. * mineralized in the formation of bone, contains high levels of hydroxyproline and proline in its triple-helical structure. The most abundant mammalian protein is, for 10 points, what connective protein found in teeth, bone, and skin? * biosynthesis of one type of it involves binding by the chaperone protein Hsp47, and it stains blue in Masson's trichrome stain * Auto-antibodies bind to the alpha-three chains of the type four of it, and mutations that alter the C-terminal globular domain of certain type-IV-alpha chains can lead to Alport's syndrome * unusually high percentage of the amino acids glycine and proline, it can be denatured to form gelatin * elastin * Brodsky and Berman determined this chemical's structure, which includes a sheath of stabilizing ordered water molecules * dearth of cysteine residues, cross-linking of occurs near the N- and C-termini between lysine and histidine residues with the aid of lysyl oxidase * Ascorbate is dietarily necessary because it is needed by the enzyme prolyl hydroxylase, which forms one of this molecule's prevalent residues. * thirty distinct chains assembled into at least nineteen different varieties, the most common residue sequence is glycine-proline-hydroxyproline * triple-helical protein, the most abundant in vertebrates, that provides tensile strength in tissues like tendon, teeth, and bone

AMINES

* reaction forms these compounds by reacting a carboxylic acid with hydrazoic acid in the presence of a protic catalyst. * reaction, this functionality is added beta to a carbonyl carbon with the assistance of an activated formaldehyde molecule * Schmidt and Mannich reactions. Carbonyls are converted to an intermediate that is reduced to these compounds using sodium cyanoborohydride in their namesake (*) "reductive" synthesis * silver oxide, water, and heat removes this functional group and leaves behind an alkene in the Hofmann elimination * synthesized via the Gabriel synthesis, often have a fishy smell. For 10 points, name these compounds that contain one or more alkyl or aryl groups around a basic nitrogen atom

VITAMIN C

* red blood cells, SVCT2 is involved in the transport of this molecule * Primates need to eat this nutrient because they are missing the GULO [goo-loe] enzyme * nutrient is necessary in the formation of tendons because this oxidizes proline [PROE-leen] to create collagen * muscle pain, gum disease, and weak scar tissue * vitamin is also known as ascorbic [uh-SKOR-bik] acid, and a lack of this causes scurvy. Name this vitamin concentrated in berries and citrus fruit. * glucose, an oxidized form of this molecule is transported by the GLUT1 and GLUT3 proteins * blocks some effects of hydrogen peroxide, it reduces the risk of cancer * iron intake and acts as a cofactor in the conversion of dopamine to norepinephrine. The inability of collagen to fulfill its function leads to a condition resulting from the lack of this molecule, and Linus Pauling encouraged megadoses of this vitamin to fight the common cold * name this vitamin that is found in oranges and was used by pirates to fight scurvy. * acts in tandem with glutathione in chloroplasts to break down peroxides * molecule is present in the chromaffin cells of the adrenal glands, where it acts as a cofactor for the synthesis of norephinephrine * reduces iron-III to iron-II in an enzyme required in the synthesis of collagen. The deficiency of this vitamin causes a disease often characterized by gum disease and purple patches on the skin * Pauling advocated the taking of high doses of this antioxidant to prevent diseases such as the common cold

HEMOGLOBIN

* stabilized by a histidine residue in its F alpha helix chain, and BPG interacts with this protein to stabilize its T state. * central atom of a molecule in this protein is usually coordinated to a histidine residue and not in plane, but the central atom moves in plane when its sixth coordination site is occupied * Defects in its production causes (*) thalassemia (THAL-uh-see-me-uh). The breakdown of this protein produces bilirubin (BILL-ee-rue-ben) as a byproduct * drop in environmental pH causes a decrease in its binding affinity according to the Bohr effect * porphyrin (POOR-fur-in) ring coordinated to a central iron atom is in each of this protein's four subunits * binds oxygen using heme * color of Riftia plumes comes from several complex variants of this protein * Aymara, Tibetans show a less severe reaction norm of this protein to altitude. * difference in magnetic susceptibility between two forms of this protein is responsible for the BOLD signalling used in fMRI imaging * Portland and Gower forms of this protein are found in embryos * 2,3-PBG allosterically causes this protein to release its substrate, and a decrease in pH reduces the binding affinity of this protein with its main substrate according to the Bohr effect. * two alpha and two beta subunits bind cofactors consisting of porphyrins bound to a ferrous ion * replacement of glutamate by valine in this molecular causes sickle-cell anemia * iron-containing protein that carries oxygen in red blood cells. * variant of this molecule is called D-Punjab and is notably prevalent among Uyghurs * variant of this molecule has fusion chains due to meiotic (my-AH-tick) crossover with the delta region * allosteric regulator of this molecule is created by a mutase which catalyzes a shunt from the payoff phase of glycolysis * bound to a ligand, it shifts between its R and T conformation by moving the plane of its central (*) ion to encourage association. * 2,3-bis-phospho-glycerate allosterically regulates this molecule * two hundred times the affinity for a toxic gas than it does for its usual ligand, resulting in a cherry red form characteristic of carbon monoxide poisoning * contains four porphyrin rings bound to iron. For 10 points, name this blood protein with alpha and beta subunits that carries oxygen in red blood cells. * quantified using Drabkin's reagent * Lepore form is associated with strokes and its Barts form contains only gamma subunits * subunits switch between the T state and R state upon substrate binding in a cooperative manner * carbamino form is formed by CO2 binding to its N-terminus * glutamic acid to valine substitution in the beta chain of this protein causes sickle-cell anemia * red blood cells which is responsible for carrying oxygen. * predisposition for strokes is caused by one variant of this protein named for Lepore * affected by pH in a phenomenon called the Bohr shift. A cofactor to this protein consists of a porphyrin ring bound to an (*) iron atom * affected cells burst when infected with Plasmodium, possessing exactly one defective gene for this protein confers resistance to malaria, and is known as sickle-cell trait * Carbon monoxide inhalation can cause suffocation because this protein's affinity for that compound is higher than its affinity for oxygen * BPG allosterically induces this protein to unbind from its primary ligand, which is incorporated into one of four octahedral complexes, and which has a sigmoidal binding curve due to cooperative binding * unusual pigmentation of jaundice patients is due to bilirubin, produced when this protein is catabolized * pathological glutamic acid-to-valine point mutation in the sixth residue of this protein's porphyrin-containing beta-globin * cells that transport it are deformed into a sickle shape, resulting in a form of anemia * oxygen in the blood. * most notable function sees the four polypeptide chains which compose it rearrange. A reduced production of this protein's alpha or beta side chains leads to Thalassemia, a defect in the synthesis of this protein * Bohr Effect states that the binding affinity of this protein is inversely related to both the concentration and the acidity of carbon dioxide, and an iron atom lies in the center of this protein's porphyrin ring * mutation in the gene for this protein can cause sickle cell anemia. For 10 points, name this protein found in red blood cells that is used to transport oxygen throughout the body. * structure can be made more rigid with 2,3-diphosphoglycerate * Fetal versions of this protein contain a serine-143 instead of a histidine-143 that increases this protein's efficiency * valine-tyrosine bond in this protein's Helix E and Helix F regions causes a conformation change. * diminished function in acidic conditions is known as the Bohr effect. * abnormally high pKa value when an ion pair is generated between a histidine and an aspartic acid residue, which occurs when the proton concentration around this protein is high * Hill equation was originally developed by studying cooperative binding of this protein, which causes it to transition from the tense T state to the relaxed R state * alpha two, beta two tetramer in adult humans, and heterozygotes for a condition afflicting this proteins have an advantage in malaria ridden areas * four porphyrin rings, each of which contains a Fe2+ ("f-e-2 plus") ion. For 10 points, name this protein which can carry both carbon monoxide and oxygen. * Lepore form of this protein is linked to silent strokes * improperly oxidized in children who ingest nitrates. The Bart form of this molecule is present in hydrops fetalis. * switches its subunits between the taut form and relaxed form in response to the allosteric regulator 2,3-BPG * CO2 can bind to its N-terminus, and a mutation in this tetrameric protein's beta chain causes it to aggregate. That mutation is a glutamate to valine substitution, which causes sickle cell anemia * porphyrin prosthetic group with a central iron atom. For 10 points, name this oxygen-carrying protein that gives blood its color. * activity is regulated by 2, 3 bisphosphoglycerate levels. * Plasmepsins are protein produced by Plasmodium that degrade this molecule. * bind to its most common substrate decreases with pH levels according to the Bohr effect. * replacement of glutamic acid with valine in this protein. The alpha form of this protein was translocated onto chromosome 16, and its beta forms are located on chromosome 11. * specific variants of this protein are often named after the geographic location in which they are discovered, its variants include Yakima and Kansas, each of which lacks a hydrogen bond that stabilizes one of its two stable quaternary states * Adair and Hill equations are generally used for any enzyme, they were developed in studies of this protein * Max Perutz discovered the structure of this protein. A glutamate to valine mutation in this protein leads to its S variant, found in sickle-cell anemia * higher affinity for carbon monoxide than its more biologically necessary substrate. For 10 points, name this protein that binds to up to four oxygen molecules and carries it through the bloodstream * affinity for certain substrates is decreased by 2,3-biphospho-glycerate, a result exacerbated by acidic environments in effect named for Bohr. The Gower type of this protein is found in embryos * mutation in this protein occurs when glutamic acid is replaced by valine. This protein's structure consists of a porphyrin ring with a central metal atom. * Perutz proposed the mechanism for the action of this protein regulated by the compound 2-3 BPG. * central active site of this protein contains a ring structure called a porphyrin which has a central iron atom. Carbon monoxide is toxic because of its ability to bind to this protein * causes sickle cell anemia * transport oxygen. * Haldane effect, and the A1C type of this molecule is used in monitoring the blood sugar levels of diabetics * molecule performs a function similar to that of this protein in the muscles, rather than in the location associated with this protein, and variants of this protein are responsible for sickle-cell anemia * prosthetic group is synthesized in a pathway that includes 5-aminolevulinic acid as an intermediate * 2,3-Bisphosphoglycerate alters its binding ability, but has less interaction with a version of this protein using zeta and epsilon chains * form is found in the embryo, and separate versions of this protein are expressed in the fetus and in adult * glutamic acid at position six of this protein is changed to a valine, a disorder that results in increased malarial resistance occurs * tetramer, and defects in this protein yield thalassemia and sickle cell anemia. For 10 points, name this protein in red blood cells that transports oxygen. * allosteric change in this protein is the Monod, Wyman, and Changeux model. The Koshland, Nemethy, and Filmer model states that one subunit's change in the structure of this protein promotes conformotional state changes in adjacent subunits * fluctuates between T and R states. 2,3-bi-phospho- glycerate and inositol hexa-phosphate act to promote the disassociation between this protein and the molecule that it most commonly binds to * carbamation of its N-terminal amino groups allows this protein to carry carbon dioxide. For 10 points, name this iron-containing protein found in red blood cells, responsible for carrying oxygen * salvaged from special cells that carry it by transferrins and is often processed by the body into bilirubin * muscle tissue, to this protein is known as myoglobin. * biconcave disk shaped cells without a nucleus, the substitution of valine for glutamic acid in the production of this protein causes sickle cell anemia * fetuses this molecule does not bind to 2,3-diphosphoglycerate, or DPG, due to its lack of beta subunits, and this molecule is subject to the Bohr effect and the Haldane effect. * thalassemia produce an abnormal form of this protein which is broken down to produce biliverdin and bilirubin in succession, and this protein contains an iron atom in the center of each of its four porphyrin rings * affinity of this protein for its substrate is decreased * substrate to quickly bind its three other subunits. Its affinity for a competitive inhibitor is described by the Haldane effect, and delta-ALA synthase catalyzes the rate-limiting step of the biosynthesis of its metal cofactor * "Barts" variant is a result of gene deletion in infants, and usually results in death from hydrops fetalis. * salvaged by transferrins and reprocessed to form bilirubin. Like chlorophyll, this protein is a chelate * A type is normal and the F type is found in developing fetuses, while another type found almost exclusively in groups of African descent contains a mutation in the beta chain * S, causes sickle-cell anemia. Found in erythrocytes and synthesized in the bone marrow, it consists of four heme subunits, each bound to one atom of iron * Perutz showed that this molecule is formed of four polypeptide chains that rearrange during its most important function * recessive disease Thalassemia results in a defective version of the alpha or beta version of this molecule

CHOLESTEROL

* synthesis recognize the sequence TCACNCCAC those transcription factors are activated when high levels of this compound are detected by SCAPs * toxin streptolysin O works by binding to this compound * Type C Niemann-Pick disease is typically diag- nosed by filipin staining to detect the presence of this compound. * fungal analogue can be removed from cells by nystatin, amphotericin B, or methyl-beta-cyclodextrin. * enzymes DHCR7 and CYP51 catalyze the biosynthesis of this compound, which is regulated by the transcription factor SREBP-2 * Macrophages which have ingested large amounts of this compound turn into foam cells * starting point for the synthesis of bile acids in the liver * HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors. * lowered by statins * transported by another compound, which contains apoprotein B100 * HMG-CoA is reduced to mevalonate, and this compound is formed from squalene. * derived from it include Vitamin D, cortisol, (*) estrogen, and testosterone. * cell membrane fluid. Levels of it are lowered by statins * cell membrane fluid. Levels of it are lowered by statins * buildup on the walls of arteries can cause atherosclerosis, which leads to heart attacks. * precursor to steroid hormones and is transported by HDL and LDL. * elevated in the blood can be caused by mutations in P-C-S-K-nine and commonly causes xanthelasma palpebrarum * S-CAP detects low levels of this substance and binds to S-R-E-B-Ps to stimulate biosynthesis of this substance * substance are commonly given with co-enzyme Q-ten to prevent myopathy. In one disease that stems from the accumulation of this substance, macrophages called (*) "foam cells" * I-P-P results from the decarboxylation of mevalonate (meh-VAL-oh-nate) in the biosynthesis of this substance the rate limiting step of that biosynthesis is catalyzed by H-M-G-Co-A reductase * inhibited by statins. For 10 points, name this lipid used in animal cell membranes and as a precursor to steroid hormones. * accumulates in the bodies of patients whose receptors for this substance's carriers are unable to recognize apoprotein B100. * synthesis of this substance target HMG-CoA reductase, which catalyzes the formation of mevalonate. * derivative of squalene is a precursor of estrogens, androgens, and other steroid hormones * molecule maintains the fluidity of the plasma membrane at low temperatures * High levels of this compound can build up in arteries and form plaques, leading to myocardial infarctions and strokes. * "good" and "bad" kinds are carried by HDLs and LDLs, respectively. * synthesis of Sonic hedgehog, this compound is added post-translationally to the N-terminus. ABCA1 transports this compound out of cells and is defective in Tangier disease * high cellular levels of this compound, SCAP binds to SREBPs, transcription factors that activate its synthesis * Receptor-mediated endocytosis of this compound requires ApoB to bind its receptor. * Lipid rafts mostly contain sphingolipids and this compound * rate-limiting step of its biosynthesis is the reduction of HMG-CoA to mevalonate * step can be inhibited by statins like Lipitor. Bile acids and vitamin D are formed from this compound. For 10 points, name this compound which normally maintains the fluidity of the cell membrane, but clogs arteries in atherosclerosis * Levels of this molecule in the liver are reduced by HMG CoA [koh-ay] reductase inhibitors, better known as statins. * transported through the circulatory system by lipoproteins, is a precursor of vitamin D and estrogen * build-up of this waxy substance can cause (*) atherosclerosis, the hardening of arteries. For 10 points, name this modified steroid molecule whose LDL, or low-density, form is known as its "bad" type for its role in heart disease. * PCSK9 targets molecules of this for destruction, and Goldstein and Brown identified a Mendelian disorder in which individual died as a result of high levels of this * Bile acid binders can be used to treat that disease, as this compound is a precursor of bile acid * structural component of cell membranes and a precursor to vitamin D. HDL is known as the "good" type of this, while LDL is known to cause heart disease. * compound is hydroxylated twice prior to reacting with HSD3B7 in the beginning of an "acidic pathway" which converts it to CDCA. * precursor to glucocorticoids and estrogens, and the synthesis of this compound is regulated by SREBPs * decrease in Coenzyme (*) Q is a side effect of a class of drugs that reduces this compound's synthesis by inhibiting HMG Co-A Reductases * statins. This compound maintains fluidity of the plasma membrane at extreme temperatures. * transported by the lipoproteins LDL and HDL, which are called its "bad" and "good" types. * Squaline epoxidase and prenyl transferase are two enzymes involved in the synthesis of this substance, which is upregulated by SREBP. * synthesis of vitamin D * binds to Glycine 257 of Hedgehog protein to activate it, and this compound's production is modulated by class 2 SREBP transcription factors * precursor to this molecule is synthesized by the epoxidification of squalene. * drop in coenzyme q 10 levels, and those drugs inhibit HMG CoA reductases * starting material for the synthesis of aldosterone and other steroid hormones. Building up of this material along arterial walls can cause atherosclerosis * converted to Vitamin D in the presence of ultraviolet-B light. * ABCA1 and ABCG1 are responsible for pumping excesses of this compound into the bloodstream, and Type C Niemann-Pick disease results in this compound building up in lysosomes * INSIG-1 binding to SCAP is responsible for down-regulating the biosynthesis of this molecule, which is regulated by SREBP-dependent transcription. * Esters of this compound are commonly transported by an ApoB100-containing complex, and it can also be transported by chylomicrons * condensation of acetoacetyl-CoA with acetyl-CoA, which is catalyzed by HMG-CoA synthase, and the step catalyzed by HMG-CoA reductase is inhibited by statins * 4 fused rings, is the precursor for all steroid hormones and bile salts, and regulates membrane fluidity. HDL and LDL are the "good" and "bad" kinds of, for 10 points, this common 27-carbon lipid. * HMG-CoA reductase * production of mevalonate * converted to activated isoprenes * isoprenes are condensed into squalene, which is then cyclized to form this compound * Mineralocorticoid hormones like aldosterone are synthesized from this compound * concentration in the bloodstream is lowered by (*) statins * degraded by PCSK9, contains three EGF-like domains sandwiched around a beta-propeller domain. The gene for that receptor is activated by the bHLH fragment of SREBP. * Endocytosis of this molecule can induce macrophages to become foam cell * modification of apoprotein B-100. * Ezitimibe is one drug that reduces the amount of this molecule in the body * more effective when used with HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors, or statin * mutation in the enzyme catalyzing the final step of its biosynthesis gives rise to Smith-Lemli-Opitz syndrome, while its presence in plasma is measured by the Lieberman-Burchard test * SREBP transcription factors are regulated by this molecule. One step of its biosynthesis sees the creation of a certain 2,3-epoxide, which then cyclizes, and it is sometimes stored in chylomicrons * Farnesyl pyrophosphate and squalene are intermediates in that process and that pathway begins with the condensation of three acetyl coAs to yield HMG-CoA, which is reduced to mevalonate. * last step in this compound's synthesis is the demethylation (DEE-meth-uh-LAY-shun) of lanosterol * rate-determining step of this compound's synthesis is determined by HMG-CoA ("H"-"M"-"G" co-"A") reductase activity. * 14-demethylation of lanosterol, but its synthesis begins by proceeding through the mevalonate pathway, and squalene is one of its close precursors, like all steroids * Rab9 is hyperactive in NPC1-deficient cells to ensure transport of this molecule * bile acids and Vitamin D. * Crystals of this molecule form during atherosclerosis, * Karolinska Institute identified 37 genes associated with this compound * mevalonate pathway for its synthesis is targeted by HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors, also known as statins, which are used to lower its quantity in humans

AMINO ACIDS

* tRNA is so named because it transfer these compounds to the ribosome * these molecules containing a selenol group is created via unique synthetic mechanisms, and serotonin is derived from another of these molecules * end of these molecules can deprotonate the other at moderate pH values, so they are classified as zwitterions * translation, these molecules are carried by transfer RNA * amine and carboxylic acid groups, and form peptide bonds. For 10 points, name these organic molecules that form proteins. * Aldehydes can be treated with cyanide and ammonia, then with an acid, in one method of synthesizing these molecules * molecules cannot be processed in a genetic disorder, leading to musty-smelling urine in a condition called PKU * tRNA before it enters the ribosome. These zwitterions possess a variable side chain and a carboxylic acid functional group * connected to each other via peptide bonds, and examples of these molecules include alanine, tryptophan, and tyrosine. * nitrogen-containing class of molecules that form the building blocks of proteins. * GABA [GAB-uh] is a gamma-type of this class of organic molecules, which were the most complex products of the Miller-Urey experiment. * substitution of a polar one of these with valine in hemoglobin causes sickle-cell disease, and these molecules can be linked by disulfide bridges and (*) peptide bonds. * molecules are represented by codons and joined together during translation at the ribosome * name this group of 20 building blocks of proteins. * compounds can be formed in the Strecker Synthesis from ketones or aldehydes, and a Ramachandran plot can visualize dihedral angles that are formed between these compounds * compounds act as both an acid and a base, since they are examples of zwitterions. The simplest one of these compounds is glycine, and around twenty different forms of these compounds can be found in the human body, nine of which are considered as essential * Jacobsen rendered a reaction for synthesizing these compounds asymmetrically using a thiourea catalyst that binds the two reactants using hydrogen bonds. * enantioselective synthesis of these compounds uses an Evans oxazo-lidinone to direct the addition of an electrophilic azide species alpha to a carbonyl, then generates the product by reduction of the azide followed by peroxide cleavage of the auxiliary. * method of identifying these compounds reacts them with (*) phenyl-isothiocyanate. * synthesizing these compounds reacts an aldehyde with ammonia to create an iminium, which is then attacked by a cyanide anion that is converted to a carboxylic acid upon workup * dihedral angles of these compounds make up the axes of Ramachandran plot, and examples of them include glutamate. * peptide bonds, the building blocks of proteins. * hydrolyzed from the condensation of an aldehyde and ammonium chloride with potassium cyanide. Visualized on a Ramachandran Plot, these products of the Strecker Synthesis can contain sulfur, such as the one produced by the start codon AUG that is considered essential * carboxylic acid group and a namesake group, they form peptide bonds * methionine (me-THAY-uh-neen) and glycine (GLAHY-seen), for 10 points, name these "building blocks" of proteins. * dihedral angles between these compounds can be represented using a Ramachandran plot and they are bound to enzymes called aaRS * created in an experiment that passed sparks through a flask containing water, methane, ammonia and hydrogen and are represented by a three nucleotide long codon * dehydrogenase complex catalyzing the branched-chain type of these molecules is deficient, buildups of them occur in infants' urine, causing a smell similar to that of maple syrup * achiral member is glycine * compounds are synthesized from aldehydes or ketones in the Strecker synthesis * compounds' various conformations can be visualized with a Ramachandran plot * NH3+ group, a COO- group, and an R group * R group consisting only of a hydrogen atom, [*] glycine, and other examples of these compounds include arginine and tryptophan * divided into essential and nonessential groups, and they form peptide bonds with each other to form proteins * molecules are linked together via DCC in the Merrifield technique * psi and phi dihedral angles between these molecules are visualized on a Ramachandran plot. * Strecker synthesis can form them. The buildup of one of them at the blood-brain barrier causes the symptoms of phenylketonuria * body synthesizes the nonessential type of these molecules, which all have a central carbon bonded to an R group * Chorismate is an intermediate in the synthesis of the aromatic type of these molecules, which can be formed in a reaction that begins with aldehydes reacting with ammonia and hydrogen cyanide * organic chemistry reaction is the Strecker synthesis * phi and psi bond angles are displayed in a Ramachandran plo * compounds are zwitterions, meaning they can act as an acid or base. There are twenty standard ones, each differing in their R group, and examples of them include tryptophan and glycine * JAR1 protein conjugates one of these compounds to the phytohormone jasmonic acid * synthesis of one of them is coupled with purine synthesis and begins with a PRPP precursor that is converted to ACAIR * SECIS elements effect the synthesis of an unusual selenium containing example. The simplest one serves as an inhibitory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system. * Pyruvate, oxaloacetate, and alpha-ketoglutarate are all converted into these substances which have an NH3+ and a COO- group * twenty variants that make up the building blocks of proteins * failed breakdown of one of these compounds is characterized by musty-smelling urine and is known as PKU * sequence of these compounds is known as the "primary structure" of a certain kind of compound * phenylalanine and tryptophan, these compounds include glycine, whose R group attached to its central carbon atom is simply a hydrogen * linked in a reaction that uses protecting groups like the acetal TBS and the carbamate Boc to carry out a specific DCC coupling * reaction that forms and then hydrolyzes a nitrile using potassium cyanide and ammonia, which is named for Adolph Strecker * uncommon one uses selenium in the place of sulfur, while another is most often found in beta sheets, since its cyclic sidechain allows for sharp turns * react with reducing sugars in the Maillard reaction * formed using a cyanide nucleophile in the Strecker synthesis. A carboxyl group and a namesake nitrogen-containing group are found in these molecules, twenty of which are coded for in the human body