Biology AP Exam

cyclic electron flow

uses photosystem I. electrons cycle from ferredoxin to cytochrome complex to generate ATP (photosynthetic bacteria) grow well in low light. photoprotective

Quantitative Variation

usually indicates polygenic inheritance

inducible operon

usually off, but can be stimulated (induced) when a specific small molecule interacts with a regulatory protein (example lac operon)

proved oxygen comes from water

van niel

In 1950, Erwin Chargaff reported that DNA composition _____ from one species to the next. This evidence of _____ made DNA a more credible candidate for the _____.

varies, diversity, genetic material

organelles

various functional components that make up cells

quantitative characters

vary along continuum

stele

vascular culinder. cosists of vascular tissues surrounded by one or more layers of tissue called the paricycle, from which lateral roots arise

tracheophytes

vascular plants (seedless and with seeds) efficient transport system xylem and pholem for transport lignified transport vessels for support roots to absorb water and anchor leaves for surface area dominant sporophyte generation divided into seed bearing and non seed bearing

carbon chains form * of most organic molecules

skeletons

polar molecules

slowly

proteoglycans

small core protein with many carb chains

correpressor

small molecule that cooperates with repressor protein to switch operon off

first sign of cancer

small polyp, benign growth that divides unusually frequently

active transport enables a cell to maintain concentrations of

small solutes that differ from environment

spicules

small, spike shaped particles of calcium carbonate or silicon dioxide that make up the skeleton of some sponges

mycroplasmas

smallest cells known; bacteria. diameters between .1 and 1 micro meters

mitochondria's double membrane

smooth outer and folded inner of cristae

study of pop growth

snowshoe hare and lynx at Hudson bay company

major electrogenic pump in animal cells

sodium-potassium pump

dissolved

solute

when considering behaviour of cell in solution, consider

solute concentration and membrane permeability

most chemical reactions in organisms involve

solutes dissolved in water

dissolving

solvent

newborn screening

some genetic disorders can be detected at birth; simple tests that are now routinely performed in most hospitals in the United States

introducing new species

sometimes to attempt to solve a problem but makes worse

another source of diversity of simple sugars

spatial arrangement around asymmetric carbons

choanocytes

specialized cell in sponges that uses a flagellum to move a steady current of water through the sponge

Gametes

specialized cells involved in sexual reproduction

glyoxysomes

specialized peroxisomes in fat-storing tissues of plant seeds that initiate the conversion of fatty acids to sugar

statoliths

specialized plastids containing dense starch grains, that let plants know up from down.

adventitious roots

specialized roots that grow from uncommon places, such as stems and leaves to the ground and serve for structural support

polygynous species

species in which large males are selected for based on their ability to out-compete smaller males (uses sexual selection, not natural selection)

old testament

species individually designed by god and perfect

components of species diversity

species richness, relative abundance

diversity of life

species, genus, family, order, class, phylum, kingdom, domain

ion channels

specific channels for each ion; respond to stretching of cell membrane,electrical signals, or chemicals

histone code hypothesis

specific combinations of modifications, rather than the overall level of histone acetylation, help determine chromatin configuration, which in turn influences transcription

high levels of transcirption of particulat genes at approproate time and palce depend on interaction of control elements with

specific transcription factors

Cell division involves distribution of identical genetic material to two daughter cells except the division that produces

sperm and eggs

hydration shells

sphere of water molecules around each dissolved ion

prometaphase

spindle microtubules attach to kinetochores, these are called kinetochore microtubules. Nuclear envelope fragments. microtubules attach to kinetochores.

diatoms and yeasts

spindle within nucleus separates chromosomes

plant adaptations

spines, thorns, poisons (strychnine, mescaline, morphine, nicotine)

freeze-fracture

splits membrane along middle of bilayer

porifera

sponges; sessile animals that lack true tissues; suspension feeders, trap particles that pass through the interal channels of their bodies

metastasis

spread of cancer cells to locations distant from their original site

colloid

stable solution of fine particles in liquid

S phase

stage of interphase in which DNA is replicated

G2 phase

stage of interphase in which cell duplicates its cytosol and organelles. Chromosomes not condensed

G1 phase

stage of interphase in which cell grows and performs its normal functions.

carbs stored as

starch

plants store *, a polymer of * monomers,a s * within * known as *, which includes *

starch, glucose, granules, cellular structures, plastids, chloroplasts

reactants

starting matherials

cholesterol

steroid common in animal cell membranes

pores for gas

stomata

each NADH molecule represents

stored energy that can be used to make ATP

vascular bundles

strands of vascular tissue that run the length of the stem

at key steps, electrons are

stripped from glucose

chitin

structural polysachharide found in arthropods to build exoskeletons; also provides structural support for cell walls of fungi; similar to cellulose, but has nitrogen-containing appendage

centriole

structure that helps to form the spindle

cytology

study of cell structures

organic chemistry

study of compounds that contain carbon

paleontology

study of fossils. developed lartely by george cuvier

genetics

study of heredity and hereditary variation

ecology

study of interactions of organisms with their physical environment and with each other

atoms of various elements differ in number of

subatomic particles

eukaryotic cells

subdivided by internal membranes into various membrane-enclosed organelles

acid

substance that increases hydrogen ion concentration of solution

buffers

substances that minimize changes in concentrations of H+ and OH- in a solution

secondary succession

succession on a site where an existing community has been disrupted

ketose

sugar containing a ketone C=O in the carbon skeleton

Calvin cycle

sugar from CO2 using ATP and NADPH. Carbon fixation, reduction, rubp regeneration

structure and function of polysaccharide determined by

sugar molecules and positions of glucosidic linkages

glycolysis

sugar splitting. glucose split into two three-carbon sugars and then pyruvate

carbohydrates

sugars and polymers of sugars

molecular mass

sum of masses of atoms in molecule

mass number

sum of protons plus neutrons

energy flows into an ecosystem as * and leaves as *

sunlight, heat

strata

superimposed layers of rock

lignin

support

cell walls

support shape

ground tissue functions in

support, storage, photosynthesis

biggest plant probs on land

supporting body and absorbing and conserving water

cristae create

surface area

integrins

surface recepter proteins with two subunits. bind to microfilaments and fibronectin. Transmit signals between ECM and cytoskeleton

SEM

surface; coated with gold. depth

average heterozygosity estimated by

surveying protein products of genes using gel electrophoresis (cannot detect silent mutations)

hypothesis gains credibility by

surviving attempts to falsifying it while testing eliminates alternate hypotheses

repressor

switches off operator. bonds to operator and blocks attachment of rna pollymerase to promoter

many herbivores have * with these microbes

symbiotic relationships

functions of endomembrane

synthesis and transfer of proteins, metabolism and movement of lipids, detoxification of poisons

naming and classifying species

taxonomy

organ system

team of organs that cooperate in a specific function

(Vocabulary) An enzyme that catalyzes the lengthening of telomeres in eukaryotic germ cells.

telomerase

in many malignant tumors, the gene for - is activated

telomerase

(Vocabulary) The tandemly repetitive DNA at the end of a eukaryotic chromosome's DNA molecule that protects the organism's genes from being eroded during successive rounds of replication. See also repetitive DNA.

telomeres

Eukaryotic chromosomal DNA molecules have at their ends nucleotide sequences called _____ .

telomeres

hypothesis

tentative answer to well-framed question; educated guess based on experience and data from discovery science

fossil record can be used to

test hypotheses

hypothesis must be

testable and falsifiable

in molecules with multiple carbons, each carbon bonded to four others has a

tetrahedral shape

makes large, complex molecules possible

tetravalence

example or enantiomer

thalidomide

cell-cell recognition

the ability of a cell to distinguish one type of neighboring cell from another is crucial to the functioning of an organism; embryo cell sorting and immune system. short carbs

deuterostome coelomates

the anus develops first in the digestive tract (echinoderms and chordates)

stigma

the apical end of the style where deposited pollen enters the pistil

cytosol

the aqueous part of the cytoplasm within which various particles and organelles are suspended

histone acetylation

the attachment of acetyl groups (-COCH3) to lysines of histone proteins, neutralizing the histone tails, the chromatin becomes less compact, and the DNA is accessible for transcription

electronegativity

the attraction of a particular kind of atom for the electrons of a covalent bond

chemical bonds

the attractive forces that hold atoms together

ethology

the branch of zoology that studies the behavior of animals in their natural habitats

cell ultrastructure

the cellular anatomy revealed by an electron microscope

Centromere

the centralized region joining two sister chromatids. Part of the chromatid on either side is arm

pith

the choicest or most essential or most vital part of some idea or experience, soft spongelike central cylinder of the stems of most flowering plants

carbon cycle

the circulation and reutilization of carbon atoms especially via the process of photosynthesis and respiration.

nitrogen cycle

the circulation of nitrogen nitrates from the soil are absorbed by plants which are eaten by animals that die and decay returning the nitrogen back to the soil

learning

the cognitive process of acquiring skill or knowledge

genome

the complete complement of an organism's genes; an organisms genetic material.

Chromatin

the complex of DNA and proteins that makes up a eurokaryotic chromosome. When the cell is not dividing, chromatin exists as a mass of very long, thing fibers that are not visible with a light microscope.Complex of DNA and associated protein molecules

water cycle

the continuous cycle of the transfer of water through an ecosystem, which involves evaporation, transpiration, condensation, and precipitation

the chemical behavior of an atom is determined by

the distribution of electrons in the atom's electron shells

cytokinesis

the division of the cytoplasm to form two seperate daughter cells immediately after mitosis.

action spectrum

the efficiency with which electromagnetic radiation produces a photochemical reaction plotted as a function of the wavelength of the radiation

transpiration

the emission of water vapor from the leaves of plants

Cleavage Furrow

the first sign of cleavage in an animal cell; a shallow groove in the cell surface near the old metaphase plate.

the transfer of an electron is not

the formatino fo a bond

F1 Generation

the hybrid offspring of the P generation; 1st familial generation

endoderm

the inner germ layer that develops into the lining of the digestive and respiratory systems

cortex

the layer of unmyelinated neurons (the gray matter) forming the cortex of the cerebrum

vertical stratification

the layering of an ecosystem into bands based upon depth or elevation

for any character, the observed dominant/recessive relationship of alleles depends on

the level at which we examine phenotype

mesoderm

the middle germ layer that develops into muscle and bone and cartilage and blood and connective tissue

Incomplete Dominance

the phenotype of F1 hybrids is somewhere between the phenotypes of the two parental varieties; example flowers of heterozygotes have less pigment then homozygotes

epicotyl

the portion of the stem of a plant embryo that is between the cotyledons and the first true leaves

the reactivity of atoms rises from

the presence of unpaired electrons in one or more orbitals of their valence shells

exocytosis

the process by which a substance is released from the cell through a vesicle that transports the substance to the cell surface and then fuses with the membrane to let the substance out

imprinting

the process by which certain animals form attachments during a critical period very early in life

hybridization

the process of mating two contrasting, true-breeding varieties

altruism

the quality of unselfish concern for the welfare of others

photoperiod

the response in animals and plants to the length of the day and night

systematics

the science of systematic classification

absorption spectrum

the spectrum of electromagnetic radiation that has passed through a medium that absorbed radiation of certain wavelengths

sporophyte

the spore-producing individual or phase in the life cycle of a plant having alternation of generations. multicellular diploid stage

anaphase

the stage of meiosis or mitosis when chromosomes move toward opposite ends of the nuclear spindle. Shortest stage. Begins when cohesin proteins are cleaved. Cell elongates as nonkinetochore microtubules lengthen

cohesion

the state of cohering or sticking together

transcription unit

the stretch of DNA that is transcribed into an RNA molecule

genetics

the study of inheritance

P Generation

the true-breeding parents

Concept #4: The law of segregation

the two alleles for heritable character separate (segregate) during gamete formation and end up in different gametes.

imbibition

the uptake of water due to the low water potential of the dry seed

placenta

the vascular structure in the uterus of most mammals providing oxygen and nutrients for and transferring wastes from the developing fetus

organic compounds posses potential energy as a result of

their arrangement of atoms

Concept #3: If the two alleles at a locus differ:

then the dominant allele determines the organisms appearance; the recessive allele has no noticeable effect on the organism's appearance

short-day plants

these plants flower when nights are LONGER than a critical length

long-day plants

these plants flower when nights are SHORTER than a critical length

chromosomes named because

they take up dyes

paramecium

thick outer layer (pellicle), cilia, macronuclus, micronuclei, vacuoles

sclerenchymal cells

thick primary and secondary cell walls fortified with lignin. for support fibers and sclereids

gizzard

thick-walled muscular pouch below the crop in many birds and reptiles for grinding food

microtubules

thickest fiber. hollow and consist of 13 colums of tubulin molecules (alpha and beta tubulin). diameter of 25 nm. maintains shape (girders), cell motility (cilia and flagella), chromosome and organelle movements. made of dimers, with two subunits

root cap

thimble-shaped mass of cells covering and protecting the growing tip of a root

primary cell wall

thin and flexible

tEM

thin section. electromagnet lenses

fibrils

thread or a structure or object resembling a thread

pyruvate broken down to

three CO2 molecules

enters biosphere

through plants

chlorophyll in * membrane

thylakoid

chloroplast structure

thylakoids (membranous sacs) stacked into grana, stroma the fluid. three compartments. Intermembrane space, stroma, and thylakoid space

natural selection depends on

time and place

outcome of determination is marked by expressino of genes for

tissue-specific proteins

differences between cilia and flagella

tlagella are longer, have different beating patterns. flagellum undulates in same direction as axis. cilia work more like oars. perpendicular to cilia's axis

multiplication rule

to determine probability, multiply probability of one event by another

Test Cross allows

to determine the genotype of an organism with the dominant phenotype, but unknown genotype

anchorage dependence

to divide, must be attached to substratum, such as inside of jar or ECM

science form verb meaning

to know

Gene for pigment is epistatic

to the gene for color

(Vocabulary) A protein that breaks, swivels, and rejoins DNA strands. During DNA replication, topoisomerase helps to relieve strain in the double helix ahead of the replication fork.

topoisomerase

heat

total kinetic energy

atomic mass

total mass of the atom; mass number is approximation

size

total number of individuals in population and represented by N

seedless vascular plants and gumnosperms have only

tracheids

xylem composed of two types of cells

tracheids and vessel elements. dead at functional maturity

angiosperms have

tracheids and vessel members

two X's on opposite sides

trans isomer

gene expression is often equated with

transcirption

repressible operon

transcription is usually on, but can be inhibited (repressed) when a specific small molecule binds allosterically to a regulatory protein (example tryptophan)

if PO ends up near especially active promoter

transcription may increase, making it an O

related RNA based mechanisms may also blcok

transcription of specific genes

common control point for gene expression

transcroption

gene flow

transfer of alleles into or out of a population die to movement of fertile individuals or gametes. tends to reduce genetic variation

pollination

transfer of pollen from the anther to the stigma of a plant

first step of light reactions

transfer ofelectron from reaction center chlorophyll a pair to primary electron acceptor

(Vocabulary) (1) The conversion of a normal animal cell to a cancerous cell. (2) A change in genotype and phenotype due to the assimilation of external DNA by a cell.

transformation

evaporation

transformation from liquid to gas

heredity

transmission of traits from one generation to the next

active transport

transport of a substance (as a protein or drug) across a cell membrane against the concentration gradient

passive transport

transport of a substance across a cell membrane by diffusion

six functions of proteins of PM

transport, enzymes, signal transduction, cell-cell recognition (glycoproteins), intercellular joining, attachement to cytoskeleton and ECM

history as

tree

random

trees

paramecium can eject

trichocysts

cell cycle control system

triggeres and coordinates key events in the cell cycle

sugars with 3

triose

most productive terrestiral ecosystems

tropical rain forests

benign tumor

tumor at original site. Do not usually cause serious problems

frozen desert

tundra

states of plant cell

turgid, flaccid, plasmolyzed

vacuoles create

turgor pressure

gram of fat stores more than * as much energy as a gram of polysaccharide

twice

ionic bond

two atoms are so unequal in their attraction for valence electrons that the more electronegative atoms strips an electron form its partner

dicots

two cotyledons, vascular bundles in a ring, netlike leaf venation, flowers in 4s or 5s, taproots

Codominance

two dominant alleles affect the phenotype to separate, distinguishable ways; example roan horse two hair colors

phospholipid

two fatty acids and a phosphate group attached to glycerol; hydrophilic head and hydrophobic tails

cross-pollination

two flowers as parents of the seed; result in hybrid offspring where the offspring may be different then the parents

most energy remains stockpiled in

two molecules of pyruvate

disaccharide

two monosaccharides joined by a glycosidic linkage (covalent bond between two monosaccharides by dehydration)

molecule

two or more atoms held together by covalent bonds

mullerian mimicry

two or more poisonous species resemble each other

competitive exclusion principle

two species cannot coexist in community if they share a niche (same resources)

bicoid

two-tailed. an embryo whose mother has a mutant bicoid gene lacks the front half of its body and has posterior structures at both ends

meiosis

type of cell division that creates gametes; cell divides twice to create four cells that are genetically unique

temperature at which membrane solidifies depends on

types of phospholipids

iron sulfur protein passes electrons to non protein hydrophobic

ubiquinone

cancer

uncontrolled cell division

goal of science

understand natural phenomena

evolution occurs as the * of individuals adapts the * to its *

unequal reproductive success; population; environment

lyell

uniformitarianism: mechanisms of change constant over time

gene

unit of inheritance that transmits info to offspring

water is

universal medium

hydrogenating veggie oils creates * with * * bonds

unsaturated fats with trans double bonds

In DNA replication, the parent molecule _____, and _____ are built based on based pairing rules.

unwinds, two new daughter strands

lamarack

use and disuse and inheritance of acquired characteristics

observation

use of senses to gather info

Reasons for Mendel's Success

used an experimental approach, applied mathematics to the study of natural phenomena, kept good records

DNA methylation

used for long-tern inactivation of genes (methylated bases)

example of batesian mimicry

viceroy butterfly and monarch

aristotle

viewed species as fixed. recognized affinities among organisms. scala naturae

visual signals

visual communication; such as fire flies' flashes that appeal only to males or females

membrane potential

voltage across a membrane

as a cell increases in size,

volume grows proportionally more than surface area

mammalia

warm-blooded vertebrates characterized by mammary glands in the female

oxidized

water

aqueous solution

water is solvent

hydroxide ion

water molecule that lost a proton

resolution inverse to

wavelength

cutin

waxy coating that prevents water loss

van der waals interactions

weak attractive forces from temporary dipoles

most important large biological molecules are held in their functional form by

weak bonds

ecosystems vary in NPP and

what they contribute to global NPP

sexual reproduciton

when 2 parents are involved in the reproduction of ofspring and each parent contributes genetic information which combines to make a genetically unique offspring and this involves the union of sex cells

plasmolysis

when a cell is in a hypertonic environment, the cell will lose water to its surroundings, shrink, and its plasma membrane will pull away from the wall

true breeding

when plants self-pollinate and all offspring are of the same variety

Complete Dominance

when the phenotypes of the heterozygote and dominant homozygote are identical

germ cells

where gametes are made

difference between fermentation and anaerobic respiration

whether or not ETC is used

measure genetic variation in population at

whole gene level (genetic variability) and molecular level (nucleotide variability)

vessel elements

wider, shorter, thinner walled, and less tapered than tracheids aligned wnd to end and ends are perforated to allow free flow through vessel tubes

unsaturated phospholipids increase during

winter

attempted to make inorganic salt

wohler

To elongate the other new strand, called the lagging strand, DNA polymerase must _____ in the direction _____ from the replication fork.

work, away

sex chromosomes

x and y

chiasma

x- shaped region

makes up wood

xylem

vascular tissue

xylem and phloem. transport water and nutrients *diagram

zone of differentiation

zone of primary growth in roots where cells complete their differentiation and become functionally mature

strength of hydrogen bond

1/20 of covalent

FADH2 has * less energy

1/3

* percent of energy converted to organic matter at next level

10

1 NADH results in * H+

10

eukaryotic cells

10-100 micro meters

kilocalorie

1000 cal

in any aqueous solution at 25 degrees, product of H+ and OH- is

10^-14

lateral movement occurs

10^7 times per second

identified about 1200 genes essential for pattern formation, * essential for normal segmentation

120

ultracentrifuge

130,000 revs per minute and 1,000,000 g

*% of colorectal cancers involve inherited mutations

15

viruses in *% of cancer

15

ex of founder effect

1814 british colonists ni islands and retinitis pigmentosa

origin of species published

1858

When did scientists start building molecular models of the membrane

1915

specific heat of water

1cal/g/ degree C

first oribital

1s spherical

citric acid cycle generates * ATP per glucose

2

no more than * electrons can occupy a single orbital

2

valence of O

2

energy yield from glycolysis per glucose molecule

2 ATP and 2 NADH

snidarians

2 basic body forms: 1)polyps: cylindrical, sessile, solitary or colonial, body opening faces away from substrate, may build external/internal skeleton, asexual/sexual 2)medusa: free-living, umbrella shaped, tentacles surround mouth, sexual -some exist only as polyps, some only as medusa, some alternate between the two phases

human cell expresses -% of genes at at time

20

proteins built from * kinds of amino acids

20

* of 92 elements are essential to life

25

diploid

2n

for each acetyl group, * NAD+ are reduced to NADH

3

how many types of survivorship curves

3

valence of N

3

each NADH contributes enough proton-motive force to generate

3 ATP

between * and * H+ make ATP

3 and 4

product of photosynthesis

3 carbon sugar

Cytosine and guanine form _____ hydrogen bonds. Adenine and thymine form _____ hydrogen bonds.

3, 2

DNA polymerases add nucleotides only to the free _____ end of a growing strand; therefore, a new DNA can elongate only in the _____ to _____ direction.

3, 5, 3

mutations in ras in *% of cancer

30

* species

300 K

Humans have been in exponential growth for

300 years

maximum ATP per glucose

36 or 38 ATP

for each glucose, cell makes up to * molecules of ATP

38, each with 7.3kcal

visible light

380-750

cortical microfilaments

3D network of microfilaments just inside plasma membrane that helps support cell shape. Gives outer cytoplasmic layer consistency of gel

HIV resistant to

3TC

orbital

3d space where an atoms is found 90% of the time

carbon has * valence electrons

4

valence of C

4

water densest at

4 degrees C

food chains never have more than * levels

4 or 5

variation

(biology) an organism that has characteristics resulting from chromosomal alteration

regeneration

(biology) growth anew of lost tissue or destroyed parts or organs

phylogeny

(biology) the sequence of events involved in the evolutionary development of a species or taxonomic group of organisms

ecological succession

(ecology) the gradual and orderly process of change in an ecosystem brought about by the progressive replacement of one community by another until a stable climax is established

nematodes

(round worms) round smooth body; have a tube within a tube body plan, separate mouth and anus; no circulatory system; some free living, some parasite

mollusca

(snails, clams, squids, octopuses) have a soft body that in many species is protected by a hard shell

free-energy change of electron transfer from NADH to oxygen

-53kcal/mol

free-energy change of glucose

-686kcal per mol

joule

.239 cal;

flagella.

.25 micrometers and 10-200 micrometers long

motile cilia

.25 micrometers and 2-20 micrometers long

valence of H

1

neutrons and protons have masses of

1 dalton

chromosome

1 long dna molecule with genes

mutation rates in plants and animals

1 per 100,000 genes per generation

most glucose monomers and starch are joined by

1-4 linkages

bacteria

1-5 micro meters

darwin's inferences

1. Individuals with the inherited traits will leave more offspring 2. It will lead to the accumulation of favorable traits

two main points in the origin of species

1. contemporary species from ancestors- "descent with modification". 2. Mechanism for descent with modification- natural selection

3 key developments for systems biology

1. high throughput technology, 2. bioinformatics (use of computational tools to store, organize, and analyze huge volumes of data), 3. inter-disciplinary research teams

led him to this

1. individuals vary in (heritable) traits; 2. population produces more offspring than can survive 3. competition inevitable 4. species suits the environment

systems strategy

1. inventory, 2. invesetigate relationships, 3. Pool data

each moleccules of FADH2 produces

1.5 to 2 atp

mass of proton and neutron

1.7*10^-24 g

phosphorylation of ADP to ATP stores * kcal per mole

7.3

pH of blood

7.4

cells *% water

70-95%

cycle had * steps, each catalyzed by a specific enzyme

8

fruit fly has * chromosomes

8

thickness of plasma membrane

8 nm

for synthesis of G3P, calvin cycle consumes

9 ATP and 6 NADPH

pattern of nonmotile cilia

9+0

oxidative phosphorylation accounts for almost * of ATP

90%

sodium-potassium pump

A carrier protein that uses ATP to actively transport sodium ions out of a cell and potassium ions into the cell

Diploid Cells

A cell containing two sets of chromosomes (2n), one set inherited from each parent.

leaf abscission

A change in the balance of auxin and ethylene controls leaf abscission, the process that occurs in autumn when a leaf falls

periodic table of the elements

A chart of the chemical elements, arranged in three rows, corresponding to the number of electron shells in their atoms

phylogenic tree

A chart showing evolutionary relationships as determined by phylogenic systematics. It contains a time component and implies ancestor-descendant relationships.

essential element

A chemical element required for an organism to survive, grow, and reproduce.

redox reactions

A chemical reaction involving the transfer of one or more electrons from one reactant to another; also called oxidation-reduction reaction.

Autosome

A chromosome that is not directly involved in determining sex, as opposed to the sex chromosomes

light-harvesting complex

A complex of proteins associated with pigment molecules (including chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, and carotenoids) that captures light energy and transfers it to reaction-center pigments in a photosystem.

thigmotropism

A directional growth of a plant in response to touch.

Gene

A discrete unit of hereditary information consisting of a specific nucleotide sequence in DNA (or RNA, in some viruses).

Gamete

A haploid egg or sperm cell; they unite during sexual reproduction to produce a diploid zygote.

Tay-Sachs disease

A human genetic disease caused by a recessive allele for a dysfunctional enzyme, leading to accumulation of certain lipids in the brain. Seizures, blindness, and degeneration of motor and mental performance usually become manifest a few months after birth., A genetic disease that principally affects those of Jewish ancestry, marked by an accumulation of certain fats in the brain and nerves resulting in brain damage, loss of sight and brain functions.

fragmentation

A means of asexual reproduction whereby a single parent breaks into parts that regenerate into whole new individuals.

double fertilization

A mechanism of fertilization in angiosperms, in which two sperm cells unite with two cells in the embryo sac to form the zygote and endosperm.

Asexual Reproduction

A type of reproduction involving only one parent that produces genetically identical offspring by budding or by the division of a single cell or the entire organism into two ore more parts.

The usual replication machinery for DNA proves no way to complete _____, so repeated rounds of replication produce _____.

5' ends, shorter DNA molecules

mutations in p53 in *% of cancer

50

evolved from algae * years ago

500 million

The rate of elongation is about _____ nucleotides per second in bacteria and _____ per second in human cells.

500, 50

product of fixation

6 carbon intermediate

biological fluids have pH

6-8

daltons in a gram

6.02 times 10^23

mole

6.02 times 10^23 (avogadro's number)

what happened in 1925

E. Gorter and F. Grendel reasoned that cell membranes must be phospholipid bilayers; tails protect from water while exposing heads to water

glycoproteins made in

ER

methanogens

Archaebacteria that live in anaerobic environments and produce methane as a by-product of their metabolic process

in step 2, * accepts electrons

FAD

found in at least half of inherited breast cancers

BRCA1 and BRCA2

nitrifying bacteria

Bacteria that change dissolved ammonia into nitrite compounds or nitrites into nitrate compounds.

nitrogen-fixing bacteria

Bacteria that convert nitrogen in the air into forms that can be used by plants and animals

building code that determines architecture of living molecules

C, H, O, N

monosaccharide molecular formula is multiple of

CH20

no * released during glycolysis

CO2

cyclic reactions of Pep can be though of

CO2 concentrating pump powered by ATP

carbon fixation

CO2 plus RUBP

Nurse demonstrated the crucial function of the protein kinase * in triggering mitosis at the * chrckpoint in one type of yeast

Cdc2, g2

Interphase

Cell grows, performs its normal functions, and prepares for division; consists of G1, S, and G2 phases. accounts for 90% of cell cycle. centrosome replicates.

amoebocytes

Cells that move using pseudopods and perform different functions in different animals

phytochemicals

Chemicals in plant-based foods that are not nutrients but that have effects on the body.

carotenoids

An accessory pigment, either yellow or orange, in the chloroplasts of plants. By absorbing wavelengths of light that chlorophyll cannot, carotenoids broaden the spectrum of colors that can drive photosynthesis. hydrocarbons. photoprotection

pseudocoelomates

An animal whose body cavity is lined by tissue derived from mesoderm and endoderm.

Mitotic Spindle

An assemblance of microtubules and associated proteins that is involved in the movements of chromosomes during mitosis. Begin to form during prophase. Polymerize by incorporating tubulin subunits and depolymerize by losing them

Metaphase Plate

An plane during metaphase in which the centromeres of all the duplicated chromosomes are located midway between the two poles.

ex of natural selection

DDT in flies from 1930 to 1960

Hereditary information is encoded in _____ and reproduced in all cells of the body.

DNA

_____, the substance of inheritance, is the most celebrated molecule of our time.

DNA

operator

DNA in operon that is the sqitch, controls access of rna polymerase to genes

(Vocabulary) A linking enzyme essential for DNA replication; catalyzes the covalent bonding of the 3' end of one DNA fragment (such as an Okazaki fragment) to the 5' end of another DNA fragment (such as a growing DNA chain).

DNA ligase

(Vocabulary) An enzyme that catalyzes the elongation of new DNA (for example, at a replication fork) by the addition of nucleotides to the 3' end of an existing chain. There are several different DNA polymerases; DNA polymerase III and DNA polymerase I play major roles in DNA replication in prokaryotes

DNA polymerases

platyhelminthes

Flatworms, flukes; first triploblasts and bilateria; acoelomates; can be parasitic; regeneration

hypothesis of evolutionary "deception" first proposed by

Henry Bates

First observed cell walls

Hooke

example of bottlenecking

Illinois prairie chickens

arthropoda

Insects, arachnids, crustaceans; segmented bodies; paired, jointed legs; chitinous exoskeleton; open circulatory system; dorsal heart

protons

Positively charged particles

Phenotype vs. Genotype

Purple (Homozygous) -> PP

Dominant Flower Color Gene

Purple; shows its trait whether its paired with a dominant or recessive

The initial nucleotide strand is a short _____ primer.

RNA

intermediary

RNA

An enzyme called primase can start a _____ from stretch and adds _____ one at a time using the parental DNA as template.

RNA chain, RNA nucleotides

Sister Chromatids

Replicated forms of a chromosome joined together by the centromere and eventually separated during mitosis or meiosis II. Each contains identical DNA molecules attached by cohesins through sister chromatid cohesion

vacuole

Membrane-bound space in the cytoplasm of cells used for the temporary storage of materials. Membrane-bound vesicles. carry out hydrolysis in plants and fungi

All offspring were purple

Mendel crossing contrasting, true-breeding white and purple flowered pea plants

Knew the parentage of offspring

Mendel removed the immature stamen and introduced pollen from select plants

Test Cross created by and for

Mendel to know the genetic composition of plants

The Rules of Probability Reflected by

Mendel's law of segregation and independent assortment

darwin's four observations

Observation #1: Members of a population often vary greatly in their traits Observation #2: Traits are inherited from parents to offspring Observation #3: All species are capable of producing more offspring than the environment can support Observation #4: Owing to lack of food or other resources, many of these offspring do not survive

thermophiles

Organisms that are found in conditions hot enough that most organisms cannot tolerate them.

decomposers

Organisms that break down wastes and dead organisms and return raw materials to the environment

Heterozygotes

Organisms that have two different alleles for the same trait

carrying capacity

K, limit to the number of individuals that can occupy one area at a particular time

Checkpoint

a critical control point where stop and go-ahead signals can regulate the cell cycle

Cell-cycle control system

a cyclically operating set of molecules in the cell that both triggers and coordinates key events in the cell cycle

circadian rhythm

a daily cycle of activity observed in many living organisms, the biological clock; regular bodily rhythms (for example, of temperature and wakefulness) that occur on a 24-hour cycle.

huntington's disease

a degenerative disease of he nervous system; has no obvious phenotypic effects untile about 35 to 40 years old

Genotype

a description of an organisms genetic makeup; usually shown in code; ex. T = tall, t = short, P = Purple, p = white

Phenotype

a description of an organisms physical appearance

cell plate

a double membrane across the midline of a dividing plant cell, between which the new cell wall forms during cytokinesis

pedigree

a family tree that describes the interrelationships of parents and children across generations; used to describe and trace inheritance patterns of particular traits; allows predictions to be made about offsprings.

ethylene

a flammable colorless gaseous alkene

notochord

a flexible rodlike structure that forms the supporting axis of the body in the lowest chordates and lowest vertebrates and in embryos of higher vertebrates

achondroplasia

a form of dwarfism tjhat is homozygous for the domiant allele; the allele is relatively rare, 1:25,000

st. jago

had sea level fallen

gametophyte

haploid

spores

haploid cells from sporophyte

each electron shell contains electrons at

a particular energy level, distribute among a specific number of orbitals of distinctive shapes and orientations

third hydroxyl group of a phospholipid is joined to

a phosphate group

indoleacetic acid

a plant hormone promoting elongation of stems and roots

photoperiodism

a plant's response to seasonal changes in length of night and day

Organism that is heterozygous for a particular gene

has a pair of alleles that are different for that gene, example Pp.

Organism that is homozygous for a particular gene

has a pair of identical alleles for that gene, exhibits true-breeding, example PP or pp

Rough ER

has ribosomes on outer surface (bound ribosmes). They secrete glycoproteins (proteins covalently bonded to carbs), distributes transport vesicles (proteins surrounded by membranes), is a membrane factory for the cell

triploblastic

has three germ layers: the ectoderm, endoderm, and mesoderm.

structural isomers

have different covalent arrangements

collenchymal cells

have unevenly thickened primary cell walls mature cells are alive support growing stem

polyandrous

having more than one husband at a time

three main parts of fly

head, thorax, abdomen

temperature

heat intensity; average kinetic energy

crop

a pouch in many birds and some lower animals that resembles a stomach for storage and preliminary maceration of food

peptidoglycan

a protein carbohydrate compound found in bacterial cell walls

cyclin-dependent kinase

a protein kinase that is active only when attached to a particular cyclin

activator

a protein that binds to DNA and stimulates transcription of a specific gene.

Growth Factor

a protein that must be present in the extracellular environment (culture medium or animal body) for the growth and normal development of certain types of cells

photon

a quantum of electromagnetic radiation

Cyclin

a regulatory protein whose concentration fluctuates cyclically

chorionic villus sampling (CVS)

a sample of the placenta is removed and tested

monomer

a simple compound whose molecules can join together to form polymers

Franklin's X-ray crystallographic images of DNA enabled Watson to deduce that DNA was _____.

helical

starch is a * polymer

helical

(Vocabulary) An enzyme that untwists the double helix of DNA at the replication forks, separating the two strands and making them available as template strands.

helicases

fitness of the environment

henderson highlights importance of water

cambridge buddy

henslow, botany professor

only * traits are useful in natutral selection

heritable

type 2

a species with death rate constant (hydra, reptiles, rodents)

climax community

a stable, mature community that undergoes little or no change in species over time

Metaphase

a stage of mitosis in the eukaryotic cell cycle in which condensed & highly coiled chromosomes, carrying genetic information, align in the middle of the cell before being separated into each of the two daughter cells

waggle dance

a symbolic form of communication used by honeybee foragers to communicate the location of a food source to their hivemates

plasma membrane

a thin membrane around the cytoplasm of a cell

Chromosomes

a threadlike, gene-carrying structure found in the nucleus. Each chromosome consists of one very long DNA molecule and assoicated protein.

aquaporins

a transport protein in the plasma membrane of a plant or animal cell that specifically facilitates the diffusion of water across the membrane 3 billion water molecules per second

cladogram

a tree diagram used to illustrate phylogenetic relationships

apoptosis

a type of cell death in which the cell uses specialized cellular machinery to kill itself

primary ecological succession

a type of ecological succession that occurs in a virtually lifeless ares, where there were originally no organisms and where soil has not yet formed

sexual reproduction

a type of reproduction in which two parents give rise to offspring that have unique combinations of genes inherited from the gametes of the two parents

tonicity

ability of solution to cause a cell to gain or lose water.

miller urey experiment

abiotic synthesis

roots and root hairs

absorb water and nutrients

water effective as heat bank because

absorbs large heat with little change in temperature

three functions of roots

absrob nutrients, anchor, store food

contrasts

accentuates differences

Concept #1: Alternative Versions of Genes

account for variations in inherited characters

negative feedback

accumulation of end product slows down process

pyruvate first converted to

acetyl CoA

most buffers

acid-base pairs which combine reversibly with H+

higher H+

acidic

pH less than 7

acidic

contraction of muscle results from

actin and myosin sliding past one another

microfilaments

actin filaments (globular protein). two intertwined strands of actin. 7 nm. maintainance of shape (tension bearing), changes in shape, muscle contraction, cytoplasmic streaming, cell motility (pseudopodia), cell dividion (cleavage furrow), thinnest.

p53 functions

activates p21, whose product halts the cell cycle by binding to cdks; can turn on genes directly involved in gene repair; activates suicide genes whose products cause apoptosis

pfr

active form of phytochrome that can absorb red light with a wavelength of 730 nm, and then rapidly converts it back to Pr.

methyl

acts as recognizable tag on biological molecules

strengthen wall by hardening or

adding secondary wall between plasma membrane and cell wall

reduction

addition of electrons

polygenic inheritance

additive effect of two or more genes on a simple phenotype

Watson and Crick reasoned that the pairing was more specific, dictated by the bases structure that _____ paired only with _____, and _____ paired only with _____.

adenine, thymine guanine, cytosine

Purines are _____ and _____.

adenines, guanine

ATP made of

adenosine attached to a string of three phosphate groups

mammals store food reserves in * cells, which cushion vital organs and insulate the body

adipose

two levels of metabolic control

adjust activity of enzymes present, adjust production level of certain enzymes

HTLV-1

adult leukemia

different chemical groups contribute to function by

affecting molecule's shape or being directly involved in chemical reactions

hydrophilic

affinity for water

when do chromosomes condense

after DNA duplication

triploid endosperm

after one sperm unites with the egg, the other two unite with polar nuclei, provides nutrtion to the embryo

factors affecting biotic potential

age at which reproduction begins, life span during which organisms capable of reproducing, number of reproductive periods in lifetime, number of offspring organism capable of producing

teratogens

agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm

glycerol

alcohol with three carbons, each with hydroxyl

glucose

aldose

biosphere

all environments on earth inhabited by life

ecosystem

all living things in particular area plus nonliving that interact with life

mechanism

all natural phenomena are governed by physical and chemical laws

gene pool

all of the alleles for all of teh loci in all individuals of the populatoin

ecosystem

all organisms in area and abiotic factors with which they interact

community

all organisms living in one area

selective permeability

allows some substances more easily than others

in starch, glucose are; makes molecule *

alpha, helical

nucleotides

alphabet

life cycle

alternation of generations

plants and algae

alternation of generations; haploid and diploid stages that are multicellular

plant cell uses gradient of hydrogen ions to drive active transport of

amino acids, sugars, and other nutrients

fetal testing

aminoiocentesis, chorionic villus sampling (CVS), newborn screening

specific heat

amount of heat absorbed or lost to change temp by 1 degree

gross primary productivity

amount of light energy converted to chemical energy by photosynthesis per unit time

dalton is the same as

amu

malthus

an English economist who argued that increases in population would outgrow increases in the means of subsistence (1766-1834)

inducer

an agent capable of activating specific genes

embryo

an animal organism in the early stages of growth and differentiation that in higher forms merge into fetal stages but in lower forms terminate in commencement of larval life

acoelomate

an animal that lacks a coelom, or body cavity

homeotherm

an animal that maintains a controlled internal body temperature using its own heating and cooling mechanisms

killer honeybee

an breeding gone wrong incident when African bees escaped and spread throughout Brazil, then America

hotspots

an ecological region that has lost more than 70% of its original habitat

because *, oxidization and reduction always go together

an electron transfer requires both a donor and an acceptor

electron shells

an energy level representing the distance of an electron from the nucleus of an atom.

oxidative phosphorylation

an enzymatic process in cell metabolism that synthesizes ATP from ADP

global warming

an increase in the average temperature of the earth's atmosphere (especially a sustained increase that causes climatic changes)

territoriality

an intense form of intraspecific competition in which organisms define an area surrounding their home site or nesting site and defend it primarily against other members of their own species

circadian clock

an internal mechanism that maintains a 24-hour activity rhythm or cycle

tropism

an involuntary orienting response

an individual inheriting - or - is one step closer to cancer

an oncogene or mutant allele of tumor-suppressor gene

critical period

an optimal period shortly after birth when an organism's exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces proper development

Concept #2: For Each character

an organism inherits two alleles, one from each parent; a genetic locus is actually represented twice.

phototropism

an orienting response to light

fork

ancestor

unity from

ancestor

desmosomes

anchoring juncitons. rivets, made of intermediate filaments of keratin. Muscles.

basal body

anchoring structure that the microtubule assembly extends to. It has a pattern of nine microtubule triplets

predation

animal eating animal or plants

one group of egg polarity for * and another for *

anterior-posterior axis, dorsal-ventral axis

Franklin had concluded that there were two _____ sugar-phosphate backbones, with the nitrogen bases paired in the molecule's _____.

anti-parallel, nitrogenous bases

The _____ structure of the double helix affects replication.

antiparallel

devil's gardens tended by

ants and formic acid

somatic cell

any cell in a multicellular organism except a sperm or egg cell

ligand

any molecule that binds specifically to a receptor site of another molecule

technology

applies science for some other purpose

prokaryotes

archaea and bacteria

palisade

are cells found within the mesophyll in leaves of dicotyledonous plants. Palisade cells have a lot of extra chloroplasts to help with photosynthesis, they are mostly found in the top surfaces of the leaves.

used to preserve things

arrack

the key is

arrangement

bilateral symmetry

arrangement of body parts so there are distinct left and right halves that mirror each other

community

array of organisms in an ecosystem

aster

array of short microtubules , star-shaped structure formed in the cytoplasm of a cell having fibers like rays that surround the centrosome during mitosis

dynamic equilibrium

as many molecules cross membrane in one direction as the other

changes that must occur for cell to become cancerous

at least one active oncogene and mutation or loss of several tumor-suppressor genes

apical meristem

at the tips of roots and buds of shoots. source of primary growth

youngest twigs

at top

each elemet consists of a certain kind of * that is different from the * of any other

atom, atoms

smallest unit of matter that retains the properties of an element

atoms

double bond

atoms share two pairs of electrons

fibronectin

attaches ECM to integrins in plasma membrane

producers

autotrophs, green palnts, photosynthetic, greatest biomass (diatoms and phytoplankton)

gene variability

average heterozygosity

atomic mass is actually

average of atomic masses of naturally occurring isotopes

average heterozygosity

average percent of loci that are heterozygous

annelida

Segmented worms, earthworms; anus and mouth; closed circulatory system; nervous system; setae-bristle appendages

carbon is

backbone of life

mitosis had origins in simpler prokaryotic mechanisms of cell reproduction.

bacteria todinoflagellates to diatoms and yeasts to eukaryotes

denitrifying bacteria

bacteria which often live in damp soil, and which convert nitrates into nitrogen gas

The role of DNA in heredity was first discovered by studying _____ and the _____ that infect them.

bacteria, viruses

holds back flood of electrons to lower energy state

barrier of activation energy

higher OH-

basic

intracellular digestion

The joining of food vacuoles and lysosomes to allow chemical digestion to occur within the cytoplasm of a cell.

Cell Division

The splitting of a cell that involves the distribution of identical genetic material to two daughter cells.

Meiosis I

The stage of meiosis that seperates homologous chromosomes and ends in two haploid cells.

Meiosis II

The stage of meiosis that seperates sister chromatids.

induction

The process in which one group of embryonic cells influences the development of another, usually by causing changes in gene expression.

norm of reaction

The range of phenotypes produced by a single genotype, due to environmental influences.

Crossing-Over

The reciprocal exchange of genetic material between nonsister chromatids during synapsis of meiosis I.

guard cells

The two cells that flank the stomatal pore and regulate the opening and closing of the pore.

Binary Fission

The type of cell division by which prokaryotes reproduce; each dividing daughter cell receives a copy of the single parental chromosome. asexual reproduction of single-celled eukaryotes. prokaryotic process does not involve mitosis

Fertilization

The union of haploid gametes to produce a diploid zygote.

root pressure

The upward push of xylem sap in the vascular tissue of roots.

why is oxygen a potent oxidizing agent

because it is so electronegative

malignant tumor

becomes invasive enough to impair function of one or more organs

zone of cell division

The zone of primary growth in roots consisting of the root apical meristem and its derivatives. New root cells are produced in this region.

zone of elongation

The zone of primary growth in roots where new cells elongate, sometimes up to ten times their original length.

came up with vitalism

berzelius

in cellulose, glucose are; makes molecule *

beta, straight

when phospholipids in water, assemble into

bilayer

structure of phospholipids results in

bilayer arrangement of cell membranes

acetylation enzymes may promote initiation of transcription not only by remodeling chromatin structure but also by

binding to and recruiting components of transcription machinery

linnaeus

binomial system. tazonomy. nested classification system

usually, one enantiomer is * and the other is *

biologically active, inactive

taiga

biome just south of the tundra; characterized by a northern coniferous forest composed of pine, fir, hemlock, and spruce tree and acidic, mineral-poor topsoils

tropical rain forest

biome near the equator with warm temperatures, wet weather, and lush plant growth

levels of biological organization

biosphere, ecosystems, communities, populations, organisms, organs and organ systems, tissues, cells, organelles, molecules

CAM plants

Store the organic acids made at night in vacuoles and use them for photosynthesis during the day when stomata are closed

hemocoels

blood-filled cavities within the body of arthropods and mollusks with open circulatory systems

Blending Hypothesis

blue and yellow paint mix to make green paint

dna are *, proteins are *

blueprints, tools

these cues tell a cell its location relative to * and * and determine how the cell and its progeny will respond to

body axes, neighboring cells, future molecular signals

somatic cells

body cells

organ

body of two or more tissues

valence

bonding capacity; equals number of unpaired electrons required to complete atom's valence shell

trace elements

boron, chromium, cobalt, copper, fluorine, iodine, iron, manganese, molybdnum, selenium, silicon, tin, vanadium, zinc

henslow

botany in cambrige

in most cases mutations must knock out

both alleles in a cell's genome to block tumor-suppression

mutualism

both benefit (bacteria in intestine)

plus end of microtubule

both on and off rites are higher. can accumulate or release tubulin dimers at a higher rate than the other.

tight jucntions

bound by proteins. prevents leakage (intestines)

studied prairie chickens

bouzat

indicate molar concentration

brackets

electron transport chain

breaks fall of electrons to oxygen into several energy-releasing steps, made of proteins in inner membrane of mitochondria or plasma membrane

artificial selection

breeding

aposematic coloration

bright

theory

broader than hypothesis; general enough to spin off many new hypotheses; supported by great body of evidence

plants with no transport vessels

bryophytes

epstein barr virus

burkitt's lymphoma

wallace

came up with same theory

bacterial cells that can * have advantage over those that are unable to do so

can conserve resources and enrgy

first to

canary islands

don't eliminate unwanted variables, instead

cancel

oncogenes

cancer-causing genes

The shortening of telomeres might protect cells from _____ growth by limiting the number of cell divisions.

cancerous

energy

capacity to cause change

glycolipids

carb and lipid

glycoproteins

carb and protein

most common carbon

carbon 12

molecules that distinguish living matter composed of

carbon and other things

asymmetric carbon

carbon attached to four different atoms or groups of atoms

after mechanism, organic chemistry was redefined as the study of

carbon compounds

reduced

carbon dioxide

four that make up 96%

carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen

CO2 dissolved in water

carbonic acid (H2CO3)

amino acids

carboxyl and amino group

transport proteins in active transport are all

carrier proteins

phloem

carries sugars from photosynthetic leaves to rest of plant by active transport

carrier proteins

carry molecules that cannot pass through the cell membrane because they are too large or insoluble

each endoderm cell is wrapped with the *, a continuous band of * which is a waxy material that is impervious to water and dissolved minerals

casparian strip, suberin

An enzyme called telomerase _____ the lengthening of telomeres in germ cells.

catalyzes

tumor viruses

cause cancer in animals including humans

sicle-cell disease

caused by the substitution of a single amino acid in the hemoglobin protein in red blood cells; affects 1 in 400 African Americans; symtoms are physical weakness, pain, organ damage, and paralysis

sequential events of the cell cycle are directed by

cell cycle control system

hypothesis from the 1970s

cell cycle driven by specific signaling molecules present in the cytoplasm

mitosis

cell division in which the nucleus divides into nuclei containing the same number of chromosomes

differences between zygote and organism arise from

cell division, cell differentiation, morphogenesis

hypotonic

cell gains water

interphase

cell grows, performs its normal functions, and prepares for division; consists of G1, S, and G2 phases

cell cycle

cell grows, prepares to divide, then divides to start growth process again; interphase + M phase

hypertonic

cell loses water

microfilaments are well known for their role in

cell motility

molecules carrying signals are q

cell surface receptors and other proteins from embryo's genes

ECM can regulate

cell's behavior; ex. embryo matches orientation of microfilaments to grain of fibers in extracellular matrix

glucose oxidized because

cells lower barrier of activation energy

have high proportion of bound ribosomes

cells that specialize in protein secretion

some microbes use enzymes to digest

cellulose

microfibrils

cellulose hydrogen bonded to hydroxyls of other cellulose molecules

uniform

certain plants

papillomaviruses

cervical cancer

microevolution

change in allele frequencies in pop over generations

cell motility

change in cell location and limited movements of parts of cell. requires moror proteins

bottleneck

change in env't that reduces size of population

mutation

change in nucleotide sequence in DNA

alter patterns of gene expression in response to

changes in environmental conditions

number of * often attached to skeletons of organic molecules

characteristic groups

adaptations

characteristics of organisms that enhance survival and reproduction in specific envrionments

ion

charged atom or molecule

membranes with different functions differ in

chemical composition and structure

eventually, forward and reverse reactions occur at same rate, and the relative concentrations stop changing. the point at which the reactions offset one another exactly

chemical equilibrium

exergonic

chemical reaction that releases some form of energy, such as light or heat.

molecules

chemical structure consisting of two or more atoms

DNA can be damaged by _____, _____ , _____, _____, and certain molecules.

chemicals, radioactive emissions, X-rays, UV light

earthquake

chile

accessory pigments

chlorophyll b and carotenoids

chloroplasts contain

chlorophyll, enzymes, and other photosynthesis stuff. 2 to 5 micrometers.

split water

chloroplasts

set out to identify all genes that affect segment formation in drosophila

christiane nusslein-volhard and eric wieschaus

anaphase does not begin until

chromosomes are properly attached to the spindle at the metabphase plate

metaphase

chromosomes line up across the center of the cell. Longest stage.

where is dna in mitochondria

circular and attached to inner mitochondrial membrane

cytoplasmic streaming

circular flow of cytoplasm within cells

two X's on same side

cis isomer

cisternal maturation model

cisternae progress forward from cis to trans, carrying and modifying cargo

next seven steps of citric acid cycle decompose * back to *, making it a cycle

citrate back to oxaloacetate

parenchymal cells

classic plant cells primary cell walls protoplasm with one large vacuole some carry out photosynthesis some store starch entire plant can be regenerated or cloned from parenchymal cell

contracting belt of microfilaments forms

cleavage furrow

adhesion

clinging to another substance

most common pattern of dispersion

clumped

carbon enteres as* and leaves as *

co2, sugar

at molecular level, TS is

codominant

anaphase commences when

cohesins are cleaved by enzymes

four properties of water

cohesion, ability to moderate temperature, expansion on freezing, versatility as solvent

most abundant ECM

collagen

prop roots

Thick adventitious roots that grow from the lower part of the stem and brace the plant.

ETC

collection of molecules embedded in inner membrane of mitochondrion

compound

combination of two or more different elements

system

combo of components that function together

connected to each sieve tube member is at least one * that does not contain a full complement of cell organelles and nurtures sieve tube elements

companion cell

controlled experiment

compare experimental group with control group; differ in 1 factor

nucleotide variability

comparing DNA of two individuals in population

interactions within community

competition, predation, parasitism, mutualism, commensalism

Since the two strands of DNA are _____, each strand acts as a _____ for building a _____ in replication.

complementary, template, new strand

FADH2 adds electrons to ETC at

complex II

functional groups

components of organic molecules that are most commonly involved in chemical reactions

photosystem

composed of protein complex called reaction-center complex surrounded by light harvesting complexes

vegetative

composed of vegetation or plants

substance of two or more different elements in fixed ratio

compound

ionic compounds or salts

compounds formed by ionic bonds

isomers

compounds with same molecular formula but different structures and properties. Structural, geometric, and enantiomers

two forces that drive diffusion of ions (electrochemical gradient)

concentration gradient and effect of membrane potential

one of the factors affecting the rate of reaction

concentration of reactants

inductive reasoning

conclusions based on logic; generalizations based on observations.

chromosomes

condensed chromatin

operant conditioning

conditioning in which an operant response is brought under stimulus control by virtue of presenting reinforcement contingent upon the occurrence of the operant response

gymnosperms

cone bearing first seed plants on earth naked better adapted for dry environment needle shape leaves eith protective cuticle and small surface area depend on wind for pollenation pines, firs, redwoods, junipers, sequoia

endomembrane is either continuous or

connected via transfer by vesicles

Competing models were the _____ and the _____.

conservative model, dispersive model

systems biology

construct models for the dynamic behavior of whole biological systems

heterotrophs

consumers

euglena

contain chloroplasts, but no cell walls. tolerant of organic pollutants and commonly found in farm ponds, lagoons, and other water with lots of nitrogen

nucleus

contains genes. about 5 micrometers in diameter. surrounded by nuclear envelope

meristem

continually divides and generates new cells

Along one template strand of DNA, the DNA polymerase synthesizes a leading strand _____, moving toward the replication fork.

continuously

paramecium has

contractile vacuole

osmoregulation

control of water balance

egg-polarity genes

control orientation of the egg and fly

homeotic genes

control pattern formation in late embryo, larva, and adult

checkpoint in the cell cycle

control point where stop and go-ahead signals can regulate the cycle

substrate-level phosphorylation

The formation of ATP by directly transferring a phosphate group to ADP from an intermediate substrate in catabolism.

bacteria of decay

convert nitrogenous waste into ammonia (NH3)

transformation

converts normal cell to cancer cell

ex of gene flow

copper bent grass

bataeian mimicry

copycat coloration

high NPP low global NPP

coral

tertiary consumers

heterotrophs, carnivores, top of food chain, least biomass, least stable (hawk)

ultrastrucyure of cilia an flagella

core of microtubules sheathed in extension of plasma membrane. Nine doublets of microtubules in a ring. "9 + 2" pattern.

hooke first looked at

cork

in organisms, most of the strongest chemical bonds are

covalent bonds

electron configuration of carbon gives it * with many different elements

covalent compatibility

secondary consumers

heterotrphs, carnivores (frogs, small fish)

dermal tissue

covers and protects epidermis, guard cells, root hairs, cells that produce waxy cuticle

epidermis

covers surface and is modified for absorption

fertilization

creation by the physical union of male and female gametes

primary consumers

heterotrphs, herbivores (grasshoppers, zooplankton)

methods of biological control

crop rotation, introduce natural enemies of pests, use natural plant toxins, use insect birth control

monohybrid cross

cross between heterozygotes

connect outer doublets to each other and to two central microtubules

cross-linking proteins

two types of fertilization

cross-pollination and self-pollination

shuffling from

crossing over, independent assortment, fertilization

density-depedent inhibition

crowded cells stop dividng

MPF

cyclin-Cdk complex that was discovererd first. Cyclin level rises during S and G2 and falls during M. stands for maturation-promoting factor. Triggers the cell's passage past g2 into M. causes phosphorylation of various proteins of nuclear lamina

examples of diseases with transport systems missing

cystinuria, characterized by missing carrier protein for cysteine and kidney amino acids

most electron carriers between ubiquinone and oxygen are

cytochromes

modern cell biology

cytology and biochem

positional information provided by

cytoplasmic determinants and inductive signals

cytoplasmic determinants in * provide positional information for placement of anterior-posterior and dorsal-ventral azes before fertilization

cytoplasmic determinants from unfertilized egg

elodea's transportation

cytoplasmic streaming

Pyrimidines are _____, _____, and _____.

cytosines, thymines, and uracils

some membrane proteins move along

cytoskeleton

plasmodesmota

cytosol passes through and connects to adjacent cells. Water, solutes, certain proteins, and RNA

_____ supplies adenine to DNA and similar to the ATP of energy metabolism. The difference is in their sugars: dATP has _____ while ATP has _____ .

dATP, deoxyribose, ribose

for atoms and subatomic particles, we use measurement for

dalton

tree supported by

data, anatomical and DNA

pattern

data, observable facts

DNA=

database

uses for radioactive isotopes

dating, metabolic tracers, etc, medical diagnosis, biological research; can pose health risks

some membrane proteins do drift, as shown in an experiment by

david frye and michael edidin. Labeled proteins of mouse and human cell and fused cells

monohybrid

heterozygous for one character

dihybrid

heterozygous for two characters

carriers

heterozygous individuals who carry the recessive allele but ar phenotypically normal

sugars with 6 carbons

hexoses

animal adaptations

hiding, fleeing, defending (active), cryptic coloration, camouflage (passive)

type 3

high death rate among young and declining for organisms at a certain age (fish and invertebrates that release thousands of eggs, have external fertilization, and no parenting)

mitochondrial membranes

high percent of protein and different kinds of phospholipids. looks like beads and is 6 nm thick

central vacuoles

hold organic compounds and water, acts as a dumb, storage place of inorgnnic ions. contain poison, allow to become larger without more cytoplasm.

each successive group adds their own * to those they share

homologies

synapsis

homologs pair up and become connected

habituation

decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner

not all redox reactions involve complete transfer of electrons, some change the * in covalent bonds

degree of electron sharing

how does NAD+ trap electrons?

dehydrogenases remove pair of hydrogen atoms from substrate, thereby oxidizing it/ The enzyme delivers the two enzymes and 1 proton the NAD+ and releases hydrogen ion

chromosomal changes that * many loci at once are almost certain to be harmful

delete, disrupt, or rearrange

heterochromatin

dense

evolutionary tree

diagram that reflects evolutionary relationships among groups. hypothesis that summarize understanding of patterns of decent

Punnett Square

diagrammatic device used to predict the allele composition of offspring from parents with known genetic makeup.

power source of ATP synthase

difference in concentration of H+ on opposite sides of the inner mitochondrial membrane

geographic variation

differences in genetic composition of separate populations

compound has characteristics

different form elements

osmosis

diffusion of water through a selectively permeable membrane

example of hydrolysis

digestion

extracellular digestion

digestion that takes place outside of the cell

gastrovascular cavity

digestive chamber with a single opening, in which cnidarians, flatworms, and echinoderms digest food

sporophyte

diploid

four data types that document evolution

direct observations, fossil record, homology, biogeography

catabolic pathways do not

directly perform work

biologists and scientists speak of * while engineers and technologists speak of

discoveries, inventions

two main inquiries

discovery and hypothesis based

selective permeability depends on

discriminating barrier and transport proteins

biogeography

distribution of species

character displacement

divergence in body

cell division

division of a parent cell into daughter cells

cytokinesis

division of the cytoplasm (cytosol and organelles). Usually under way by late telophase. Cleavage furrow in animals and cell plate in plants

mitosis

division of the nucleus or chromosomes

prokaryotic

dna isn't seperated from the rest of the cell

Gregor Mendel

documented the particulate mechanism of inheritance by studying garden peas; he discovered the basic principles of heredity.

all the eukaryotes

domain Eukarya

live in earth's extreme env't

domain archaea

most diverse and widespread prokaryotes

domain bacteria

unicellular eukaryotes and relatives

domain eukarya; protists

eukarya

domain of all organisms whose cells have nuclei, including protists, plants, fungi, and animals

most oncogenes behave as

dominant alleles

Relation between dominance and phenotype

dominant and recessive alleles do not really interact and lead to the synthesis of different proteins that produce a phenotype.

each biome characterized by

dominant vegetation and animal life

temperate grasslands

dominated by grasses, trees and large shrubs are absent. Temperatures vary more from summer to winter, and the amount of rainfall is less than in savannas. Temperate grasslands have hot summers and cold winters. Occur in South Africa, Hungary, Argentina, the steppes of the former Soviet Union, and the plains and prairies of central North America.

(Vocabulary) The form of native DNA, referring to its two adjacent antiparallel polynucleotide strands wound around an imaginary axis into a spiral shape.

double helix

Helicases are enzymes that untwist the _____ at the replication forks.

double helix

The width suggest that the DNA molecule was made up of two strands, forming a _____.

double helix

nuclear envelope

double membrane with holes 100 nm in diameter. each membrane about 20-40 nm apart.

disaccharides

double sugars

Purines are _____ bonded, and pyrimidines are _____ bonded.

double, single

In 1953, Watson and Crick introduced an elegant _____ for the structure of DNA.

double-helical model

emergent properties

due to arrangement and interactions of parts as complexity increases (not unique to life)

each outer doublet also has pairs of protruding proteins reaching toward neighboring proteins. these large motor proteins are called* and are responsible for the *

dynein, bending movements of organelle

Calculate Characters for genotypes from crosses

each character first is considered separately and then the individual probability are multiplied together.

Paul Nurse's hypothesis

each event in the cell cycle simply leads to the next

Self Pollinating Peas

each flower has pollen producing stamen and egg producing carpel and in nature causes self fertilization

law of independent assortment

each pair of alleles segregates independently of each other pair of alleles during gamete formation

trait

each variant for a character example blue, white, red

pattern formation in animals begins in * when the major axes are established

early embryo

nonpolar molecules cross

easily

phagocytosis

eating by engulfing. lysosome digests Human- macrophages

foraging behavior

ecological behavior that involves finding and eating food

natural selection is process of

editing

first showd the value of the genetic approach to studying embryonic development

edward b lewis

source of information early in development, contains RNA and proteins encoded for by mom's DNA

egg's cytoplasm

enzymes can catalyze in

either direction

discrete characters

either-or basis

oxidizing agent

electron acceptor

etc made up of

electron carrier plastoquinone and a protein called plastocyanin

key to atom's characteristics; determines kinds and numbers of bonds an atom will form with other atoms

electron configuration

reducing agent

electron donor

electrons are found in different

electron shells

each neighbor is more

electronegative

only * are directly involved in the chemical reactions

electrons

nonpolar covalent bond

electrons are shared equally.

ETC is an energy converter that uses the exergonic flow of * to pump H+ from mitochondrial matrix into intermembrane space

electrons from NADH and FADH2

substance that can't be broken down into other substances chemically

element

function of nonkinetochore microtubules

elongate cell during anaphase. overlap during metaphase. during anaphase, region of overlap is reduced as motor proteins attached to microtubules walk them away from one another

primary growth

elongation of plant into soil and up into the air

gene regulation system involved in cancer is same that plays roles in

embryonic development, immune response, etc

cotyledon

embryonic leaf in seed-bearing plants

embryology

embryos with tails and pharyngeal pouches

atoms are mostly

empty space

xylem and phloem

enable plants to grow tall

important to pharmaceutical industry

enantiomers

products

end

positive feedback

end product speeds up production

guppy guy

endler

large molecules such as proteins and polysaccharides cross through

endocytosis

endoderm

endodermis surrounds vascular cylinder. function is to select which minerals enter vascular cylinder and body of the plant

stages of glycolysis

energy investment and energy payoff

kinetic energy

energy of motion

couples redox reactions of ETC to ATP synthesis

energy stored in H+ gradient

potential energy

energy that matter possesses because of its location or structure

other key in natural selection

env't

carrying capacity changes as

env't conditions change

other major source of developmental information that becomes more important with number of cells is

environment around cell

natural selection because

environment selects for propagation of certain traits

life evolves as

environments change

protein kinases

enzymes that activate or inactivate other proteins by phosphorylating them

All three types of intercellular junctions especially common in

epithelial tissue

A dihybrid or other multi-character cross

equivalent to two or more independent monohybrid crosses occurring simultaneously

Telomeres do not prevent the shortening of DNA molecules, but they do postpone the _____ of genes near the ends of DNA molecules. It has been proposed that the shortening of telomeres is connected to _____ .

erosion, aging

In mismatch repair of DNA, repair enzymes correct _____ in base pairing.

erros

1844

essay

function of electron transport chain

establish H+ gradient

1940s, studied musant drosophila

established that genes control development and led to understanding of key roles of specific molecules in defining position and directing differentiation

overlapping tetrahedrons

ethane

catastrophism

events in past ocurred suddenly and were caused by mechanisms different from those operting the present.

determination

events that lead to observable differentiation in cell

darwin never said

evolution

nothing in biology makes sense except in the light of

evolution- theodosius

fermentation

expansion of glycolysis that allows continuous generation of ATP by substrate level-phosphorylation. requires NAD+

hypothesis based

explaining

rescurve partitioning

exploit different resources

nusslein-volhard and wieschaus began search for segmentation genes by

exposing flies to mutagenic chemical that affected gametes

regulatory gene

expressed continuously, a gene that codes for a protein, such as a repressor, that controls the transcription of another gene or group of genes

limiting factors

factors that limit pop growth

density-independent factors

factors whose occurrence is incidental. Earthquakes, natural disasters

have long hydrocarbon tails attached to non-hydrocarbon component

fats

most important lipids

fats, phospholipids, steroids

in making a fat, three * each join to * by a *... this forms a

fatty acid molecules, glycerol, ester linkage (bond between hydroxyl and carboxyl), triacylglycerol (triglyceride)

NADP+ reductase catalyzes transfer of electrons from * to *

fd to NADPH

predators

feed on animals least able to avoid detection, escape, or defend themselves

two mechanisms for oxidization without oxygen

fermentation and anaerobic respiration

seedless plants

ferns (reproduce by spores) ferns most widespread seedless tracheophytes reproduce by spores homosporous (bisexual gametophyte) restricted to moist habitats because of flagellated sperm (antheridium to archegonium)

second etc

ferredoxin

zygote

fertilized egg

founder effect

few individuals isolated from larger population

intermediate filaments

fibrous proteins supercoiled into thicker cables. 8-12 nm. Made of keratin. Maintanance of shape (tension bearing), anchorage of nucleus and other organelles, formation of nuclear lamina. More permanent. Important in fixing position of organelles. Nucleus sits within cage, fixed by branches. impulses of axons strengthened by filaments too

Telophase

final stage of mitosis and of meiosis I and II, in which the chromosomes reach the spindle poles, nuclear envelopes form around each set of daughter chromosomes, and the nucleoli reappear

darwin proposed ancestral species because of specimens of * from *

finches; galapagos islands

microvili

finger like projections of the cell plasma membrane. the function is to increase surface area

turgid

firm

prophase

first and longest phase of mitosis, during which the chromosomes become visible and the centrioles separate and take up positions on the opposite sides of the nucleus. centrosomes move apart. Dna forms chromosomes. Nucleoli disappear. Sister chromatids. Mitotic spindle begins to form.

prophase

first phase of mitosis in which chromosomes become visible and nuclear membraine disappears

glycolysis

first step in releasing the energy of glucose, in which a molecule of glucose is broken into two molecules of pyruvic acid

clumped

fish

if only 1 allele at a particular locus

fixed in the gene pool

when two carbons are joined by a double bond

flat shape

electrons removed form glucose by NAD+ transferred to

flavoprotein

animal cells

flexible cell membrane, vacuoles, cilia or flagella

if chlorophyll is isolated from chloroplasts and illuminated, it

flouresces in the red-orage spectrum and gives off heat

ecosystems-

flow of energy; cycling of nutrients. producers use light to make sugar. consumers consume producers and other consumers

electron microscope

focuses bean of electrons through specimen or on surface

Length of Mendel's typical breeding Experiment

followed trait at least through F2 generation

cytoskeleton manipulates plasma membrane to form

food vacuoles and phagocytic vesicles.

food chains interwoven in

food web

transpirational pull-cohesion tension theory

for each molecule of water that evaporates from a leaf by transpiration, another molecule of water is drawn in at the root to replace it

temperate deciduous forest

forest in a temperate region, characterized by trees that drop their leaves annually

carbon unparalleled in ability to

form molecules: large, complex, diverse

positional information operating on finer scale establishes specific number of correctly oriented segments and triggers

formation of each segment's characteristic structures

food vacuoles

formed by phagocytosis

condensation reaction (dehydration)

forming bonds between two monomers by losing a water molecule.

tube nucleus

forms the pollen tube from the stigma to the ovule

hydrogen bond

forms when a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to one electronegative atom is also attracted to another electronegative atom

endemic

found nowhere else in the world

karl van frisch

found out how bees tell each other to go find flowers

for atoms with valence electrons in s and p orbitals, the s and three p hybridize to form

four new hyprid orbitals

second

four oribtals (2s is sphere and three dumbbell p 2p orbitals)

pioneer in determining amino acid sequence of proteins

frederick sanger

most prevalent disaccharide

fructose

function of monosaccharides

fuel for cells and raw material for building molecules

repressible enzymes

function in anabolic pathways; their synthesis is repressed by high levels of the end product

function of BRCAs

function in cell's DNA damage repair pathway

cell

fundamental unit of structure and function; lowest level of organism that can perform all activities required for life

three major checkpoints in

g1, g2, and M

Grants studied

galapagos finches

gametangia

gametes and zygotes in protective jacket that prevents them from drying out

humans and animals

gametes are only haploid cells. meiosis occurs in germ cells, which undergo no further division. after fertilization, diploid zygote divides and forms multicellular organism

maternal effect gene

gene that, when mutant in mother, results in mutant phenotype in offspring, regardless of offspring's own genotype

locus

gene's specific location along length of a chromosome

Two problems with the Davson-Danielli sandwich

generalization that all cell membranes are identical, membrane proteins are not very soluble in water

life cycle

generation-to-generation sequence of stages in reproductive history of an organism

dna is the substance of

genes

law of independent assortment applies only to

genes on different chromosomes (not homologous)

oncogene arises from

genetic change that leads to increase in amount of proto-oncogene's protein or in activity of each protein molecule

crossing over

genetic rearrangement between nonsister chromatids

library

genome

almost all cells in organism have same genome. differential gene regulation resutls from

gens being regulated differently in each cell type

development of malignant tumor paralleled by

gradual accumulation of mutations that convert proto-oncogenes to oncogenes and knock out tumor-suppressor genes

permafrost

ground that is permanently frozen

most common tissue type in plant

ground tissue

early 20th c, studied anatomy of embryos and manipulated embryonic tissues

groundwork. didn't reveal specific molecules that guide development or determine how patterns are established

clone

group of genetically identical individuals

population

group of individuals of one species living in one area who have the ability of interbreeding and interacting with each other

population

group of individuals of same species that live in same area and produce fertile offspring

tissues

groups of similar cells

negative tropism

growth away from a stimulus

genes that regulate growth and division include genes for

growth factors, receptors, and intracellular molecules of signaling pathways

seed plants

gymnosperms, angiosperms or anthophyta (flowering plants) more advanced and numerous than seedless divided into gymnosperms (cones) and angiosperms (flowers and fruit) heterosporous megaspores (female_ microspores (male) sperm don't have flagella

first concrete evidence that genes somehow direct developmental processes

h

molecular shape is crucial in biology because it determines

how biological molecules recognize and respond to one another with specificity

Package

how two characters are transmitted from parents to offspring

dominantly inherited disorders

human disorders due to dominant alleles; Ex. achondroplasia; huntington's disease

large proteoglycans can be formed from

hundreds noncovalently attached to polysaccharide

A eukaryotic chromosome may have _____ or even _____ or origins of replication.

hundreds, thousands

phloem vessels consist of chains of * or elements whose end walls contain * that facilitate the flow of fluid from one cell to the next

sieve tube members, sieve plates

releasers

sign stimuli exchanged between members of the same species

prokaryotic cells

simpler and smaller than eukaryotic celles; dna isn't separated from rest of the cell. no membrane-enclosed organelles

exponential growth

simplest model for population growth in which growth is unrestrained (no immigration/ emigration, envy's with unlimited resources) characteristic of a population that has been recently introduced into an area

coordinate control

single on-off switch can control whole cluster of genes

hydrogen ion

single proton with charge of 1+

(Vocabulary) binds to and stabilizes a single-stranded DNA until it can used as a template

single-strand binding protein

Single-strand binding protein binds to and stabilizes _____ until it can be used as a template.

single-stranded DNA

mitochondria

site of cellular respiration, about 1-10 micrometers

nucleolus

site of rRNA synthesis (where ribosomes are made); also functions in regulation of some cellular processes, such as cell division

chloroplasts

sites of photosynthesis

5 properties of populations

size, density, dispersion, survivorship curves, age structure diagrams

most organic compounds contain * in addition to carbon

hydrogen

organic molecules that have an abundance of * are excellent fuels because their bonds are a source of hilltop electrons

hydrogen

partial positive

hydrogen

cohesion

hydrogen bonds hold togetherr

most frequent partners of carbon

hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen

enzymes that digest starch by hydrolyzing alpha linkages can't

hydrolyze beta linkages in cellulose

proton binds to water molecule

hydronium ion

amphipatic

hydrophilic region and hydrophobic region

membrane held together primarily by

hydrophobic interactions

seven chemical groups most important in biological processes

hydroxyl, carbonyl, carboxyl, amino, sulfhydryl, phosphate, methyl

vitalism

idea that organic compounds arise only in organisms

dihybrid cross

illustrates the inheritance of two characters; produces four phenotypes in the F2 Generation; used to develop law of independent assortment

longitudinal axis

imaginary line that runs down the middle of a limb

proximate causes

immediate environmental events and conditions that affect behaviour

almost all cells in organism have identical genome except

immune cells

adaptive evolution

improved match between organisms and environment

integrins

in animal cells, a transmembrane receptor protein that interconnects the extracellular matrix and the cytoskeleton.

centrosome

in animal cells, assembly of spindle microtubules starts here. microtubule-organizing center

mesoglea

in cnidarians, the jellylike material located between the ectoderm and the endoderm

two locations of protein synthesis

in cytosol (free ribosomes), on outside of rough ER or the nuclear envelope (bound ribosomes)

difference between chemiosmosis in chloroplasts and mitochondria

in hitochondria, electrons of etc arefrom organic molecules. in chloroplasts, they're from water. Mitochondria use chemiosmosis to transfer chemical energy to atp. chloroplasts transform light energy into chemical energy in atp

citric acid cycle

in mitochondrial matrix or cytosol of prokaryotes, completes breakdown of glucose by oxidizing a derivative of pyruvate to carbon dioxide

pr

inactive type of phytochrome that absorbs red light with a wavelength of 660 nm, and is then rapidly converted in the active form, Pfr.

zebra mussel

inch-long mollusk imported accidentally from Europe

at biochemical level, TS is

incompletely dominant

DNA polymerases proofread newly made DNA, replacing any _____.

incorrect nucleotides

density-dependent factors

increase directly as pop density increases (competition for food, buildup of waste, predation, disease)

secondary growth

increase in girth

microvilli

increase surface area

biological magnification

increasing concentration of a harmful substance in organisms at higher trophic levels in a food chain or food web

methods for genetic variation

independent assortment of chromosomes, crossing over, random fertilizaiton

convergent evolution

independent evolution of similar features in different lineages

2nd Inheritance: Each pair of alleles segregates

independently, airing gamete formation

organism

individual living thing

population

individuals of species in specific area

natural selection

individuals with heritable characteristics survive and reproduce at higher rate. increases natch between organism and environment

darwin's inferences

individuals with inherited traits that are best suited to env't are more likely to reproduce; over time, more individuals in pop. with advantageous traits. explains unity and diversity

noble gases said to be

inert

trichinosis

infestation by trichina larvae that are transmitted by eating inadequately cooked meat (especially pork), nematode larvae encysted in muscle; makes muscle elastic

differences in geometric isomers arise from

inflexibility of double bonds

epigenetic inheritance

inheritance of traits transmitted by mechanisms not directly involving nucleotide sequence

alleles

inherited characteristics

characters

inherited features that vary among species

fixed action pattern

innate behavior that occurs as an unchangeable sequence of actions

pigments of chloroplast on

inner membrane

minus sign indicates

inside is negative relative to outside

cellulose in food passes through digestive tract as

insoluble fiber

science and technology are

interdependent

two compartments of inner membrane

intermembrane space and mitochondrial matrix (contains enzymes, DNA, and ribosomes, proteins for respiration are built into inner membrane)

cell cycle regulated by

internal and external signals

resolution

inversely related to wavelength

cnidarians

invertebrates that have stinging cells and take food into a central body cavity

flavoprotein oxidizes as it passes electrons to

iron-sulfur protein

acidification of the oceans

is happening via absorption of CO2 from the atmosphere, may interfere with production of about 20 percent of the planet's oxygen, and is a measurable phenomenon decrease in concentration of carbonate ions (CO32-)

some atoms have more neutrons than others; these different forms are called

isotopes

What a Test Cross does

it crosses an individual with the dominant phenotype with an individual that is homozygous recessive for a trait

because CO2 is a very simple molecule and lacks hydrogen,

it is often considered inorganic, even though it contains carbon

an electron's energy level is correlated with

its average distance from the nucleus

chimp lady

jane goodall

fructose

ketose

have lots of aquaporins

kidneys and blood

killfish

kill guppies

disadvantage of EM

kills, introduces artifacts

multicellular eukaryotes that ingest other organisms

kingdom animalia

absorb nutrients from surroundings

kingdom fungi

multicellular eukaryotes that photosynthesize

kingdom plantae

made acetic acid

kolbe

dual control of lac operon

lac repressor (-) and CAP (+)

Smooth ER

lacks ribosomes. synthesizes lipids (steroids, oils, phospholipids), metabolizes carbs, detoxifies poison (usually by adding hydroxyl) (liver cells, sedative phenobarbital and other barbiturates), stores calcium

(Vocabulary) A discontinuously synthesized DNA strand that elongates by means of Okazaki fragments, each synthesized in a 5'?3' direction away from the replication fork.

lagging strand

freshwater biomes

lakes, ponds, rivers, streams and wetlands, have a salt concentration of less than 1% and are closely linked to the soils and biotic components of the terrestrial biomes through which they pass

lipids

large biological molecules that do not form polymers; unifying feature is tehat they are hydrophobic. mostly hydrocarbons

ATP synthase

large protein that uses energy from H+ ions to bind ADP and a phosphate group together to produce ATP. multisubunit complex with four parts of polypeptides. Smallest molecular rotary motor in nature

plant

larger than animals, don't move, cell wall, one large vacuole, chloroplasts

eukaryotic cells generally

larger than prokaryotic; contains DNA in nucleus bound by membranous nuclear envelope; membrane-bound organelles, cytoplasm between plasma membrane and nucleus

aquatic biomes

largest portion of biosphere, water covers roughly 75% of the globe containing fresh water and marine water

planula larva

larva of medusa stage, they are free swimming and eventually settle to the bottom and become a polyp

telophase

last phase of mitosis, chromosome are in two new cells and nuclear membranes start to reform. Daughter nuclei form. Nuclear envelopes arise.

hydrostatic skeleton

layers of circular and longitudinal muscles, together with the water in the gastrovascular cavity, that enable movement

(Vocabulary) The new complementary DNA strand synthesized continuously along the template strand toward the replication fork in the mandatory 5'?3' direction.

leading strand

classic conditioning

learning to associate two stimuli, even unrelated stimuli, beyond the organism's control; involuntary; neutral stimulus can be made to trigger an unconditioned stimulus; Pavlov's dog salivation experiment (ex. dogs salivate at tone)

location of photosynthesis

leaves

chloroplasts found in

leaves and green organs in plants and algar

bicoid research groundbreaking because

led to identification of specific protein required for earliest steps in pattern formation, increased understanding of mother's role in initial phases of embryonic development, principle that gradient of morphogens can determine polarity and position confirmed

vestigial structures

leftover. loss of function

fatty acids vary in

length and number and locations of double bonds

carbon chains vary in

length and shape

150 years

length genetics as been around

in chloroplasts, * drive(s)electron flow down ETC

light

gap juncitons

like plasmodesmota. Made of membrane proteins that surround pore

flaccid

limp

steroids

lipids with carbon skeleton of four fused rings; vary in chemical groups attached to rings

aminocentesis

liquid that bathes the fetus is removed and tested

solution

liquid that is homogenous mixture

trp repressor synthesized in inactive form with

little affinity for trp operator

k-strategists

live at density near carrying capacity: few young, intense parenting, slow maturation, large young, reproduce many times (mammals)

glycogens mainly in

liver and muscle

monosaccharides classified by

location of carbonyl (aldose or ketose), number of carbons in carbon skeleton

deductive reasoning

logic flows from general to specific

set limits on cell size

logistics of carrying out cellular metabolic functions

fatty acid

long carbon skeleton (16 or 18) with filler hydrogen. carbon at one end is part of carboxyl, attached to hydrocarbon chain

polymer

long molecule of similar or identical building blocks linked by covalent bonds; carbohydrates, proteins, nucleic acids

fibers

long thin and fibrous occur in bundles used to make rope and flax fibers

artificial change over short time, natural selection over

long time

tracheids

long, thin cells that overlap and are tapered at the ends. secondary cell walls hardened with lignin so they support plant and transport nutrients and water

euchromatin

loose

spongy mesophyll

loose tissue beneath the palisade layer of a leaf; has many air spaces between its cells

addition of phosphate group to amino acid next to methylated amino acid

loosens

steps of acetyl CoA transition

loses co2, forms acetate and NADH, and coenzyme A attached to acetate

oxidization

loss of electrons

interaction of general transcription factors and RNA polymerase II with promoter usually leads to - of initiation and production of - RNA transcripts

low rate, few

water diffuses from

low solute to high solute

states of animal cell

lysed, normal, crenated

autophagy

lysosomes recycle organelles and macromolecules. surrounded by double membrane and lysosome fuses with outer membrane.

enzymes

macromolecules that speed up dehydration

platelet-derived growth factor

made by blood cell fragments called platelets. Required for division of fibroblasts in culture

cellulose

major component of wall of plant cells; polymer of glucose, but the glucosidic linkages differ based on alpha and beta rings of glucose

things messed up in cancer cells

make required growth facrot themselves, abnormality in signaling pathway that conveys growth factor's signal to cell cycle control system even in the absence of that actor. Abnormal cell cycle control system

chemical reactions

making and breaking of chemical bonds

two glucose molecules form

maltose

strong evidence of hypothesis comes from experiments with

mammalian cells grown in culture. Two cells in different phases were fused to form a single ecll with two nuclei. Cyclin diffused into other cells

monotremes

mammals that lay eggs

multifactorial disorders

many human diseases have both genetic and environmental components; example: heart disease and cancer

supramolecular

many molecules ordered into a higher level of organization

Cross F1 Plants

many of the plants had purple flowers, but some had white flowers

Why Mendel Chose Peas

many variety; could strictly control which plants mated with which; bisexual; many traits known; cross and self pollinating

grant

marine life in edinburough

organisms are captured, tagged, and released

mark and recapture

superscript to left of element's symbol

mass number

- set up sequential program of gene regulation carried out as cells divide, and this program makes cells become different in coordinated fashion

materials placed in egg by mother

cytoplasmic determinants

maternal substances in egg that influence course of early development

consanguineous mating

mating between relatives can increase the probablility of the appearance of genetic diseases

has mass and takes up space

matter

saturated fatty acids

maximum number of hydrogen and no double bonds

biotic potential

maximum rate at which a population could increase under ideal conditions

resolution

measure of distance two points can be separated and distinguished

surface tension

measure of how hard it is to stretch or break surgace

quantitative

measurements, tables, graphs

cytoskeleton regulates biochemical activities in response to

mechanical stimulation

operon method

mechanism for control of gene expression in bacteria, 1961 francois jacob and jacques monod at pasteur institute in paris

process

mechansims of change. natural causes

maintain species' chromosome count

meiosis and fertilization

fungi and protists

meiosis occurs without multicellular diploid. produces haploid cells that divide my mitosis

fluid mosaic model

membrane is a fluid structure with a mosaic of various proteins embedded in or attached to bilayer of phospholipids

organelles

membrane-enclosed compartments

What happened in 1915

membranes were isolated from red blood and found to have lipids and proteins

chloroplasts in * in interior of leaf

mesophyll

genes of bacterial genome switched on or off by changes in

metabolic status of cell

seeds and pollen

method of dispersing offspring

all are hydrophilic, increase solubility of organic compounds in water, and are functional except

methyl

genomic imprinting

methylation permanently regulates expression of maternal or paternal allele

Epistasis Example

mice black coat BB is dominant to brown bb, but another allele Cc determines whether the color in the mouse is deposited; CC or Cc -> yes, cc -> no color

cell wall composed of

microfibrils of cellulose synthasized by cellulose synthaze and secreted into matrix of polysaccharides and proteins. Strong fibers in a ground substance

microvilli made of

microfilaments

pseudopedia function

microfilaments assemble and disassemble. filaments near trailing end interact with myosin and contract. this contraction forces interior into pseudopodium which extends until the actin reforms

cilia and flagella

microtubule containing extensions that project from some cells and act as locomotor apendages

spindle

microtubule structure that separates chromosomes during mitosis. includes centrosomes, spindle microtubules, and asterse

centrosome

microtubules grow out of it. composed of centrioles

Ehrhardt discovered that

microtubules in cell cortex guide cellulose synthase as it synthesizes and deposits fibrils

Between primary walls of adjacent cells

middle lamella, think layer rich in sticky pectin polysaccharides.

2001, david and karin pfennig of UNC and WIlliam harcombe tested bates's

mimicry hypothesis

micropyle

minute opening in the wall of an ovule through which the pollen tube enters

enantiomers

mirror images

(Vocabulary) The cellular process that uses specific enzymes to remove and replace incorrectly paired nucleotides.

mismatch repair

If chromosomes of germ cells became shorter in every cell cycle, essential genes would eventually be _____ from the gametes they produce.

missing

energy released at each stage of ETC stored in * and can be used to make ATP

mitochondrion

well supported by studies of colorectal cancer

model of mutistep path to cancer

food pyramid

model to demonstrate interaction of organisms in food chain and loss of energy

functions of golgi

modifies products of ER, manufactures macromolecules, sorts and packages materials

distinctive properties of organic molecules depend not only on the carbonic skeleton but also on

molecular components attached to it

Allows compartimentalized specialization in cells

molecular makeup

in the third state of respiration, ETC accepts electrons from first two stages and passes them from one molecule to another, until they're combined with * and *, forming *

molecular oxygen and hydrogen ions, forming water

angiosperms or anthophyta

monocots or dicots flowers and fruits most diverse plant species ovary - fruit ovule - seed 90 percent of all plants burrs, wings, bright, sweet

simplest carbohydrates

monosaccharides (simple sugars)

diverse communities more productive because

more stable and survive longer, better able to withstand and recover from env't stresses

physicists have split the atom into

more than a hundred types of particles

- is generally needed to produce all the changes characteristic of a full-fledged cancer cell

more than one somatic mutation

recent research suggests that the mosaic model is more * than *

mosaic than fluid

dominant species

most abundant or highest biomass in community, exert control over abundance and distribution of other species

chlorophyll a

most photosynthetic, violet-blue and red, CH3, blue green

aerobic respiration

most prevalent and efficient catabolic pathway in which oxygen is consumed as a reactant along with the organic fuel

genetic changes that convert proto-oncogenes to oncogenes

movement of DNA within genome, amplification of proto-oncogene, point mutations in control element or proto-oncogene

continental drift

movement of continents

diffusion

movement of molecules so that they spread evenly. type of thermal motion

facilitated diffusion

movement of specific molecules across cell membranes through protein channels

sperm nucleus

moves through the pollen tube, then splits to form two sperm cells

cystic fibrosis symptoms

mucus build up in some internal organs; abnormal absorption of nuitrients in the small intestine

plants are defined as

multicelled, eukaryotic, photosynthetic autotrophs

skeletal muscle cells have

muscle specific versions of proteins and membrane receptor proteins

genetic differences produced by

mutation and sexual reproduction

embryonic lethals

mutations with phenotypes causing death at embryonic or larval stage

actin filaments in a muscle cell are interdigitated with thicker filaments of a protein called *; it acts as a microfilament-based motor protein

myosin

haploid

n

p53 gene

named for 53,000 dalton molecular weight of protein product, tumor-suppressor gene. protein it encodes promote synthesis of cell cycle-inhibiting proteins. Guardian angel of teh genome

hardy-Weinberg principle

named for british and german dudes from 1908. states that frequencies of alleles and genotypes will remain constant from generation to generation as long as only mendelian segregation and recombination are at work (in hardy-weinberg equilibrium)

causes of microevolution

natural selection, genetic drift, gene flow

greenhouse effect

natural situation in which heat is retained in Earth's atmosphere by carbon dioxide, methane, water vapor, and other gases

discovery science describes * through *

natural structures and processes; observation and analysis of data

pH

negative logarithy of hydrogen ion concentration

anion

negatively charged ion

electrons

negatively charged particles

cytoskeleton

network of fibers extending through cytoplasm, organizes activities, microtubules, microfilaments, and intermediate fibers. gives mechanical support and maintains shape.

endoplasmic reticulum

network of membranes in cytoplasm. continuous with nuclear envelope. network of membranous tubules and sacs called cisternae. separates internal compartment of ER (ER lumen or cisternal space) from cytosol

Enzymes called DNA polymerases catalyze the elongation of _____ at a replication fork.

new DNA

At the end of each replication bubble is a replication fork, a Y-shaped region when _____ are elongating.

new DNA strands

centrioles

nine triplet microtubules in a ring. resemble basal bodies

radioactive carbon decays to form

nitrogen

It was known that DNA is a polymer of _____, each consisting of a _____, a _____, and _____.

nitrogenous base, sugar, phosphate group

five conditions for HW

no mutations, random mating, no natural selection, extremely large population, no gene flow

isotonic

no net movement

prokaryotic cells

no nucleus, nucleoid, no membrane-bound organelles, cytoplasm

prokaryotic cells

no nucleus, nucleoid, no membrane-bound organelles, cytoplasm bound by plasma membrane

bryophytes

non-vascular plants. primitive plants that lack transport vessels (xylem and phloem) absorb water by difussion flagellated sperm lack lignen-fortified tissue needed for tall plants restricted to moist habitats role in terrestrial ecosystems grow on rocks, soil and trees

G0 phase

nondividing state in which a cell has left the cell cycle

abiotic factors

nonliving: temp, water, sunlight, wind, rocks, and soil

hydrophobic regions

nonpolar amino acids in alpha helices

tumor-suppressor genes

normal products inhibit cell division. proteins they encode help prevent uncontrolled cell growth

horses from

north america

keystone species

not abundent, but exert major control over other species in a community

Genetic Composition

not always revealed by traits; PP and Pp are both purple

characteristics of chloroplasts and mitochondria

not part of endomembrane system, double membrane, protein made by free ribosomes, have own DNA, semiautonomous

endomembrane system

nuclear envelope, ER, golgi, lysosomes, vacuoles, plasma membrane

nuclear envelope lined by

nuclear lamina

(Vocabulary) An enzyme that cuts DNA or RNA, either removing one or a few bases or hydrolyzing the DNA or RNA completely into its component nucleotides

nuclease

sieve cells are alive at maturity although they lack

nuclei, ribosomes, vacuoles

Each nucleotide that is added to a growing DNA strand is a _____ .

nucleoside triphosphate

(Vocabulary) A repair system that removes and then correctly replaces a damaged segment of DNA using the undamaged strand as a guide.

nucleotide excision repair

In _____, a nuclease cuts out and replaces damaged stretches of DNA.

nucleotide excision repair

almost all of mass of atom is in

nucleus

eukaryotic cells

nucleus, membrane-bound organelles, cytoplasm between plasma membrane and nucleus, larger than prokaryotic cells

gives each molecule unique properties

number and arrangement of functional groups

amplification increases

number of copies of PO

each atom that can share valence electrons has a bonding capacity corresponding to the

number of covalent bonds the atom can form

species richness

number of different species in community

atomic number tells number of protons and

number of electrons

daunting

number of genes (13700), mutations could be embryonic lethals, cytoplasmic determinants had to be studied as well

density

number of individuals per unit area or volume

coefficients indicate

number of molecules

molarity

number of moles of solute per liter of solution

zero population growth

number of people at each age group about the same and birth rates and death rates about equal

atomic number

number of protons

subscript before number

number of protons

mRNA produced in

nurse cells

nobel prize in 1995

nusslein-volhard, wieschaus, lewis

distinguished by

nutrition

endosperm

nutritive tissue surrounding the embryo within seeds of flowering plants

pheromones

odorless chemicals that serve as social signals to members of one's species

electrons of an atom have potential energy because

of how they are arranged in relation to the nucleus

traits also influence

offspring

Inheritance Patterns

often more complex than predicted by Mendelian genetics

chlorophyll b

olive green

discrete from * gene locus with * alleles and quantitative from

one, different, two or more genes on a single phenotypic character

herbaceous plants

only primary growth

stomates

open and close to exxchange gas and minimize water loss

low NPP high global NPP

open oceans

stomates

openings in leaf tissue that gases normally move into and out of

operon

operator, promoter, genes they control

key properties of life

order, regulation, response to the environment, evolutionary adaptation, grown and development, reproduction, energy processing

even cells that don't have mitochondria, like giardia, have

organelles that probably evolved form mitochondria

substrate molecule

organic molecule generated as an intermediate during catabolism of glucose

hydrocarbons

organic molecules consisting of only carbon and hydrogen

inheritance of acquired characteristics

organism passes on modifications

fossils document

origins of major new groups

(Vocabulary) Site where the replication of a DNA molecule begins, consisting of a specific sequence of nucleotides.

origins of replication

autosomes

other chromosomes

cortex

outer cytoplasmic layer of cell

valence shell

outermost electron shell

valence electrons

outermost electrons

the chemical behavior of an atom depends mostly on the number of electrons in the

outermost shell

molecules that start on the inside face of the er end up on

outside of PM

how many species extinct

over 99%

body plan

overall three d arrangement. must be established and superimposed on the differentiation process

Topoisomerase corrects "_____" ahead of replication forks by breaking, swiveling, and _____ DNA strands.

overwinding, rejoining

in citric acid cycle, Acetyl CoA combines with * to form *

oxaloacetate to form citrate

peroxisomes

oxidative organelles that use peroxidase to dissolve stuff; specialized metabolic compartments bounded by a single membrane. break down h2o2. detoxifies things, transfers hydrogen from susbtrates to oxygen. grow larger by incroporating proteins in cytosol, lipids in ER, and lipids in peroxisome

fermentation

oxidization without ETC or oxygen

fuel is * and oxygen is *

oxidized, reduced

NAD+ functions as a(n) * during respiration

oxidizing agent

cyt a3 passes electrons to

oxygen

more negative in water

oxygen

one of the most electronegative elements

oxygen

partial negative

oxygen

pulls electrons down the chain

oxygen

in cells, partners usually

oxygen or nitrogen

strongest biological oxidizing agent known

p680+

acid precipitation

pH lower than 5.2

how do kinetochore microtubules function in pole-ward movement of chromosomes

pacman or reeled in

homozygous

pair of identical alleles for a character

single bond

pair of shared electrons

colonized land during

paleozoic area

three types of ground tissue

parenchyma, collenchyma, sclerenchyma

cortex

parenchymal cells with plastids for storage of starch and such

gary borisy's lab at university of wisconsin

parman mechanism

fermentation

partial degradation of sugars without oxygen

subatomic particles

particles inside an atom (protons, neutrons, electrons)

ribosomes

particles of rRNA and protein; carry out protein synthesis

internal membranes

partition cells into organelles; many have enzymes

use and disuse

parts that are used get longer and stronger, those that aren't deteriorate

food chain

path along wchich food is transferred from one trophic (feeding) level to another

evolution in two different ways

pattern and process

development of spatial organization in which the tissues and organs of an organism are all in their characteristic places

pattern formation

dispersion

pattern of spacing of individuals within the area the population inhabits

sugars with 5

pentose

cooperation

people working together for a common goal

replace rubisco in c4 plants

pep carboxylase

amino acids formed by

peptide bonds

in 1911 discovered virus that causes cancer in chickens

peyton rous

metaphase

phase of mitosis in which chromosomes line up in the center of the cell

anaphase

phase of mitosis in which sister chromatids are pulled to opposite sides of the cell

In 1952, Hershey and Chase performed experiments showing that DNA is the genetic material of a _____ known as _____. To determine the source of genetic material in the phase, they designed an experiment showing that only one of the two components of T2 enters an _____ cell during infection.

phase, T2, E.Coli cell

make up 4%

phosphorous, sulfur, calcium, potassium, sodium, chlorine, magnesium

The terminal functional group on the 5' end is _____, and the terminal function group on the 3' end is _____.

phosphorus, hydroxyl

why are glucose numbers inexact

phosphorylation and redox aren't directly coupled. ATP yield varies depending on type of shuttle. Proton motive-force may drive other work

photosynthesis generates * and * used by mitochondria for cellular respiration

photosynthesis

PKU

phynylketonuria, metabolic disorder with phenylalanine

Phenotypes include

physical appearance, physiology, internal anatomy, behavior; reflects its overall genotype and unique environmental history

morphogenesis

physical processes that give organism shape

B.F. Skinner

pioneer of operant conditioning who believed that everything we do is determined by our past history of rewards and punishments. he is famous for use of his operant conditioning aparatus which he used to study schedules of reinforcement on pidgeons and rats.

water passes from one cell to another through *, areas with no secondary cell wall

pits

abscisic acid

plant hormone that inhibits cell division in buds and vascular cambium

auxins

plant hormones that promote cell elongation

epiphytes

plants such as mosses, lichens, and orchids, that grow on other plants but do not take nutrients from them

day-neutral plants

plants whose flowering cycle is not sensitive to periods of light and dark

photosynthesis occurs in

plants, algae, protists, prokaryotes

all cells

plasma membrane, cytosol, chromosomes, ribosomes

basic features of all cells

plasma membrane, cytosol, chromosomes, ribosomes

holes in cell wall

plasmodesmata

acid rain caused by

pollutants in water and air

sporopollenin

polymer resistant to damage in spores and pollen

polysaccharide

polymers of sugars with storage and structural roles

DNA polymerases cannot initiate synthesis of a _____; they can only add nucleotides to the _____ end.

polynucleotide, 3

nucleic acids are polymers called

polynucleotides

polymers of amino acids

polypeptides

carbohydrate macromolecules

polysaccharides

communities made of

pops that interact with env't and each other

lines each pore

pore complex; intricate protein structure that regulates entry and exit of RNA and macromolecules

central activities of biology

posing questions, seeking science-based answers

molecular shape determined by

position of atoms' orbitals

differing ring structure of glucose result from

position of hydroxyl on carbon 1 (alpha is below, beta is above)

the molecular cues that control pattern formation

positional information

cation

positively charged ion

nuclear matrix

possible framework of fibers in nuclear interior

"Blending" Hypothesis "Particulate" Hypothesis

possible genetic principles that account for the transmission of traits from parents to offspring

in hypothesis based, deductions usually

predictions

hypothesis leads to *

predictions that can be tested

(Vocabulary) An enzyme that joins RNA nucleotides to make the primer using the parental DNA strand as a template.

primase

(Vocabulary) A short stretch of RNA with a free 3' end, bound by complementary base pairing to the template strand, that is elongated with DNA nucleotides during DNA replication.

primer

Most DNA polymerases require a _____ and a _____.

primer, DNA template strand

read lyells'

principles of geology

addition rule

probability that one of two ore more mutually exclusive events will occur is calculated by adding their individual probabilities

eutrophication

process by which a body of water becomes too rich in dissolved nutrients, leading to plant growth that depletes oxygen

endocytosis

process by which a cell takes material into the cell by infolding of the cell membrane

cell differentiation

process by which cells become specialized in structure and function

pinocytosis

process by which certain cells can engulf and incorporate droplets of fluid. nonspecific

cleavage

process by which cytokinesis occurs

crossing-over

process by which homologous chromosomes exchange pieces, resulting in greater genetic variety

natural selection

process in which individuals with certain inherited traits leave more offspring than individuals with other traits

phagocytosis

process in which phagocytes engulf and digest microorganisms and cellular debris, wraps pseudopodia around and forms vacuole

origin of replication

process of cell division initiated when DNA of bacterial chromosome begins to replicate on this specific place on chromosome, producing two origins

evolution

process of change that has transformed life on earth from its earliest beginnings to dthe diversity of organisms living today

hydrogenation

process of converting unsaturated fats to saturated fats by adding hydrogen

cellular respiration

process that releases energy by breaking down glucose and other food molecules in the presence of oxygen. uses aerobic and anaerobic processes

F2 Generation

produced when F1 individuals pollinate with each other; 2nd familial generation

autotrophs

producer that makes organic molecules from carbon dioxide and inorganic molecules

energy in food flows

producers to herbivores to carnivores

bicoid phenotype suggested that

product of mother's bicoid gene essential for setting up anterior end of fly and might be concentrated at future anterior end of embryo

negative G indicates

products store less energy that reactants and reaction can happen spontaneously

genes

program

anaerobic respiration in

prokaryotes that live without oxygen. Use ETC and sulfate ion at end of respiratory chain. produce H2S

anaerobic respiration

prokaryotic cells use substances other than oxygen as reactants

point mutation in

promoter or enhancer that controls PO, increasing expression or in coding sequence, changing genes product to protein that is more active or more resistant to degradation

methylation of histone tails

promotes condensation

most important part of meiosis is * because

prophase I, crossing over

bound to proteins

prosthetic groups, nonprotein components essential for the catalytic functions of certain enzymes

seed coat

protective outer layer of seeds of flowering plants

cell wall

protects, maintains shape, prevents uptake of water. thicker than membrane and .1 to several micrometers

capsule

protein coating adaptation

nuclear lamina

protein lattice that adds to shape of nucleus

growth factor

protein released by certain cells that stimulates other cells to divide

cyclin

protein that gets name from cyclically fluctuating concentration in the cell

When T.H. Morgan's group showed that genes are located on chromosomes, the two components of chromosomes-_____ and _____-became candidates for the genetic material.

protein, DNA

determine membrane functions

proteins

bound ribosomes usually make

proteins for insertion in membranes; lysosomes.

channel proteins

proteins that provide passageways through the membrane for certain hydrophilic (water-soluble) substances such as polar and charged molecules

transcription factors

proteins that switch on genes by binding to DNA and helping the RNA polymerase to bind

free ribosomes usually make

proteins that work in cytosol; ex. enzymes that catalyze sugar breakdown

in 5 kingdom era, single celled eukaryotes were in kingdom

protista

Domain eukarya contains

protistangroups, plantae, fungi, and animalia

normal version of cellular genes

proto-oncogenes

main electrogenic pump of plants, fungi, and bacteria

proton pump (pumps hydrogen ions out of cell)

atomic nucleus

protons and neutrons; core; center; positive charge

Mendel's Law of Segregation

proved blending hypothesis is incorrect

localized contraction of actin and myosin play role in amoeboid

pseudopodia

energy must be added to

pull an atom away from an atom

contractile vacuoles

pump excess water

similarities between chloroplasts and mitochondria

pump protons (from mitochondrial matrix to intermembrane space or from stroma into thylakoid space)

alcohol fermentation

pyruvate is converted to ethanol in two steps. first releases co2 from pyruvate, which is converted to acetaldehyde. then acetaldehyde is reduced by NADH to ethanol

lactic acid fermentation

pyruvate reduced directly by NADH to form lactate with no release of CO2

heat of vaporization

quantity of heat a liquid must absorb for 1 go to be converted to gas

echinodermata

radially symmetrical marine invertebrates including e.g. starfish and sea urchins and sea cucumbers

carbon 14 is

radioactive

acid rain

rain containing acids that form in the atmosphere when industrial gas emissions (especially sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides) combine with water

calorie

raise 1g by 1 degree C

genetic drift

random change in allele frequencies that occurs in small populations (founder effect and bottlenecking). significant in small populations. can cause allele frequencies to change at random. can lead to loss of genetic variation within populations. can cause harmful alleles to become fixed

cause cancer

random mutations, environmental influences, chemical carcinogens, radiation, viruses

three to one, 3:1

ratio of purple flowers to white flowers in the F2 generation

magnification

ratio of size to real size

one phosphate may be split off as a result of

reaction with water (HOPO32-) ADP

dynamic equilibrium

reactions still going on, but with no net effect on the concentrations of reactants and products. concentrations in a ratio

at organismal level, TS is

recessive

data

recorded observations; info on which scientific inquiry is based

chemical elements essential to life are

recycled

gametophyte generation

reduced

cholesterol function

reduces fluiditiy at moderate, hinders solidification at low

base

reduces hydrogen ion concentration

reductionism

reduction of complex systems to simpler components that are more manageable to study

concentration gradient

region along which density of substance decreases

cell cycle differences result from

regulation at the molecular level

APC's functions

regulation of cell migration and adhesion

homology

related species with characteristics with underlying similarity even though they have different functions

chromatin

relaxed form of DNA and proteins

ras protein, encoded by ras gene, is a G protein that

relays signal from growth factor receptor on PM to a cascade of protein kinases that synthesizes protein that stimulates cell cycle

hydrocarbons can undergo reactions that

release a large amount of energy

nike tinbergen

releasers are environmental factors which cause special behaviors, visual responses

releases energy stored in organic molecules and this energy is used to synthesize ATP

relocation of electrons

fossils

remains or traces of organisms form past in sedimentary rocks

protein products of tumor suppressor genes

repair damaged DNA, control adhesion of cells, are components of cell-signaling pathways that inhibit cell cycle

evidence must stand up to the criterion of

repeatability

hydrophobic

repels water

dinoflagellates

replicated chromosomes are attached to nuclear envelope and separate as the nucleus elongates prior to dividing.

(Vocabulary) A Y-shaped region on a replicating DNA molecule where the parental strands are being unwound and new strands are growing.

replication fork

homologous structures

represent variations on structural scheme present in common ancestor

model

representation of natural phenomena

models

representation of natural phenomena; diagrams, 3d objects, computer programs, equations

structural formula

represents the covalent bonds by dashes and shows the arrangement of covalently bonded atoms

r-strategists

reproduce rapidly when env't is uncrowded and resources vast: many young, little parenting, rapid maturation, small young, reproduce once (insect)

asexual reproduction

reproduction that does not involve the union of gametes and in which a single parent produces offspring that are genetically identical to the parent

ability of cells to divide- basis of

reproduction, growth, repair

analogous

resemble but not related

two related outcomes other than extinction when two species in habit same niche

resource partitioning, character displacement

gravitropism

response of a plant to the force of gravity

geotropism

response to earth's gravity, as the growing of roots downward in the ground

hydrolysis

reverse of dehydration; disassembles polymers into monomers; "break using water"

3tc interferes with

reverse transcriptase

all chemical reacations are

reversible

most of world depends on * for survival

rice, beans, soy, corn, wheat

cellulose fibrils oriented at * to cell expansion

right angels

monosaccharides form * in aqueous solutions

rings

credited w/ nucleus

robert brown

slender cytoplasmic projections from epidermal cells called * extend from each cell and increase absorptive surface area

root hairs

branch roots

roots branch from the inside, not from axillary buds. They push from the ground tissue and epidermis unitl it emerges from the primary root

aerial roots

roots that never touch the ground & take in moisture from the air

most abundant protein on earth

rubisco

pace sequential events of the cell cycle

rythmic fluctuations

lysosome

sac of hydrolytic enzymes. hydrolyze proteins, fats, polysaccharides, and nucleic acids. work best in acidic lysosomes. Made by rough ER and edited by golgi. special shape prevents it from being digested

golgi apparatus

sacs of cisternae. cis back and trans front

membranes as fluid as

salad oil

geometric isomers

same covalent arrangements but different spatial arrangements

scientists use * to estimate number of organisms living in one area

sampling techniques

most animal fats are

saturated

* mocks coral snake

scarlet kingsnake

deternimed that all plants are made of cells

schleiden

determined that all animals are made of cells

schwann

idealized process of inquiry

scientific method

inquiry

search for information and explanation

lateral meristem provides *

secondary growth

woody plants

secondary growth responsible for thickening of roots and shoots

Mendel made observations in other pea plant characteristics

seed color, flower position, seed shape

control elements

segments of noncoding DNA that help regulate transcription bby binding certain proteins

plasma membrane

selective barrier; phospholipid bilayer. Phospholipids, proteins, cholesterol

(Vocabulary) Type of DNA replication in which the replicated double helix consists of one old strand, derived from the old molecule, and one newly made strand.

semiconservative model

Watson and Crick's _____ of replication predicts that when a double helix replicates, each daughter molecules will have one old strand and one newly made strand.

semiconservative model

differing effects of enantiomers demonstrate that organisms are

sensitive to even subtle variations in molecules

Replication begins at special sites called origins of replication, where the two DNA strands are _____, opening up a replication "_____." Replication proceeds in both directions from each _____, until the entire molecule is _____.

separated, bubble, origin, copied

cell fractionation

separates major organelles and sub cellular structures

glucose and other organic fuels are broken down in

series of steps, each catalyzed by an enzyme

gamete

sex cell, sperm or egg

most genetic vatriation from

sexual reproduction

covalent bond

sharing of pair of valence electrons by 2 atoms

an electron loses potential energy when it

shifts form a less electronegative atom toward a more electronegative one

sclereids

short and irregular in shapes. make up seed coats and pits

The primer is _____ , and the _____ end serves as the serving point for the new DNA strand.

short, 3

Recessively inherited disorders

show only in individuals homozygous for the allele; mating between relatives can increase the probablility of the appearance of them; examples cystic fibrosis, sickle-cell disease

survivorship or mortality curves

show size and composition of population

type 1

shows organisms with low death rates in young and middle age and high mortality in old age. Lots of parenting (humans)

action spectrum demonstrated by

Engelmenn using algae

ultimate causes

Evolutionary conditions that have slowly shaped the behaviour of a species over generations

When _____ mixed heat-killed remains of pathogenic strain with living cells of the harmless strain, some living cells became _____. He called this phenomenon _____.

Griffith, pathogenic, transformation

positive tropism

Growth towards a stimulus

diploblastic

Having two germ layers.

What happened in 1935

Hugh Davson and James Danielli suggested that the membrane was coated on both sides with hydrophilic proteins, because the surface of a phospholipid bilayer consisting of pure phospholipids adheres less strongly to water than does the surface of a biological membrane

factors that affect the rate of transpiration

Humidity of The Air. Wind Movement. Temperature of The Air. Light

Mendelian Crosses

Monohybrid; crosses that work with a single character at a time, example purple x white flowers, tall x short stems

cline

graded change in character along geographic axis

morphogen gradient hypothesis

gradients of substances called morphogens establish an embryo's axes and other features of its form

Meiosis

A two-stage type of cell division in sexually reproducing organisms that results in gamates with half the chromosome number of the original cell

agonistic behavior

A type of behavior involving a contest of some kind that determines which competitor gains access to some resource, such as food or mates.

desert

A type of biome characterized by low moisture levels and infrequent and unpredictable precipitation. Daily and seasonal temperatures fluctuate widely

fibrous root system

A root system common to monocots consisting of a mat of thin roots spreading out below the soil surface.

phytochrome

A type of light receptor in plants that mostly absorbs red light and regulates many plant responses, such as seed germination and shade avoidance.

bundle sheath cells

A type of photosynthetic cell arranged into tightly packed sheaths around the veins of a leaf.

Sex Chromosomes

One of the 23 pairs of chromosomes in the human, contains genes that will determine the sex of the individual

halophiles

"salt-loving" archaea that live in environments that have very high salt concentrations

formula for mark and recapture

((number marked in first catch)(total number in second catch))/ number of recaptures in second catch

clone

(1) A lineage of genetically identical individuals or cells. (2) In popular usage, a single individual organism that is genetically identical to another individual (3) As a verb, to make one or more genetic replicas of an individual or cell.

radicle

(anatomy) a small structure resembling a rootlet (such as a fibril of a nerve)

*plant evolution diagram

...

*study glycolysis cycle*

...

*study images*

...

Cyclin-dependent kinases

...

ETC makes no ATP directly

...

after fertilization and laying of egg, larva gors through larval stages

...

all living things require water more than anything else

...

all of life connected

...

anchoraged signaled to cell cycle control system via pathways involvnig plasma membrane proteins and elements of the cytoskeleton linked to tehm

...

cancer cells exhibit neither density-dependent inhibition nor anchorage dependence

...

cytoskeletal elements and motor proteins work with plama membrane

...

discovery science works and doesn't necessarily use scientific method

...

dissociation of water molecules rare but important

...

fish to vertebrates to amphibians

...

form fits function

...

formula for photosynthesis

...

info about ECM probably reaches nucleus by mecanical and chemical signaling pathways. (Mechanical include fibronectin, integrins, and microfilaments). Changes in cytoskeleton may trigger chemical signals, leading to changes in proteins being made by cell and therefore changes in teh cell's funciton

...

methylation patterns are passed on

...

most scientists work in teams, communicate, etc

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most solar radiation deflected by atmosphere

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mutation in ras leads to hyperactive cell division

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natural selection ins not the only mechanism for evolution

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noncoding RNAs can regulate gene expression at multiple steps

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november 1859; on the origin of species by means of natural selection

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observations that can't be verified cannot count as evidence

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on allele by allele basis

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opiates have shapes similar to endoprhins and bind to endorphin receptors

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origins possible anchored there by proteins

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stabilize soil and provide home for insects and animals

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study charts

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non motile cilia

... acts as antenna for ell. primary cilicia. present in most vertabrates. membrane proteins transmit molecular signals to interior and trigger sugnal pathways. brain function and embryonic development

Photosystem II

One of two light-harvesting units of a chloroplast's thylakoid membrane; it uses the P680 reaction-center chlorophyll.

*% efficient

40

polymers are constructed from only * to * common monomers

40 to 50

vegetative propagation

A form of asexual reproduction in which plants produce genetically identical offshoots (clones) of themselves, which then develop into independent plants.

Photosystem I

One of two light-harvesting units of a chloroplast's thylakoid membrane; it uses the P700 reaction-center chlorophyll.

lateral meristem

A meristem that thickens the roots and shoots of woody plants. The vascular cambium and cork cambium are lateral meristems.

photorespiration

A metabolic pathway that consumes oxygen, releases carbon dioxide, generates no ATP, and decreases photosynthetic output; generally occurs on hot, dry, bright days, when stomata close and the oxygen concentration in the leaf exceeds that of carbon. dioxide. protects plants

feedback inhibition

A method of metabolic control in which the end product of a metabolic pathway acts as an inhibitor of an enzyme within that pathway.

biological control

A method of pest control that involves the use of naturally occurring disease organisms, parasites, or predators to control pests

linear electron flow

A route of electron flow during the light reactions of photosynthesis that involves both photosystems (I and II) and produces ATP, NADPH, and O2. The net electron flow is from H2O to NADP+.

C4 plants

A plant that prefaces the Calvin cycle with reactions that incorporate CO2 into four-carbon compounds, the end product of which supplies CO2 for the Calvin cycle. bundle sheath and besophyll

C3 plants

A plant that uses the Calvin cycle for the initial steps that incorporate CO2 into organic material, forming a three-carbon compound as the first stable intermediate.

chemiosmosis

A process for synthesizing ATP using the energy of an electrochemical gradient and the ATP synthase enzyme.

Mitosis

A process of nuclear division in eukaryotic cells conventionally divided into five stages: prophase,prometaphase,metaphase,anaphase,and telophase.

bundle sheath

A protective covering around a leaf vein, consisting of one or more cell layers, usually parenchyma.

gated channels

A protein channel in a cell membrane that opens or closes in response to a particular stimulus (chemical or electrical)

catabolite activator protein

A protein that can bind to the CAP binding site upstream of certain prokaryotic operons, facilitating binding of RNA polymerase and stimulating gene expression.

acoelomates

A solid-bodied animal lacking a cavity between the gut and outer body wall.

cnidocytes

A specialized cell for which the phylum Cnidaria is named; consists of a capsule containing a fine coiled thread, which, when discharged, functions in defense and prey capture

primary electron acceptor

A specialized molecule sharing the reaction center with the pair of reaction-center chlorophyll a molecules; it accepts an electron from one of these two chlorophylls.

Kinetochore

A specialized region of the centromere that links each sister chromatid to the mitotic spindle. structure of proteins associated with specific sections

transport proteins

A transmembrane protein that helps a certain substance or class of closely related substances to cross the membrane.

tumor-suppressor gene involved in colorectal cancer

APC, adenomatous polyposis coli

respiration breaks fuel down, generating

ATP

primary energy-transferring molecule

ATP (adenosine triphosphate)

part of complex spuns around when reaction proceed in direction of

ATP hydrolysis (Hiroyasu Itoh and colleagues)

energy payoff

ATP produced by substrate-level phosphorylation and NAD+ is reduced to NADH from the oxidation of glucose

trace element

An element indispensable for life but required in extremely minute amounts.

inducible enzymes

An enzyme whose transcription can be stimulated by an abundance of its substrate (as opposed to repressible enzyme). Usually in catabolism.

sign stimuli

An external sensory stimulus that triggers a fixed action pattern

spectrophotometer

An instrument that measures the proportions of light of different wavelengths absorbed and transmitted by a pigment solution.

electrogenic pump

An ion transport protein that generates voltage across a membrane.

cytochromes

An iron-containing (heme group) protein that is a component of electron transport chains in the mitochondria and chloroplasts of eukaryotic cells and the plasma membranes of prokaryotic cells

dominance hierarchies

An observed ranking system in primate societies ordering individuals from high (alpha) to low standing corresponding to predictable behavioral interactions including domination.

light microscope

An optical instrument with lenses that refract (bend) visible light to magnify images of specimens. limited by wavelength. up to 1000X

Cell Cycle

An ordered sequence of events in the life of a dividing eukaryotic cell, composed of the M, G1, S, and G2 phases

extremophiles

An organism that requires an extreme environment in which to flourish; some exist in environments with extremely high temperatures or in extremely salty environments.

chordata

Animals with notochord, a dorsal nerve cord, a postanal tail, and pharyngeal gill slits at some time in their lives. Most are vertebrates, though some are not. [E.g. of invertebrates: tunicates, amphioxus, and acorn worms]. Includes fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals.

Crafted lenses

Antoni von Leeuwenhoek

Somatic Cell

Any cell in a multicellular organism except a sperm or egg cell.

konrad lorenz

Austrian zoologist who studied the behavior of birds and emphasized the importance of innate as opposed to learned behaviors (1903-1989)

particulate hypothesis

Black and White marbles shaken together; each retain their own characteristics

_____ state that in any species there is an equal number of A and T bases, and an equal number of G and C bases.

Chargaff's rule

homologous chromosomes

Chromosome pairs of the same length, centromere position, and staining pattern that possess genes for the same characters at corresponding loci. One homologous chromosome is inherited from the organism's father, the other from the mother.

apical dominance

Concentration of growth at the tip of a plant shoot, where a terminal bud partially inhibits axillary bud growth.

when mutations don't hurt

DNA that doesn't code for protein, redundancy of amino acids, change may not alter amino acid function

central dogma

DNA-RNA-Protein

individuals

DO NOT EVOLVE

investigated role of microtubules in orienting cellulose fibrils

David Ehrhardt.

apical meristem

Embryonic plant tissue in the tips of roots and in the buds of shoots that supplies cells for the plant to grow in length.

most important checkpoint in mammalian cells

G1. exits cycle and goes to g0 phase. Most cells in human body are in this phase

product

G3P

* developed competitive exclusion principle after studying effects of interspecific competition of paramecium

GF Gause

net primary productivity

GPP minus energy used by producers for cellular respiration

james hutton

GRADUAL MECHANISMS OF EARTH'S GEologic features still operating

in animals, step 5 produces. plants produce

GTP by substrate-level phosphorylatiion; ATP

centrioles

Function: Help organize microtubule assembly, although not essential for this function in eukaryotic cells. Also help with cell division. Structure: 9 sets of triplet microtubules arranged in a ring structure.

proton-motive force

H+ gradient that drives H+ through H+ channels

in straight structures (beta), * atoms on one strand can bond with * on other strands

H, OH groups

multiprotein complexes labeled

I to IV

names for citric acid cycle

Krebs for Hans Krebs, German-British scientist; tricarboxylic acid cycle

aortic arches

Large and muscular tubes. By means of alternate contraction and relaxation, they keep the blood flowing.

macromolecules

Large molecules that are formed by joining smaller organic molecules together

2nd Law of Inheritance

Law of Independent Assortment; Mendel followed two characters at the same time and crossed two, true-breeding parents differing in two characters; produces dihybrids in the F1 generation, heterozygous for both characters

Mendelian Inheritance governed by

Law of Probability

1st Law of Inheritance

Law of Segregation; Mendel followed a single trait, color and the F1 offspring produced in this cross were monohybrids heterozygous for one character

associative learning

Learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning).

pigment

Light-absorbing molecule

sexual dimorphism

Marked differences between the secondary sex characteristics of males and females

- of histones protrudes outward

N terminus

most versatile electron acceptor in cellular respiration and functions in several redox steps in breakdown of glucose

NAD+

most energy transferred to * and * during citric acid cycle

NAD+ and FAD

account for most of energy extracted from glucose in glycolysis and citric acid cycle

NADH and FADH2

hydrogen ions usually passed first to electron carrier

NAD^+ (derivative of niacin)

(Vocabulary) A short segment of DNA synthesized away from the replication fork on a template strand during DNA replication, many of which are joined together to make up the lagging strand of newly synthesized DNA.

Okazaki fragments

The lagging strand is synthesized as a series of segments called _____ , which are joined together by _____ .

Okazaki fragments, DNA ligase

"either-or manner" "true-breeding"

Only variation of characteristics Mendel tracked

to include silent mutations

PCR-based methods and restriction fragment analysis

250 mya

Pangaea

tubular heart

Part of an insects circulatory system; contracts and pushes blood to cavities for gas exchange to occur between cells

awarded Nobel prize in 1978 for proposing chemiosmotic model

Peter mitchell

taproot

Primary root found in some plants that grows longer and thicker than other roots

peripheral proteins

Protein appendages loosely bound to the surface of the membrane and not embedded in the lipid bilayer.

bolting

Rapid lengthening of internodes caused by gibberellic acid

cyclic AMP

Secondary chemical messenger that directs the synthesis of protein by ribosomes

nematoda

Roundworms; soil; pseudocoelomates; complete digestive tract; may be parasitic

1972

S.J. Singer and G. Nicolson proposed that membrane proteins are dispersed in bilayer with hydrophilic regions protruding

myoblasts

Stem cells that fuse to form skeletal muscle during embryonic development, with the result that the mature cells are long cylinders with multiple nuclei.

cytokinins

Stimulates cell division and growth of lateral buds. Causes dormant seeds to sprout.

aldose

Sugar containing an aldehyde group C=O (carbonyl is at the end)

Chiasmata

The X-shaped, microscopically visible region representing homologous chromatids that have exchanged genetic material through crossing over during meiosis.

Karyotype

The appearance of the chromosomal makeup of a somatic cell in an individual or species (including the number and arrangement and size and structure of the chromosomes)

cotransport

The coupling of the "downhill" diffusion of one substance to the "uphill" transport of another against its own concentration gradient.

differential gene expression

The expression of different sets of genes by cells with the same genome.

guttation

The exudation of water droplets, caused by root pressure in certain plants.

G1 phase

The first growth phase of the cell cycle, consisting of the portion of interphase before DNA synthesis begins.

receptor-mediated endocytosis

The movement of specific molecules into a cell by the inward budding of membranous vesicles containing proteins with receptor sites specific to the molecules being taken in; enables a cell to acquire bulk quantities of specific substances. Enables the cell to acquire bulk quantities of specific substances

estuaries

The lower end of a river, where it meets ocean. Saltwater and freshwater mix here. Estuaries are known to be very productive.

synapsis

The pairing of replicated homologous chromosomes during prophase I of meiosis

Anaphase

The part of the mitotic cell cycle where the daughter chromosome pairs are being pulled to opposite poles.

Interphase

The period in the cell when the cell is not dividing. During interphase, cellular metabolic activity is high, chromosomes and organelles are duplicated, and cell size may increase

G2 phase

The second growth phase of the cell cycle, consisting of the portion of interphase after DNA synthesis occurs.

Mitotic Phase

The shortest part of the cell cycle that includes mitosis and cytokinesis.

S Phase

The synthesis phase of the cell cycle, constituting the portion of interphase during which DNA is replicated.

MPF

This is formed when cyclin-dependent kinase and cyclin come together during interphase. This phosphorylates things like the nuclear envalope to make it unstable so it will break apart. It also phosphorylates the binding proteins on chromosomes to break them down into chromatids.

stickleback fish

Tinbergen, males develop red coloration on belly, which is the releasing stimulus for attacks; males attacked red-bellied crude models rather than the detailed but non-red models

transpirational pull

Transpirational pull is the main phenomenon driving the flow of water in the xylem tissues of large plants.Transpirational pull results ultimately from the evaporation of water from the surfaces of cells in the interior of the leaves. This evaporation causes the surface of the water to recess into the pores of the cell wall. Inside the pores, the water forms a concave meniscus. The high surface tension of water pulls the concavity outwards, generating enough force to lift water as high as a hundred meters from ground level to a tree's highest branches. Transpirational pull only works because the vessels transporting the water are very small in diameter, otherwise cavitation would break the water column. And as water evaporates from leaves, more is drawn up through the plant to replace it. When the water pressure within the xylem reaches extreme levels due to low water input from the roots (if, for example, the soil is dry), then the gases come out of solution and form a bubble - an embolism forms, which will spread quickly to other adjacent cells, unless bordered pits are present (these have a plug-like structure called a torus, that seals off the opening between adjacent cells and stops the embolism from spreading).

tundra

Treeless arctic or alpine biome characterized by cold, harsh winters, a short growing season, and potential for frost any month of the year; vegetation includes low-growing perennial plants, mosses and lichens

integral proteins

Typically transmembrane proteins with hydrophobic regions that completely span the hydrophobic interior of the membrane.

developed dyes that allowed him to observe behavior of chromosomes during mitosis and cytokinesis. Coined terms mitosis and chromatin

Walther Flemming

1857

When Mendel began his research with peas

Recessive Flower Color Gene

White; only produces its type when its paired with another recessive

Wilkins and Franklin were using a technique called _____ to study molecule structure.

X-ray crystallography

embryonic root

[...] is the part of the embryo that grows into the root of the plant

ivan pavlov

a Russian researcher in the early 1900s who was the first research into learned behavior (conditioning) who discovered classical conditioning

coelom

a cavity in the mesoderm of an embryo that gives rise in humans to the pleural cavity and pericardial cavity and peritoneal cavity

molecular formula

a chemical formula that shows the number and kinds of atoms in a molecule, but not the arrangement of the atoms.

Epistasis

a gene at one locus alters the phenotypic expression of a gene at a second locus

Pleiotropy

a gene has multiple phenotypic effects; causes problems like cystic fibrosis, sickle-cell disease.

clade

a group of biological taxa or species that share features inherited from a common ancestor

clone

a group of genetically identical cells or organisms derived from a single cell or individual by some kind of asexual reproduction

gibberellins

a growth hormone that causes a wide variety of effects. One role is to stimulate growth of stems by promoting cell division. Farmers use it to make fruit grow larger.

character

a heritable feature that varies among individuals for example flower color

Mendel's Model

a hypothesis that explains the 3:1 inheritance pattern among the F2 offspring

ozone layer

a layer in the stratosphere (at approximately 20 miles) that contains a concentration of ozone sufficient to block most ultraviolet radiation from the sun

two polar bodies

a mature fertilized zygote will have

three types of plant tissue

dermal, vascular, ground

evolution

descent with modification

sessile

describes an organism that remains attached to a surface for its entire life and does not move

discovery

describing

qualitative

descriptions

pyramidal shape characteristic of * nations with half of the population under the age of *

developing, 20

functions of cell division in multicellular organisms

development, growth, repair

located genes on fly's genetic map and connected

developmental abnormalities to specific genes

gametosphyte

give rides to gametes by mitosis

biosphere

global ecosystem

fuel for cells

glucose

most common monosaccharide

glucose (c6h12o6)

energy flow in respiration

glucose- NADH- ETC- proton-motive force - ATP

downhill route of cellular respiration

glucose-NADH-ETC-Oxygen

function of middle lamina

glues adjacent cells together

fat

glycerol and fatty acids

animals store a polysaccharide called *, a polymer of * that is like amylopectin but more *

glycogen, glucose, extensively branched

most respiring cells deriving energy from glucose use * to produce starting material for citric acid cycle

glycolysis

pathways of respiration

glycolysis, citric acid cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation

extracellular matrix

glycoproteins (proteins with covalently bonded carbohydrate)

glucoproteins made in

golgi

food chain not dependent on sun

one around deep-ocean thermal vents

polar covalent bond

one atom is bonded to a more electronegative atom

point mutation

one base in a gene

parasitism

one benefits, other harmed (tapeworm)

commensalism

one benefits, other is neutral (barnacles)

monotcots

one cotyledon, scattered vascular bundles, parallel leaf venation, flowers in 3s, fibrous roots

self-pollination

one flower as both parents; results in pure-bred offspring where the offspring are identical to the parents

radioactive isotope

one in which the nucleus decays spontaneously, giving off particles and energy

identified proteins

one looks like tubulin. one looks like actin

myoD

one of several "master regulatory genes" that produce proteins that commit the cell to becoming skeletal muscle; transcription factor that binds to enhancers of various target genes. stimulates expressino of myoD gene. coordinately controlled

polyp

one of two forms that coelenterates take e.g. a hydra or coral: usually sedentary and has a hollow cylindrical body usually with a ring of tentacles around the mouth

medusa

one of two forms that coelenterates take: is the free-swimming sexual stage in the life cycle of a coelenterate and has a gelatinous umbrella-shaped body and tentacles

unsaturated fatty acids

one or more double bonds (cis bond)

protein

one ore more polypeptides

protostome coelomates

the mouth develops first in the digestive tract (mollusks, annelids and arthropods)

migration

the movement of persons from one country or locality to another

senescence

the organic process of growing older and showing the effects of increasing age

ectoderm

the outer germ layer that develops into skin and nervous tissue

hypocotyl

the part of a plant embryo directly below the cotyledons, forming a connection with the radicle.

neutrons

the particles of the nucleus that have no charge

inheritance

the passing of traits from parents to offspring

density-dependent inhibition

the phenomenon observed in normal animal cells that causes them to stop dividing when they come into contact with one another