Biology AP Exam
cyclic electron flow
uses photosystem I. electrons cycle from ferredoxin to cytochrome complex to generate ATP (photosynthetic bacteria) grow well in low light. photoprotective
Quantitative Variation
usually indicates polygenic inheritance
inducible operon
usually off, but can be stimulated (induced) when a specific small molecule interacts with a regulatory protein (example lac operon)
proved oxygen comes from water
van niel
In 1950, Erwin Chargaff reported that DNA composition _____ from one species to the next. This evidence of _____ made DNA a more credible candidate for the _____.
varies, diversity, genetic material
organelles
various functional components that make up cells
quantitative characters
vary along continuum
stele
vascular culinder. cosists of vascular tissues surrounded by one or more layers of tissue called the paricycle, from which lateral roots arise
tracheophytes
vascular plants (seedless and with seeds) efficient transport system xylem and pholem for transport lignified transport vessels for support roots to absorb water and anchor leaves for surface area dominant sporophyte generation divided into seed bearing and non seed bearing
carbon chains form * of most organic molecules
skeletons
polar molecules
slowly
proteoglycans
small core protein with many carb chains
correpressor
small molecule that cooperates with repressor protein to switch operon off
first sign of cancer
small polyp, benign growth that divides unusually frequently
active transport enables a cell to maintain concentrations of
small solutes that differ from environment
spicules
small, spike shaped particles of calcium carbonate or silicon dioxide that make up the skeleton of some sponges
mycroplasmas
smallest cells known; bacteria. diameters between .1 and 1 micro meters
mitochondria's double membrane
smooth outer and folded inner of cristae
study of pop growth
snowshoe hare and lynx at Hudson bay company
major electrogenic pump in animal cells
sodium-potassium pump
dissolved
solute
when considering behaviour of cell in solution, consider
solute concentration and membrane permeability
most chemical reactions in organisms involve
solutes dissolved in water
dissolving
solvent
newborn screening
some genetic disorders can be detected at birth; simple tests that are now routinely performed in most hospitals in the United States
introducing new species
sometimes to attempt to solve a problem but makes worse
another source of diversity of simple sugars
spatial arrangement around asymmetric carbons
choanocytes
specialized cell in sponges that uses a flagellum to move a steady current of water through the sponge
Gametes
specialized cells involved in sexual reproduction
glyoxysomes
specialized peroxisomes in fat-storing tissues of plant seeds that initiate the conversion of fatty acids to sugar
statoliths
specialized plastids containing dense starch grains, that let plants know up from down.
adventitious roots
specialized roots that grow from uncommon places, such as stems and leaves to the ground and serve for structural support
polygynous species
species in which large males are selected for based on their ability to out-compete smaller males (uses sexual selection, not natural selection)
old testament
species individually designed by god and perfect
components of species diversity
species richness, relative abundance
diversity of life
species, genus, family, order, class, phylum, kingdom, domain
ion channels
specific channels for each ion; respond to stretching of cell membrane,electrical signals, or chemicals
histone code hypothesis
specific combinations of modifications, rather than the overall level of histone acetylation, help determine chromatin configuration, which in turn influences transcription
high levels of transcirption of particulat genes at approproate time and palce depend on interaction of control elements with
specific transcription factors
Cell division involves distribution of identical genetic material to two daughter cells except the division that produces
sperm and eggs
hydration shells
sphere of water molecules around each dissolved ion
prometaphase
spindle microtubules attach to kinetochores, these are called kinetochore microtubules. Nuclear envelope fragments. microtubules attach to kinetochores.
diatoms and yeasts
spindle within nucleus separates chromosomes
plant adaptations
spines, thorns, poisons (strychnine, mescaline, morphine, nicotine)
freeze-fracture
splits membrane along middle of bilayer
porifera
sponges; sessile animals that lack true tissues; suspension feeders, trap particles that pass through the interal channels of their bodies
metastasis
spread of cancer cells to locations distant from their original site
colloid
stable solution of fine particles in liquid
S phase
stage of interphase in which DNA is replicated
G2 phase
stage of interphase in which cell duplicates its cytosol and organelles. Chromosomes not condensed
G1 phase
stage of interphase in which cell grows and performs its normal functions.
carbs stored as
starch
plants store *, a polymer of * monomers,a s * within * known as *, which includes *
starch, glucose, granules, cellular structures, plastids, chloroplasts
reactants
starting matherials
cholesterol
steroid common in animal cell membranes
pores for gas
stomata
each NADH molecule represents
stored energy that can be used to make ATP
vascular bundles
strands of vascular tissue that run the length of the stem
at key steps, electrons are
stripped from glucose
chitin
structural polysachharide found in arthropods to build exoskeletons; also provides structural support for cell walls of fungi; similar to cellulose, but has nitrogen-containing appendage
centriole
structure that helps to form the spindle
cytology
study of cell structures
organic chemistry
study of compounds that contain carbon
paleontology
study of fossils. developed lartely by george cuvier
genetics
study of heredity and hereditary variation
ecology
study of interactions of organisms with their physical environment and with each other
atoms of various elements differ in number of
subatomic particles
eukaryotic cells
subdivided by internal membranes into various membrane-enclosed organelles
acid
substance that increases hydrogen ion concentration of solution
buffers
substances that minimize changes in concentrations of H+ and OH- in a solution
secondary succession
succession on a site where an existing community has been disrupted
ketose
sugar containing a ketone C=O in the carbon skeleton
Calvin cycle
sugar from CO2 using ATP and NADPH. Carbon fixation, reduction, rubp regeneration
structure and function of polysaccharide determined by
sugar molecules and positions of glucosidic linkages
glycolysis
sugar splitting. glucose split into two three-carbon sugars and then pyruvate
carbohydrates
sugars and polymers of sugars
molecular mass
sum of masses of atoms in molecule
mass number
sum of protons plus neutrons
energy flows into an ecosystem as * and leaves as *
sunlight, heat
strata
superimposed layers of rock
lignin
support
cell walls
support shape
ground tissue functions in
support, storage, photosynthesis
biggest plant probs on land
supporting body and absorbing and conserving water
cristae create
surface area
integrins
surface recepter proteins with two subunits. bind to microfilaments and fibronectin. Transmit signals between ECM and cytoskeleton
SEM
surface; coated with gold. depth
average heterozygosity estimated by
surveying protein products of genes using gel electrophoresis (cannot detect silent mutations)
hypothesis gains credibility by
surviving attempts to falsifying it while testing eliminates alternate hypotheses
repressor
switches off operator. bonds to operator and blocks attachment of rna pollymerase to promoter
many herbivores have * with these microbes
symbiotic relationships
functions of endomembrane
synthesis and transfer of proteins, metabolism and movement of lipids, detoxification of poisons
naming and classifying species
taxonomy
organ system
team of organs that cooperate in a specific function
(Vocabulary) An enzyme that catalyzes the lengthening of telomeres in eukaryotic germ cells.
telomerase
in many malignant tumors, the gene for - is activated
telomerase
(Vocabulary) The tandemly repetitive DNA at the end of a eukaryotic chromosome's DNA molecule that protects the organism's genes from being eroded during successive rounds of replication. See also repetitive DNA.
telomeres
Eukaryotic chromosomal DNA molecules have at their ends nucleotide sequences called _____ .
telomeres
hypothesis
tentative answer to well-framed question; educated guess based on experience and data from discovery science
fossil record can be used to
test hypotheses
hypothesis must be
testable and falsifiable
in molecules with multiple carbons, each carbon bonded to four others has a
tetrahedral shape
makes large, complex molecules possible
tetravalence
example or enantiomer
thalidomide
cell-cell recognition
the ability of a cell to distinguish one type of neighboring cell from another is crucial to the functioning of an organism; embryo cell sorting and immune system. short carbs
deuterostome coelomates
the anus develops first in the digestive tract (echinoderms and chordates)
stigma
the apical end of the style where deposited pollen enters the pistil
cytosol
the aqueous part of the cytoplasm within which various particles and organelles are suspended
histone acetylation
the attachment of acetyl groups (-COCH3) to lysines of histone proteins, neutralizing the histone tails, the chromatin becomes less compact, and the DNA is accessible for transcription
electronegativity
the attraction of a particular kind of atom for the electrons of a covalent bond
chemical bonds
the attractive forces that hold atoms together
ethology
the branch of zoology that studies the behavior of animals in their natural habitats
cell ultrastructure
the cellular anatomy revealed by an electron microscope
Centromere
the centralized region joining two sister chromatids. Part of the chromatid on either side is arm
pith
the choicest or most essential or most vital part of some idea or experience, soft spongelike central cylinder of the stems of most flowering plants
carbon cycle
the circulation and reutilization of carbon atoms especially via the process of photosynthesis and respiration.
nitrogen cycle
the circulation of nitrogen nitrates from the soil are absorbed by plants which are eaten by animals that die and decay returning the nitrogen back to the soil
learning
the cognitive process of acquiring skill or knowledge
genome
the complete complement of an organism's genes; an organisms genetic material.
Chromatin
the complex of DNA and proteins that makes up a eurokaryotic chromosome. When the cell is not dividing, chromatin exists as a mass of very long, thing fibers that are not visible with a light microscope.Complex of DNA and associated protein molecules
water cycle
the continuous cycle of the transfer of water through an ecosystem, which involves evaporation, transpiration, condensation, and precipitation
the chemical behavior of an atom is determined by
the distribution of electrons in the atom's electron shells
cytokinesis
the division of the cytoplasm to form two seperate daughter cells immediately after mitosis.
action spectrum
the efficiency with which electromagnetic radiation produces a photochemical reaction plotted as a function of the wavelength of the radiation
transpiration
the emission of water vapor from the leaves of plants
Cleavage Furrow
the first sign of cleavage in an animal cell; a shallow groove in the cell surface near the old metaphase plate.
the transfer of an electron is not
the formatino fo a bond
F1 Generation
the hybrid offspring of the P generation; 1st familial generation
endoderm
the inner germ layer that develops into the lining of the digestive and respiratory systems
cortex
the layer of unmyelinated neurons (the gray matter) forming the cortex of the cerebrum
vertical stratification
the layering of an ecosystem into bands based upon depth or elevation
for any character, the observed dominant/recessive relationship of alleles depends on
the level at which we examine phenotype
mesoderm
the middle germ layer that develops into muscle and bone and cartilage and blood and connective tissue
Incomplete Dominance
the phenotype of F1 hybrids is somewhere between the phenotypes of the two parental varieties; example flowers of heterozygotes have less pigment then homozygotes
epicotyl
the portion of the stem of a plant embryo that is between the cotyledons and the first true leaves
the reactivity of atoms rises from
the presence of unpaired electrons in one or more orbitals of their valence shells
exocytosis
the process by which a substance is released from the cell through a vesicle that transports the substance to the cell surface and then fuses with the membrane to let the substance out
imprinting
the process by which certain animals form attachments during a critical period very early in life
hybridization
the process of mating two contrasting, true-breeding varieties
altruism
the quality of unselfish concern for the welfare of others
photoperiod
the response in animals and plants to the length of the day and night
systematics
the science of systematic classification
absorption spectrum
the spectrum of electromagnetic radiation that has passed through a medium that absorbed radiation of certain wavelengths
sporophyte
the spore-producing individual or phase in the life cycle of a plant having alternation of generations. multicellular diploid stage
anaphase
the stage of meiosis or mitosis when chromosomes move toward opposite ends of the nuclear spindle. Shortest stage. Begins when cohesin proteins are cleaved. Cell elongates as nonkinetochore microtubules lengthen
cohesion
the state of cohering or sticking together
transcription unit
the stretch of DNA that is transcribed into an RNA molecule
genetics
the study of inheritance
P Generation
the true-breeding parents
Concept #4: The law of segregation
the two alleles for heritable character separate (segregate) during gamete formation and end up in different gametes.
imbibition
the uptake of water due to the low water potential of the dry seed
placenta
the vascular structure in the uterus of most mammals providing oxygen and nutrients for and transferring wastes from the developing fetus
organic compounds posses potential energy as a result of
their arrangement of atoms
Concept #3: If the two alleles at a locus differ:
then the dominant allele determines the organisms appearance; the recessive allele has no noticeable effect on the organism's appearance
short-day plants
these plants flower when nights are LONGER than a critical length
long-day plants
these plants flower when nights are SHORTER than a critical length
chromosomes named because
they take up dyes
paramecium
thick outer layer (pellicle), cilia, macronuclus, micronuclei, vacuoles
sclerenchymal cells
thick primary and secondary cell walls fortified with lignin. for support fibers and sclereids
gizzard
thick-walled muscular pouch below the crop in many birds and reptiles for grinding food
microtubules
thickest fiber. hollow and consist of 13 colums of tubulin molecules (alpha and beta tubulin). diameter of 25 nm. maintains shape (girders), cell motility (cilia and flagella), chromosome and organelle movements. made of dimers, with two subunits
root cap
thimble-shaped mass of cells covering and protecting the growing tip of a root
primary cell wall
thin and flexible
tEM
thin section. electromagnet lenses
fibrils
thread or a structure or object resembling a thread
pyruvate broken down to
three CO2 molecules
enters biosphere
through plants
chlorophyll in * membrane
thylakoid
chloroplast structure
thylakoids (membranous sacs) stacked into grana, stroma the fluid. three compartments. Intermembrane space, stroma, and thylakoid space
natural selection depends on
time and place
outcome of determination is marked by expressino of genes for
tissue-specific proteins
differences between cilia and flagella
tlagella are longer, have different beating patterns. flagellum undulates in same direction as axis. cilia work more like oars. perpendicular to cilia's axis
multiplication rule
to determine probability, multiply probability of one event by another
Test Cross allows
to determine the genotype of an organism with the dominant phenotype, but unknown genotype
anchorage dependence
to divide, must be attached to substratum, such as inside of jar or ECM
science form verb meaning
to know
Gene for pigment is epistatic
to the gene for color
(Vocabulary) A protein that breaks, swivels, and rejoins DNA strands. During DNA replication, topoisomerase helps to relieve strain in the double helix ahead of the replication fork.
topoisomerase
heat
total kinetic energy
atomic mass
total mass of the atom; mass number is approximation
size
total number of individuals in population and represented by N
seedless vascular plants and gumnosperms have only
tracheids
xylem composed of two types of cells
tracheids and vessel elements. dead at functional maturity
angiosperms have
tracheids and vessel members
two X's on opposite sides
trans isomer
gene expression is often equated with
transcirption
repressible operon
transcription is usually on, but can be inhibited (repressed) when a specific small molecule binds allosterically to a regulatory protein (example tryptophan)
if PO ends up near especially active promoter
transcription may increase, making it an O
related RNA based mechanisms may also blcok
transcription of specific genes
common control point for gene expression
transcroption
gene flow
transfer of alleles into or out of a population die to movement of fertile individuals or gametes. tends to reduce genetic variation
pollination
transfer of pollen from the anther to the stigma of a plant
first step of light reactions
transfer ofelectron from reaction center chlorophyll a pair to primary electron acceptor
(Vocabulary) (1) The conversion of a normal animal cell to a cancerous cell. (2) A change in genotype and phenotype due to the assimilation of external DNA by a cell.
transformation
evaporation
transformation from liquid to gas
heredity
transmission of traits from one generation to the next
active transport
transport of a substance (as a protein or drug) across a cell membrane against the concentration gradient
passive transport
transport of a substance across a cell membrane by diffusion
six functions of proteins of PM
transport, enzymes, signal transduction, cell-cell recognition (glycoproteins), intercellular joining, attachement to cytoskeleton and ECM
history as
tree
random
trees
paramecium can eject
trichocysts
cell cycle control system
triggeres and coordinates key events in the cell cycle
sugars with 3
triose
most productive terrestiral ecosystems
tropical rain forests
benign tumor
tumor at original site. Do not usually cause serious problems
frozen desert
tundra
states of plant cell
turgid, flaccid, plasmolyzed
vacuoles create
turgor pressure
gram of fat stores more than * as much energy as a gram of polysaccharide
twice
ionic bond
two atoms are so unequal in their attraction for valence electrons that the more electronegative atoms strips an electron form its partner
dicots
two cotyledons, vascular bundles in a ring, netlike leaf venation, flowers in 4s or 5s, taproots
Codominance
two dominant alleles affect the phenotype to separate, distinguishable ways; example roan horse two hair colors
phospholipid
two fatty acids and a phosphate group attached to glycerol; hydrophilic head and hydrophobic tails
cross-pollination
two flowers as parents of the seed; result in hybrid offspring where the offspring may be different then the parents
most energy remains stockpiled in
two molecules of pyruvate
disaccharide
two monosaccharides joined by a glycosidic linkage (covalent bond between two monosaccharides by dehydration)
molecule
two or more atoms held together by covalent bonds
mullerian mimicry
two or more poisonous species resemble each other
competitive exclusion principle
two species cannot coexist in community if they share a niche (same resources)
bicoid
two-tailed. an embryo whose mother has a mutant bicoid gene lacks the front half of its body and has posterior structures at both ends
meiosis
type of cell division that creates gametes; cell divides twice to create four cells that are genetically unique
temperature at which membrane solidifies depends on
types of phospholipids
iron sulfur protein passes electrons to non protein hydrophobic
ubiquinone
cancer
uncontrolled cell division
goal of science
understand natural phenomena
evolution occurs as the * of individuals adapts the * to its *
unequal reproductive success; population; environment
lyell
uniformitarianism: mechanisms of change constant over time
gene
unit of inheritance that transmits info to offspring
water is
universal medium
hydrogenating veggie oils creates * with * * bonds
unsaturated fats with trans double bonds
In DNA replication, the parent molecule _____, and _____ are built based on based pairing rules.
unwinds, two new daughter strands
lamarack
use and disuse and inheritance of acquired characteristics
observation
use of senses to gather info
Reasons for Mendel's Success
used an experimental approach, applied mathematics to the study of natural phenomena, kept good records
DNA methylation
used for long-tern inactivation of genes (methylated bases)
example of batesian mimicry
viceroy butterfly and monarch
aristotle
viewed species as fixed. recognized affinities among organisms. scala naturae
visual signals
visual communication; such as fire flies' flashes that appeal only to males or females
membrane potential
voltage across a membrane
as a cell increases in size,
volume grows proportionally more than surface area
mammalia
warm-blooded vertebrates characterized by mammary glands in the female
oxidized
water
aqueous solution
water is solvent
hydroxide ion
water molecule that lost a proton
resolution inverse to
wavelength
cutin
waxy coating that prevents water loss
van der waals interactions
weak attractive forces from temporary dipoles
most important large biological molecules are held in their functional form by
weak bonds
ecosystems vary in NPP and
what they contribute to global NPP
sexual reproduciton
when 2 parents are involved in the reproduction of ofspring and each parent contributes genetic information which combines to make a genetically unique offspring and this involves the union of sex cells
plasmolysis
when a cell is in a hypertonic environment, the cell will lose water to its surroundings, shrink, and its plasma membrane will pull away from the wall
true breeding
when plants self-pollinate and all offspring are of the same variety
Complete Dominance
when the phenotypes of the heterozygote and dominant homozygote are identical
germ cells
where gametes are made
difference between fermentation and anaerobic respiration
whether or not ETC is used
measure genetic variation in population at
whole gene level (genetic variability) and molecular level (nucleotide variability)
vessel elements
wider, shorter, thinner walled, and less tapered than tracheids aligned wnd to end and ends are perforated to allow free flow through vessel tubes
unsaturated phospholipids increase during
winter
attempted to make inorganic salt
wohler
To elongate the other new strand, called the lagging strand, DNA polymerase must _____ in the direction _____ from the replication fork.
work, away
sex chromosomes
x and y
chiasma
x- shaped region
makes up wood
xylem
vascular tissue
xylem and phloem. transport water and nutrients *diagram
zone of differentiation
zone of primary growth in roots where cells complete their differentiation and become functionally mature
strength of hydrogen bond
1/20 of covalent
FADH2 has * less energy
1/3
* percent of energy converted to organic matter at next level
10
1 NADH results in * H+
10
eukaryotic cells
10-100 micro meters
kilocalorie
1000 cal
in any aqueous solution at 25 degrees, product of H+ and OH- is
10^-14
lateral movement occurs
10^7 times per second
identified about 1200 genes essential for pattern formation, * essential for normal segmentation
120
ultracentrifuge
130,000 revs per minute and 1,000,000 g
*% of colorectal cancers involve inherited mutations
15
viruses in *% of cancer
15
ex of founder effect
1814 british colonists ni islands and retinitis pigmentosa
origin of species published
1858
When did scientists start building molecular models of the membrane
1915
specific heat of water
1cal/g/ degree C
first oribital
1s spherical
citric acid cycle generates * ATP per glucose
2
no more than * electrons can occupy a single orbital
2
valence of O
2
energy yield from glycolysis per glucose molecule
2 ATP and 2 NADH
snidarians
2 basic body forms: 1)polyps: cylindrical, sessile, solitary or colonial, body opening faces away from substrate, may build external/internal skeleton, asexual/sexual 2)medusa: free-living, umbrella shaped, tentacles surround mouth, sexual -some exist only as polyps, some only as medusa, some alternate between the two phases
human cell expresses -% of genes at at time
20
proteins built from * kinds of amino acids
20
* of 92 elements are essential to life
25
diploid
2n
for each acetyl group, * NAD+ are reduced to NADH
3
how many types of survivorship curves
3
valence of N
3
each NADH contributes enough proton-motive force to generate
3 ATP
between * and * H+ make ATP
3 and 4
product of photosynthesis
3 carbon sugar
Cytosine and guanine form _____ hydrogen bonds. Adenine and thymine form _____ hydrogen bonds.
3, 2
DNA polymerases add nucleotides only to the free _____ end of a growing strand; therefore, a new DNA can elongate only in the _____ to _____ direction.
3, 5, 3
mutations in ras in *% of cancer
30
* species
300 K
Humans have been in exponential growth for
300 years
maximum ATP per glucose
36 or 38 ATP
for each glucose, cell makes up to * molecules of ATP
38, each with 7.3kcal
visible light
380-750
cortical microfilaments
3D network of microfilaments just inside plasma membrane that helps support cell shape. Gives outer cytoplasmic layer consistency of gel
HIV resistant to
3TC
orbital
3d space where an atoms is found 90% of the time
carbon has * valence electrons
4
valence of C
4
water densest at
4 degrees C
food chains never have more than * levels
4 or 5
variation
(biology) an organism that has characteristics resulting from chromosomal alteration
regeneration
(biology) growth anew of lost tissue or destroyed parts or organs
phylogeny
(biology) the sequence of events involved in the evolutionary development of a species or taxonomic group of organisms
ecological succession
(ecology) the gradual and orderly process of change in an ecosystem brought about by the progressive replacement of one community by another until a stable climax is established
nematodes
(round worms) round smooth body; have a tube within a tube body plan, separate mouth and anus; no circulatory system; some free living, some parasite
mollusca
(snails, clams, squids, octopuses) have a soft body that in many species is protected by a hard shell
free-energy change of electron transfer from NADH to oxygen
-53kcal/mol
free-energy change of glucose
-686kcal per mol
joule
.239 cal;
flagella.
.25 micrometers and 10-200 micrometers long
motile cilia
.25 micrometers and 2-20 micrometers long
valence of H
1
neutrons and protons have masses of
1 dalton
chromosome
1 long dna molecule with genes
mutation rates in plants and animals
1 per 100,000 genes per generation
most glucose monomers and starch are joined by
1-4 linkages
bacteria
1-5 micro meters
darwin's inferences
1. Individuals with the inherited traits will leave more offspring 2. It will lead to the accumulation of favorable traits
two main points in the origin of species
1. contemporary species from ancestors- "descent with modification". 2. Mechanism for descent with modification- natural selection
3 key developments for systems biology
1. high throughput technology, 2. bioinformatics (use of computational tools to store, organize, and analyze huge volumes of data), 3. inter-disciplinary research teams
led him to this
1. individuals vary in (heritable) traits; 2. population produces more offspring than can survive 3. competition inevitable 4. species suits the environment
systems strategy
1. inventory, 2. invesetigate relationships, 3. Pool data
each moleccules of FADH2 produces
1.5 to 2 atp
mass of proton and neutron
1.7*10^-24 g
phosphorylation of ADP to ATP stores * kcal per mole
7.3
pH of blood
7.4
cells *% water
70-95%
cycle had * steps, each catalyzed by a specific enzyme
8
fruit fly has * chromosomes
8
thickness of plasma membrane
8 nm
for synthesis of G3P, calvin cycle consumes
9 ATP and 6 NADPH
pattern of nonmotile cilia
9+0
oxidative phosphorylation accounts for almost * of ATP
90%
sodium-potassium pump
A carrier protein that uses ATP to actively transport sodium ions out of a cell and potassium ions into the cell
Diploid Cells
A cell containing two sets of chromosomes (2n), one set inherited from each parent.
leaf abscission
A change in the balance of auxin and ethylene controls leaf abscission, the process that occurs in autumn when a leaf falls
periodic table of the elements
A chart of the chemical elements, arranged in three rows, corresponding to the number of electron shells in their atoms
phylogenic tree
A chart showing evolutionary relationships as determined by phylogenic systematics. It contains a time component and implies ancestor-descendant relationships.
essential element
A chemical element required for an organism to survive, grow, and reproduce.
redox reactions
A chemical reaction involving the transfer of one or more electrons from one reactant to another; also called oxidation-reduction reaction.
Autosome
A chromosome that is not directly involved in determining sex, as opposed to the sex chromosomes
light-harvesting complex
A complex of proteins associated with pigment molecules (including chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, and carotenoids) that captures light energy and transfers it to reaction-center pigments in a photosystem.
thigmotropism
A directional growth of a plant in response to touch.
Gene
A discrete unit of hereditary information consisting of a specific nucleotide sequence in DNA (or RNA, in some viruses).
Gamete
A haploid egg or sperm cell; they unite during sexual reproduction to produce a diploid zygote.
Tay-Sachs disease
A human genetic disease caused by a recessive allele for a dysfunctional enzyme, leading to accumulation of certain lipids in the brain. Seizures, blindness, and degeneration of motor and mental performance usually become manifest a few months after birth., A genetic disease that principally affects those of Jewish ancestry, marked by an accumulation of certain fats in the brain and nerves resulting in brain damage, loss of sight and brain functions.
fragmentation
A means of asexual reproduction whereby a single parent breaks into parts that regenerate into whole new individuals.
double fertilization
A mechanism of fertilization in angiosperms, in which two sperm cells unite with two cells in the embryo sac to form the zygote and endosperm.
Asexual Reproduction
A type of reproduction involving only one parent that produces genetically identical offspring by budding or by the division of a single cell or the entire organism into two ore more parts.
The usual replication machinery for DNA proves no way to complete _____, so repeated rounds of replication produce _____.
5' ends, shorter DNA molecules
mutations in p53 in *% of cancer
50
evolved from algae * years ago
500 million
The rate of elongation is about _____ nucleotides per second in bacteria and _____ per second in human cells.
500, 50
product of fixation
6 carbon intermediate
biological fluids have pH
6-8
daltons in a gram
6.02 times 10^23
mole
6.02 times 10^23 (avogadro's number)
what happened in 1925
E. Gorter and F. Grendel reasoned that cell membranes must be phospholipid bilayers; tails protect from water while exposing heads to water
glycoproteins made in
ER
methanogens
Archaebacteria that live in anaerobic environments and produce methane as a by-product of their metabolic process
in step 2, * accepts electrons
FAD
found in at least half of inherited breast cancers
BRCA1 and BRCA2
nitrifying bacteria
Bacteria that change dissolved ammonia into nitrite compounds or nitrites into nitrate compounds.
nitrogen-fixing bacteria
Bacteria that convert nitrogen in the air into forms that can be used by plants and animals
building code that determines architecture of living molecules
C, H, O, N
monosaccharide molecular formula is multiple of
CH20
no * released during glycolysis
CO2
cyclic reactions of Pep can be though of
CO2 concentrating pump powered by ATP
carbon fixation
CO2 plus RUBP
Nurse demonstrated the crucial function of the protein kinase * in triggering mitosis at the * chrckpoint in one type of yeast
Cdc2, g2
Interphase
Cell grows, performs its normal functions, and prepares for division; consists of G1, S, and G2 phases. accounts for 90% of cell cycle. centrosome replicates.
amoebocytes
Cells that move using pseudopods and perform different functions in different animals
phytochemicals
Chemicals in plant-based foods that are not nutrients but that have effects on the body.
carotenoids
An accessory pigment, either yellow or orange, in the chloroplasts of plants. By absorbing wavelengths of light that chlorophyll cannot, carotenoids broaden the spectrum of colors that can drive photosynthesis. hydrocarbons. photoprotection
pseudocoelomates
An animal whose body cavity is lined by tissue derived from mesoderm and endoderm.
Mitotic Spindle
An assemblance of microtubules and associated proteins that is involved in the movements of chromosomes during mitosis. Begin to form during prophase. Polymerize by incorporating tubulin subunits and depolymerize by losing them
Metaphase Plate
An plane during metaphase in which the centromeres of all the duplicated chromosomes are located midway between the two poles.
ex of natural selection
DDT in flies from 1930 to 1960
Hereditary information is encoded in _____ and reproduced in all cells of the body.
DNA
_____, the substance of inheritance, is the most celebrated molecule of our time.
DNA
operator
DNA in operon that is the sqitch, controls access of rna polymerase to genes
(Vocabulary) A linking enzyme essential for DNA replication; catalyzes the covalent bonding of the 3' end of one DNA fragment (such as an Okazaki fragment) to the 5' end of another DNA fragment (such as a growing DNA chain).
DNA ligase
(Vocabulary) An enzyme that catalyzes the elongation of new DNA (for example, at a replication fork) by the addition of nucleotides to the 3' end of an existing chain. There are several different DNA polymerases; DNA polymerase III and DNA polymerase I play major roles in DNA replication in prokaryotes
DNA polymerases
platyhelminthes
Flatworms, flukes; first triploblasts and bilateria; acoelomates; can be parasitic; regeneration
hypothesis of evolutionary "deception" first proposed by
Henry Bates
First observed cell walls
Hooke
example of bottlenecking
Illinois prairie chickens
arthropoda
Insects, arachnids, crustaceans; segmented bodies; paired, jointed legs; chitinous exoskeleton; open circulatory system; dorsal heart
protons
Positively charged particles
Phenotype vs. Genotype
Purple (Homozygous) -> PP
Dominant Flower Color Gene
Purple; shows its trait whether its paired with a dominant or recessive
The initial nucleotide strand is a short _____ primer.
RNA
intermediary
RNA
An enzyme called primase can start a _____ from stretch and adds _____ one at a time using the parental DNA as template.
RNA chain, RNA nucleotides
Sister Chromatids
Replicated forms of a chromosome joined together by the centromere and eventually separated during mitosis or meiosis II. Each contains identical DNA molecules attached by cohesins through sister chromatid cohesion
vacuole
Membrane-bound space in the cytoplasm of cells used for the temporary storage of materials. Membrane-bound vesicles. carry out hydrolysis in plants and fungi
All offspring were purple
Mendel crossing contrasting, true-breeding white and purple flowered pea plants
Knew the parentage of offspring
Mendel removed the immature stamen and introduced pollen from select plants
Test Cross created by and for
Mendel to know the genetic composition of plants
The Rules of Probability Reflected by
Mendel's law of segregation and independent assortment
darwin's four observations
Observation #1: Members of a population often vary greatly in their traits Observation #2: Traits are inherited from parents to offspring Observation #3: All species are capable of producing more offspring than the environment can support Observation #4: Owing to lack of food or other resources, many of these offspring do not survive
thermophiles
Organisms that are found in conditions hot enough that most organisms cannot tolerate them.
decomposers
Organisms that break down wastes and dead organisms and return raw materials to the environment
Heterozygotes
Organisms that have two different alleles for the same trait
carrying capacity
K, limit to the number of individuals that can occupy one area at a particular time
Checkpoint
a critical control point where stop and go-ahead signals can regulate the cell cycle
Cell-cycle control system
a cyclically operating set of molecules in the cell that both triggers and coordinates key events in the cell cycle
circadian rhythm
a daily cycle of activity observed in many living organisms, the biological clock; regular bodily rhythms (for example, of temperature and wakefulness) that occur on a 24-hour cycle.
huntington's disease
a degenerative disease of he nervous system; has no obvious phenotypic effects untile about 35 to 40 years old
Genotype
a description of an organisms genetic makeup; usually shown in code; ex. T = tall, t = short, P = Purple, p = white
Phenotype
a description of an organisms physical appearance
cell plate
a double membrane across the midline of a dividing plant cell, between which the new cell wall forms during cytokinesis
pedigree
a family tree that describes the interrelationships of parents and children across generations; used to describe and trace inheritance patterns of particular traits; allows predictions to be made about offsprings.
ethylene
a flammable colorless gaseous alkene
notochord
a flexible rodlike structure that forms the supporting axis of the body in the lowest chordates and lowest vertebrates and in embryos of higher vertebrates
achondroplasia
a form of dwarfism tjhat is homozygous for the domiant allele; the allele is relatively rare, 1:25,000
st. jago
had sea level fallen
gametophyte
haploid
spores
haploid cells from sporophyte
each electron shell contains electrons at
a particular energy level, distribute among a specific number of orbitals of distinctive shapes and orientations
third hydroxyl group of a phospholipid is joined to
a phosphate group
indoleacetic acid
a plant hormone promoting elongation of stems and roots
photoperiodism
a plant's response to seasonal changes in length of night and day
Organism that is heterozygous for a particular gene
has a pair of alleles that are different for that gene, example Pp.
Organism that is homozygous for a particular gene
has a pair of identical alleles for that gene, exhibits true-breeding, example PP or pp
Rough ER
has ribosomes on outer surface (bound ribosmes). They secrete glycoproteins (proteins covalently bonded to carbs), distributes transport vesicles (proteins surrounded by membranes), is a membrane factory for the cell
triploblastic
has three germ layers: the ectoderm, endoderm, and mesoderm.
structural isomers
have different covalent arrangements
collenchymal cells
have unevenly thickened primary cell walls mature cells are alive support growing stem
polyandrous
having more than one husband at a time
three main parts of fly
head, thorax, abdomen
temperature
heat intensity; average kinetic energy
crop
a pouch in many birds and some lower animals that resembles a stomach for storage and preliminary maceration of food
peptidoglycan
a protein carbohydrate compound found in bacterial cell walls
cyclin-dependent kinase
a protein kinase that is active only when attached to a particular cyclin
activator
a protein that binds to DNA and stimulates transcription of a specific gene.
Growth Factor
a protein that must be present in the extracellular environment (culture medium or animal body) for the growth and normal development of certain types of cells
photon
a quantum of electromagnetic radiation
Cyclin
a regulatory protein whose concentration fluctuates cyclically
chorionic villus sampling (CVS)
a sample of the placenta is removed and tested
monomer
a simple compound whose molecules can join together to form polymers
Franklin's X-ray crystallographic images of DNA enabled Watson to deduce that DNA was _____.
helical
starch is a * polymer
helical
(Vocabulary) An enzyme that untwists the double helix of DNA at the replication forks, separating the two strands and making them available as template strands.
helicases
fitness of the environment
henderson highlights importance of water
cambridge buddy
henslow, botany professor
only * traits are useful in natutral selection
heritable
type 2
a species with death rate constant (hydra, reptiles, rodents)
climax community
a stable, mature community that undergoes little or no change in species over time
Metaphase
a stage of mitosis in the eukaryotic cell cycle in which condensed & highly coiled chromosomes, carrying genetic information, align in the middle of the cell before being separated into each of the two daughter cells
waggle dance
a symbolic form of communication used by honeybee foragers to communicate the location of a food source to their hivemates
plasma membrane
a thin membrane around the cytoplasm of a cell
Chromosomes
a threadlike, gene-carrying structure found in the nucleus. Each chromosome consists of one very long DNA molecule and assoicated protein.
aquaporins
a transport protein in the plasma membrane of a plant or animal cell that specifically facilitates the diffusion of water across the membrane 3 billion water molecules per second
cladogram
a tree diagram used to illustrate phylogenetic relationships
apoptosis
a type of cell death in which the cell uses specialized cellular machinery to kill itself
primary ecological succession
a type of ecological succession that occurs in a virtually lifeless ares, where there were originally no organisms and where soil has not yet formed
sexual reproduction
a type of reproduction in which two parents give rise to offspring that have unique combinations of genes inherited from the gametes of the two parents
tonicity
ability of solution to cause a cell to gain or lose water.
miller urey experiment
abiotic synthesis
roots and root hairs
absorb water and nutrients
water effective as heat bank because
absorbs large heat with little change in temperature
three functions of roots
absrob nutrients, anchor, store food
contrasts
accentuates differences
Concept #1: Alternative Versions of Genes
account for variations in inherited characters
negative feedback
accumulation of end product slows down process
pyruvate first converted to
acetyl CoA
most buffers
acid-base pairs which combine reversibly with H+
higher H+
acidic
pH less than 7
acidic
contraction of muscle results from
actin and myosin sliding past one another
microfilaments
actin filaments (globular protein). two intertwined strands of actin. 7 nm. maintainance of shape (tension bearing), changes in shape, muscle contraction, cytoplasmic streaming, cell motility (pseudopodia), cell dividion (cleavage furrow), thinnest.
p53 functions
activates p21, whose product halts the cell cycle by binding to cdks; can turn on genes directly involved in gene repair; activates suicide genes whose products cause apoptosis
pfr
active form of phytochrome that can absorb red light with a wavelength of 730 nm, and then rapidly converts it back to Pr.
methyl
acts as recognizable tag on biological molecules
strengthen wall by hardening or
adding secondary wall between plasma membrane and cell wall
reduction
addition of electrons
polygenic inheritance
additive effect of two or more genes on a simple phenotype
Watson and Crick reasoned that the pairing was more specific, dictated by the bases structure that _____ paired only with _____, and _____ paired only with _____.
adenine, thymine guanine, cytosine
Purines are _____ and _____.
adenines, guanine
ATP made of
adenosine attached to a string of three phosphate groups
mammals store food reserves in * cells, which cushion vital organs and insulate the body
adipose
two levels of metabolic control
adjust activity of enzymes present, adjust production level of certain enzymes
HTLV-1
adult leukemia
different chemical groups contribute to function by
affecting molecule's shape or being directly involved in chemical reactions
hydrophilic
affinity for water
when do chromosomes condense
after DNA duplication
triploid endosperm
after one sperm unites with the egg, the other two unite with polar nuclei, provides nutrtion to the embryo
factors affecting biotic potential
age at which reproduction begins, life span during which organisms capable of reproducing, number of reproductive periods in lifetime, number of offspring organism capable of producing
teratogens
agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm
glycerol
alcohol with three carbons, each with hydroxyl
glucose
aldose
biosphere
all environments on earth inhabited by life
ecosystem
all living things in particular area plus nonliving that interact with life
mechanism
all natural phenomena are governed by physical and chemical laws
gene pool
all of the alleles for all of teh loci in all individuals of the populatoin
ecosystem
all organisms in area and abiotic factors with which they interact
community
all organisms living in one area
selective permeability
allows some substances more easily than others
in starch, glucose are; makes molecule *
alpha, helical
nucleotides
alphabet
life cycle
alternation of generations
plants and algae
alternation of generations; haploid and diploid stages that are multicellular
plant cell uses gradient of hydrogen ions to drive active transport of
amino acids, sugars, and other nutrients
fetal testing
aminoiocentesis, chorionic villus sampling (CVS), newborn screening
specific heat
amount of heat absorbed or lost to change temp by 1 degree
gross primary productivity
amount of light energy converted to chemical energy by photosynthesis per unit time
dalton is the same as
amu
malthus
an English economist who argued that increases in population would outgrow increases in the means of subsistence (1766-1834)
inducer
an agent capable of activating specific genes
embryo
an animal organism in the early stages of growth and differentiation that in higher forms merge into fetal stages but in lower forms terminate in commencement of larval life
acoelomate
an animal that lacks a coelom, or body cavity
homeotherm
an animal that maintains a controlled internal body temperature using its own heating and cooling mechanisms
killer honeybee
an breeding gone wrong incident when African bees escaped and spread throughout Brazil, then America
hotspots
an ecological region that has lost more than 70% of its original habitat
because *, oxidization and reduction always go together
an electron transfer requires both a donor and an acceptor
electron shells
an energy level representing the distance of an electron from the nucleus of an atom.
oxidative phosphorylation
an enzymatic process in cell metabolism that synthesizes ATP from ADP
global warming
an increase in the average temperature of the earth's atmosphere (especially a sustained increase that causes climatic changes)
territoriality
an intense form of intraspecific competition in which organisms define an area surrounding their home site or nesting site and defend it primarily against other members of their own species
circadian clock
an internal mechanism that maintains a 24-hour activity rhythm or cycle
tropism
an involuntary orienting response
an individual inheriting - or - is one step closer to cancer
an oncogene or mutant allele of tumor-suppressor gene
critical period
an optimal period shortly after birth when an organism's exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces proper development
Concept #2: For Each character
an organism inherits two alleles, one from each parent; a genetic locus is actually represented twice.
phototropism
an orienting response to light
fork
ancestor
unity from
ancestor
desmosomes
anchoring juncitons. rivets, made of intermediate filaments of keratin. Muscles.
basal body
anchoring structure that the microtubule assembly extends to. It has a pattern of nine microtubule triplets
predation
animal eating animal or plants
one group of egg polarity for * and another for *
anterior-posterior axis, dorsal-ventral axis
Franklin had concluded that there were two _____ sugar-phosphate backbones, with the nitrogen bases paired in the molecule's _____.
anti-parallel, nitrogenous bases
The _____ structure of the double helix affects replication.
antiparallel
devil's gardens tended by
ants and formic acid
somatic cell
any cell in a multicellular organism except a sperm or egg cell
ligand
any molecule that binds specifically to a receptor site of another molecule
technology
applies science for some other purpose
prokaryotes
archaea and bacteria
palisade
are cells found within the mesophyll in leaves of dicotyledonous plants. Palisade cells have a lot of extra chloroplasts to help with photosynthesis, they are mostly found in the top surfaces of the leaves.
used to preserve things
arrack
the key is
arrangement
bilateral symmetry
arrangement of body parts so there are distinct left and right halves that mirror each other
community
array of organisms in an ecosystem
aster
array of short microtubules , star-shaped structure formed in the cytoplasm of a cell having fibers like rays that surround the centrosome during mitosis
dynamic equilibrium
as many molecules cross membrane in one direction as the other
changes that must occur for cell to become cancerous
at least one active oncogene and mutation or loss of several tumor-suppressor genes
apical meristem
at the tips of roots and buds of shoots. source of primary growth
youngest twigs
at top
each elemet consists of a certain kind of * that is different from the * of any other
atom, atoms
smallest unit of matter that retains the properties of an element
atoms
double bond
atoms share two pairs of electrons
fibronectin
attaches ECM to integrins in plasma membrane
producers
autotrophs, green palnts, photosynthetic, greatest biomass (diatoms and phytoplankton)
gene variability
average heterozygosity
atomic mass is actually
average of atomic masses of naturally occurring isotopes
average heterozygosity
average percent of loci that are heterozygous
annelida
Segmented worms, earthworms; anus and mouth; closed circulatory system; nervous system; setae-bristle appendages
carbon is
backbone of life
mitosis had origins in simpler prokaryotic mechanisms of cell reproduction.
bacteria todinoflagellates to diatoms and yeasts to eukaryotes
denitrifying bacteria
bacteria which often live in damp soil, and which convert nitrates into nitrogen gas
The role of DNA in heredity was first discovered by studying _____ and the _____ that infect them.
bacteria, viruses
holds back flood of electrons to lower energy state
barrier of activation energy
higher OH-
basic
intracellular digestion
The joining of food vacuoles and lysosomes to allow chemical digestion to occur within the cytoplasm of a cell.
Cell Division
The splitting of a cell that involves the distribution of identical genetic material to two daughter cells.
Meiosis I
The stage of meiosis that seperates homologous chromosomes and ends in two haploid cells.
Meiosis II
The stage of meiosis that seperates sister chromatids.
induction
The process in which one group of embryonic cells influences the development of another, usually by causing changes in gene expression.
norm of reaction
The range of phenotypes produced by a single genotype, due to environmental influences.
Crossing-Over
The reciprocal exchange of genetic material between nonsister chromatids during synapsis of meiosis I.
guard cells
The two cells that flank the stomatal pore and regulate the opening and closing of the pore.
Binary Fission
The type of cell division by which prokaryotes reproduce; each dividing daughter cell receives a copy of the single parental chromosome. asexual reproduction of single-celled eukaryotes. prokaryotic process does not involve mitosis
Fertilization
The union of haploid gametes to produce a diploid zygote.
root pressure
The upward push of xylem sap in the vascular tissue of roots.
why is oxygen a potent oxidizing agent
because it is so electronegative
malignant tumor
becomes invasive enough to impair function of one or more organs
zone of cell division
The zone of primary growth in roots consisting of the root apical meristem and its derivatives. New root cells are produced in this region.
zone of elongation
The zone of primary growth in roots where new cells elongate, sometimes up to ten times their original length.
came up with vitalism
berzelius
in cellulose, glucose are; makes molecule *
beta, straight
when phospholipids in water, assemble into
bilayer
structure of phospholipids results in
bilayer arrangement of cell membranes
acetylation enzymes may promote initiation of transcription not only by remodeling chromatin structure but also by
binding to and recruiting components of transcription machinery
linnaeus
binomial system. tazonomy. nested classification system
usually, one enantiomer is * and the other is *
biologically active, inactive
taiga
biome just south of the tundra; characterized by a northern coniferous forest composed of pine, fir, hemlock, and spruce tree and acidic, mineral-poor topsoils
tropical rain forest
biome near the equator with warm temperatures, wet weather, and lush plant growth
levels of biological organization
biosphere, ecosystems, communities, populations, organisms, organs and organ systems, tissues, cells, organelles, molecules
CAM plants
Store the organic acids made at night in vacuoles and use them for photosynthesis during the day when stomata are closed
hemocoels
blood-filled cavities within the body of arthropods and mollusks with open circulatory systems
Blending Hypothesis
blue and yellow paint mix to make green paint
dna are *, proteins are *
blueprints, tools
these cues tell a cell its location relative to * and * and determine how the cell and its progeny will respond to
body axes, neighboring cells, future molecular signals
somatic cells
body cells
organ
body of two or more tissues
valence
bonding capacity; equals number of unpaired electrons required to complete atom's valence shell
trace elements
boron, chromium, cobalt, copper, fluorine, iodine, iron, manganese, molybdnum, selenium, silicon, tin, vanadium, zinc
henslow
botany in cambrige
in most cases mutations must knock out
both alleles in a cell's genome to block tumor-suppression
mutualism
both benefit (bacteria in intestine)
plus end of microtubule
both on and off rites are higher. can accumulate or release tubulin dimers at a higher rate than the other.
tight jucntions
bound by proteins. prevents leakage (intestines)
studied prairie chickens
bouzat
indicate molar concentration
brackets
electron transport chain
breaks fall of electrons to oxygen into several energy-releasing steps, made of proteins in inner membrane of mitochondria or plasma membrane
artificial selection
breeding
aposematic coloration
bright
theory
broader than hypothesis; general enough to spin off many new hypotheses; supported by great body of evidence
plants with no transport vessels
bryophytes
epstein barr virus
burkitt's lymphoma
wallace
came up with same theory
bacterial cells that can * have advantage over those that are unable to do so
can conserve resources and enrgy
first to
canary islands
don't eliminate unwanted variables, instead
cancel
oncogenes
cancer-causing genes
The shortening of telomeres might protect cells from _____ growth by limiting the number of cell divisions.
cancerous
energy
capacity to cause change
glycolipids
carb and lipid
glycoproteins
carb and protein
most common carbon
carbon 12
molecules that distinguish living matter composed of
carbon and other things
asymmetric carbon
carbon attached to four different atoms or groups of atoms
after mechanism, organic chemistry was redefined as the study of
carbon compounds
reduced
carbon dioxide
four that make up 96%
carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen
CO2 dissolved in water
carbonic acid (H2CO3)
amino acids
carboxyl and amino group
transport proteins in active transport are all
carrier proteins
phloem
carries sugars from photosynthetic leaves to rest of plant by active transport
carrier proteins
carry molecules that cannot pass through the cell membrane because they are too large or insoluble
each endoderm cell is wrapped with the *, a continuous band of * which is a waxy material that is impervious to water and dissolved minerals
casparian strip, suberin
An enzyme called telomerase _____ the lengthening of telomeres in germ cells.
catalyzes
tumor viruses
cause cancer in animals including humans
sicle-cell disease
caused by the substitution of a single amino acid in the hemoglobin protein in red blood cells; affects 1 in 400 African Americans; symtoms are physical weakness, pain, organ damage, and paralysis
sequential events of the cell cycle are directed by
cell cycle control system
hypothesis from the 1970s
cell cycle driven by specific signaling molecules present in the cytoplasm
mitosis
cell division in which the nucleus divides into nuclei containing the same number of chromosomes
differences between zygote and organism arise from
cell division, cell differentiation, morphogenesis
hypotonic
cell gains water
interphase
cell grows, performs its normal functions, and prepares for division; consists of G1, S, and G2 phases
cell cycle
cell grows, prepares to divide, then divides to start growth process again; interphase + M phase
hypertonic
cell loses water
microfilaments are well known for their role in
cell motility
molecules carrying signals are q
cell surface receptors and other proteins from embryo's genes
ECM can regulate
cell's behavior; ex. embryo matches orientation of microfilaments to grain of fibers in extracellular matrix
glucose oxidized because
cells lower barrier of activation energy
have high proportion of bound ribosomes
cells that specialize in protein secretion
some microbes use enzymes to digest
cellulose
microfibrils
cellulose hydrogen bonded to hydroxyls of other cellulose molecules
uniform
certain plants
papillomaviruses
cervical cancer
microevolution
change in allele frequencies in pop over generations
cell motility
change in cell location and limited movements of parts of cell. requires moror proteins
bottleneck
change in env't that reduces size of population
mutation
change in nucleotide sequence in DNA
alter patterns of gene expression in response to
changes in environmental conditions
number of * often attached to skeletons of organic molecules
characteristic groups
adaptations
characteristics of organisms that enhance survival and reproduction in specific envrionments
ion
charged atom or molecule
membranes with different functions differ in
chemical composition and structure
eventually, forward and reverse reactions occur at same rate, and the relative concentrations stop changing. the point at which the reactions offset one another exactly
chemical equilibrium
exergonic
chemical reaction that releases some form of energy, such as light or heat.
molecules
chemical structure consisting of two or more atoms
DNA can be damaged by _____, _____ , _____, _____, and certain molecules.
chemicals, radioactive emissions, X-rays, UV light
earthquake
chile
accessory pigments
chlorophyll b and carotenoids
chloroplasts contain
chlorophyll, enzymes, and other photosynthesis stuff. 2 to 5 micrometers.
split water
chloroplasts
set out to identify all genes that affect segment formation in drosophila
christiane nusslein-volhard and eric wieschaus
anaphase does not begin until
chromosomes are properly attached to the spindle at the metabphase plate
metaphase
chromosomes line up across the center of the cell. Longest stage.
where is dna in mitochondria
circular and attached to inner mitochondrial membrane
cytoplasmic streaming
circular flow of cytoplasm within cells
two X's on same side
cis isomer
cisternal maturation model
cisternae progress forward from cis to trans, carrying and modifying cargo
next seven steps of citric acid cycle decompose * back to *, making it a cycle
citrate back to oxaloacetate
parenchymal cells
classic plant cells primary cell walls protoplasm with one large vacuole some carry out photosynthesis some store starch entire plant can be regenerated or cloned from parenchymal cell
contracting belt of microfilaments forms
cleavage furrow
adhesion
clinging to another substance
most common pattern of dispersion
clumped
carbon enteres as* and leaves as *
co2, sugar
at molecular level, TS is
codominant
anaphase commences when
cohesins are cleaved by enzymes
four properties of water
cohesion, ability to moderate temperature, expansion on freezing, versatility as solvent
most abundant ECM
collagen
prop roots
Thick adventitious roots that grow from the lower part of the stem and brace the plant.
ETC
collection of molecules embedded in inner membrane of mitochondrion
compound
combination of two or more different elements
system
combo of components that function together
connected to each sieve tube member is at least one * that does not contain a full complement of cell organelles and nurtures sieve tube elements
companion cell
controlled experiment
compare experimental group with control group; differ in 1 factor
nucleotide variability
comparing DNA of two individuals in population
interactions within community
competition, predation, parasitism, mutualism, commensalism
Since the two strands of DNA are _____, each strand acts as a _____ for building a _____ in replication.
complementary, template, new strand
FADH2 adds electrons to ETC at
complex II
functional groups
components of organic molecules that are most commonly involved in chemical reactions
photosystem
composed of protein complex called reaction-center complex surrounded by light harvesting complexes
vegetative
composed of vegetation or plants
substance of two or more different elements in fixed ratio
compound
ionic compounds or salts
compounds formed by ionic bonds
isomers
compounds with same molecular formula but different structures and properties. Structural, geometric, and enantiomers
two forces that drive diffusion of ions (electrochemical gradient)
concentration gradient and effect of membrane potential
one of the factors affecting the rate of reaction
concentration of reactants
inductive reasoning
conclusions based on logic; generalizations based on observations.
chromosomes
condensed chromatin
operant conditioning
conditioning in which an operant response is brought under stimulus control by virtue of presenting reinforcement contingent upon the occurrence of the operant response
gymnosperms
cone bearing first seed plants on earth naked better adapted for dry environment needle shape leaves eith protective cuticle and small surface area depend on wind for pollenation pines, firs, redwoods, junipers, sequoia
endomembrane is either continuous or
connected via transfer by vesicles
Competing models were the _____ and the _____.
conservative model, dispersive model
systems biology
construct models for the dynamic behavior of whole biological systems
heterotrophs
consumers
euglena
contain chloroplasts, but no cell walls. tolerant of organic pollutants and commonly found in farm ponds, lagoons, and other water with lots of nitrogen
nucleus
contains genes. about 5 micrometers in diameter. surrounded by nuclear envelope
meristem
continually divides and generates new cells
Along one template strand of DNA, the DNA polymerase synthesizes a leading strand _____, moving toward the replication fork.
continuously
paramecium has
contractile vacuole
osmoregulation
control of water balance
egg-polarity genes
control orientation of the egg and fly
homeotic genes
control pattern formation in late embryo, larva, and adult
checkpoint in the cell cycle
control point where stop and go-ahead signals can regulate the cycle
substrate-level phosphorylation
The formation of ATP by directly transferring a phosphate group to ADP from an intermediate substrate in catabolism.
bacteria of decay
convert nitrogenous waste into ammonia (NH3)
transformation
converts normal cell to cancer cell
ex of gene flow
copper bent grass
bataeian mimicry
copycat coloration
high NPP low global NPP
coral
tertiary consumers
heterotrophs, carnivores, top of food chain, least biomass, least stable (hawk)
ultrastrucyure of cilia an flagella
core of microtubules sheathed in extension of plasma membrane. Nine doublets of microtubules in a ring. "9 + 2" pattern.
hooke first looked at
cork
in organisms, most of the strongest chemical bonds are
covalent bonds
electron configuration of carbon gives it * with many different elements
covalent compatibility
secondary consumers
heterotrphs, carnivores (frogs, small fish)
dermal tissue
covers and protects epidermis, guard cells, root hairs, cells that produce waxy cuticle
epidermis
covers surface and is modified for absorption
fertilization
creation by the physical union of male and female gametes
primary consumers
heterotrphs, herbivores (grasshoppers, zooplankton)
methods of biological control
crop rotation, introduce natural enemies of pests, use natural plant toxins, use insect birth control
monohybrid cross
cross between heterozygotes
connect outer doublets to each other and to two central microtubules
cross-linking proteins
two types of fertilization
cross-pollination and self-pollination
shuffling from
crossing over, independent assortment, fertilization
density-depedent inhibition
crowded cells stop dividng
MPF
cyclin-Cdk complex that was discovererd first. Cyclin level rises during S and G2 and falls during M. stands for maturation-promoting factor. Triggers the cell's passage past g2 into M. causes phosphorylation of various proteins of nuclear lamina
examples of diseases with transport systems missing
cystinuria, characterized by missing carrier protein for cysteine and kidney amino acids
most electron carriers between ubiquinone and oxygen are
cytochromes
modern cell biology
cytology and biochem
positional information provided by
cytoplasmic determinants and inductive signals
cytoplasmic determinants in * provide positional information for placement of anterior-posterior and dorsal-ventral azes before fertilization
cytoplasmic determinants from unfertilized egg
elodea's transportation
cytoplasmic streaming
Pyrimidines are _____, _____, and _____.
cytosines, thymines, and uracils
some membrane proteins move along
cytoskeleton
plasmodesmota
cytosol passes through and connects to adjacent cells. Water, solutes, certain proteins, and RNA
_____ supplies adenine to DNA and similar to the ATP of energy metabolism. The difference is in their sugars: dATP has _____ while ATP has _____ .
dATP, deoxyribose, ribose
for atoms and subatomic particles, we use measurement for
dalton
tree supported by
data, anatomical and DNA
pattern
data, observable facts
DNA=
database
uses for radioactive isotopes
dating, metabolic tracers, etc, medical diagnosis, biological research; can pose health risks
some membrane proteins do drift, as shown in an experiment by
david frye and michael edidin. Labeled proteins of mouse and human cell and fused cells
monohybrid
heterozygous for one character
dihybrid
heterozygous for two characters
carriers
heterozygous individuals who carry the recessive allele but ar phenotypically normal
sugars with 6 carbons
hexoses
animal adaptations
hiding, fleeing, defending (active), cryptic coloration, camouflage (passive)
type 3
high death rate among young and declining for organisms at a certain age (fish and invertebrates that release thousands of eggs, have external fertilization, and no parenting)
mitochondrial membranes
high percent of protein and different kinds of phospholipids. looks like beads and is 6 nm thick
central vacuoles
hold organic compounds and water, acts as a dumb, storage place of inorgnnic ions. contain poison, allow to become larger without more cytoplasm.
each successive group adds their own * to those they share
homologies
synapsis
homologs pair up and become connected
habituation
decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner
not all redox reactions involve complete transfer of electrons, some change the * in covalent bonds
degree of electron sharing
how does NAD+ trap electrons?
dehydrogenases remove pair of hydrogen atoms from substrate, thereby oxidizing it/ The enzyme delivers the two enzymes and 1 proton the NAD+ and releases hydrogen ion
chromosomal changes that * many loci at once are almost certain to be harmful
delete, disrupt, or rearrange
heterochromatin
dense
evolutionary tree
diagram that reflects evolutionary relationships among groups. hypothesis that summarize understanding of patterns of decent
Punnett Square
diagrammatic device used to predict the allele composition of offspring from parents with known genetic makeup.
power source of ATP synthase
difference in concentration of H+ on opposite sides of the inner mitochondrial membrane
geographic variation
differences in genetic composition of separate populations
compound has characteristics
different form elements
osmosis
diffusion of water through a selectively permeable membrane
example of hydrolysis
digestion
extracellular digestion
digestion that takes place outside of the cell
gastrovascular cavity
digestive chamber with a single opening, in which cnidarians, flatworms, and echinoderms digest food
sporophyte
diploid
four data types that document evolution
direct observations, fossil record, homology, biogeography
catabolic pathways do not
directly perform work
biologists and scientists speak of * while engineers and technologists speak of
discoveries, inventions
two main inquiries
discovery and hypothesis based
selective permeability depends on
discriminating barrier and transport proteins
biogeography
distribution of species
character displacement
divergence in body
cell division
division of a parent cell into daughter cells
cytokinesis
division of the cytoplasm (cytosol and organelles). Usually under way by late telophase. Cleavage furrow in animals and cell plate in plants
mitosis
division of the nucleus or chromosomes
prokaryotic
dna isn't seperated from the rest of the cell
Gregor Mendel
documented the particulate mechanism of inheritance by studying garden peas; he discovered the basic principles of heredity.
all the eukaryotes
domain Eukarya
live in earth's extreme env't
domain archaea
most diverse and widespread prokaryotes
domain bacteria
unicellular eukaryotes and relatives
domain eukarya; protists
eukarya
domain of all organisms whose cells have nuclei, including protists, plants, fungi, and animals
most oncogenes behave as
dominant alleles
Relation between dominance and phenotype
dominant and recessive alleles do not really interact and lead to the synthesis of different proteins that produce a phenotype.
each biome characterized by
dominant vegetation and animal life
temperate grasslands
dominated by grasses, trees and large shrubs are absent. Temperatures vary more from summer to winter, and the amount of rainfall is less than in savannas. Temperate grasslands have hot summers and cold winters. Occur in South Africa, Hungary, Argentina, the steppes of the former Soviet Union, and the plains and prairies of central North America.
(Vocabulary) The form of native DNA, referring to its two adjacent antiparallel polynucleotide strands wound around an imaginary axis into a spiral shape.
double helix
Helicases are enzymes that untwist the _____ at the replication forks.
double helix
The width suggest that the DNA molecule was made up of two strands, forming a _____.
double helix
nuclear envelope
double membrane with holes 100 nm in diameter. each membrane about 20-40 nm apart.
disaccharides
double sugars
Purines are _____ bonded, and pyrimidines are _____ bonded.
double, single
In 1953, Watson and Crick introduced an elegant _____ for the structure of DNA.
double-helical model
emergent properties
due to arrangement and interactions of parts as complexity increases (not unique to life)
each outer doublet also has pairs of protruding proteins reaching toward neighboring proteins. these large motor proteins are called* and are responsible for the *
dynein, bending movements of organelle
Calculate Characters for genotypes from crosses
each character first is considered separately and then the individual probability are multiplied together.
Paul Nurse's hypothesis
each event in the cell cycle simply leads to the next
Self Pollinating Peas
each flower has pollen producing stamen and egg producing carpel and in nature causes self fertilization
law of independent assortment
each pair of alleles segregates independently of each other pair of alleles during gamete formation
trait
each variant for a character example blue, white, red
pattern formation in animals begins in * when the major axes are established
early embryo
nonpolar molecules cross
easily
phagocytosis
eating by engulfing. lysosome digests Human- macrophages
foraging behavior
ecological behavior that involves finding and eating food
natural selection is process of
editing
first showd the value of the genetic approach to studying embryonic development
edward b lewis
source of information early in development, contains RNA and proteins encoded for by mom's DNA
egg's cytoplasm
enzymes can catalyze in
either direction
discrete characters
either-or basis
oxidizing agent
electron acceptor
etc made up of
electron carrier plastoquinone and a protein called plastocyanin
key to atom's characteristics; determines kinds and numbers of bonds an atom will form with other atoms
electron configuration
reducing agent
electron donor
electrons are found in different
electron shells
each neighbor is more
electronegative
only * are directly involved in the chemical reactions
electrons
nonpolar covalent bond
electrons are shared equally.
ETC is an energy converter that uses the exergonic flow of * to pump H+ from mitochondrial matrix into intermembrane space
electrons from NADH and FADH2
substance that can't be broken down into other substances chemically
element
function of nonkinetochore microtubules
elongate cell during anaphase. overlap during metaphase. during anaphase, region of overlap is reduced as motor proteins attached to microtubules walk them away from one another
primary growth
elongation of plant into soil and up into the air
gene regulation system involved in cancer is same that plays roles in
embryonic development, immune response, etc
cotyledon
embryonic leaf in seed-bearing plants
embryology
embryos with tails and pharyngeal pouches
atoms are mostly
empty space
xylem and phloem
enable plants to grow tall
important to pharmaceutical industry
enantiomers
products
end
positive feedback
end product speeds up production
guppy guy
endler
large molecules such as proteins and polysaccharides cross through
endocytosis
endoderm
endodermis surrounds vascular cylinder. function is to select which minerals enter vascular cylinder and body of the plant
stages of glycolysis
energy investment and energy payoff
kinetic energy
energy of motion
couples redox reactions of ETC to ATP synthesis
energy stored in H+ gradient
potential energy
energy that matter possesses because of its location or structure
other key in natural selection
env't
carrying capacity changes as
env't conditions change
other major source of developmental information that becomes more important with number of cells is
environment around cell
natural selection because
environment selects for propagation of certain traits
life evolves as
environments change
protein kinases
enzymes that activate or inactivate other proteins by phosphorylating them
All three types of intercellular junctions especially common in
epithelial tissue
A dihybrid or other multi-character cross
equivalent to two or more independent monohybrid crosses occurring simultaneously
Telomeres do not prevent the shortening of DNA molecules, but they do postpone the _____ of genes near the ends of DNA molecules. It has been proposed that the shortening of telomeres is connected to _____ .
erosion, aging
In mismatch repair of DNA, repair enzymes correct _____ in base pairing.
erros
1844
essay
function of electron transport chain
establish H+ gradient
1940s, studied musant drosophila
established that genes control development and led to understanding of key roles of specific molecules in defining position and directing differentiation
overlapping tetrahedrons
ethane
catastrophism
events in past ocurred suddenly and were caused by mechanisms different from those operting the present.
determination
events that lead to observable differentiation in cell
darwin never said
evolution
nothing in biology makes sense except in the light of
evolution- theodosius
fermentation
expansion of glycolysis that allows continuous generation of ATP by substrate level-phosphorylation. requires NAD+
hypothesis based
explaining
rescurve partitioning
exploit different resources
nusslein-volhard and wieschaus began search for segmentation genes by
exposing flies to mutagenic chemical that affected gametes
regulatory gene
expressed continuously, a gene that codes for a protein, such as a repressor, that controls the transcription of another gene or group of genes
limiting factors
factors that limit pop growth
density-independent factors
factors whose occurrence is incidental. Earthquakes, natural disasters
have long hydrocarbon tails attached to non-hydrocarbon component
fats
most important lipids
fats, phospholipids, steroids
in making a fat, three * each join to * by a *... this forms a
fatty acid molecules, glycerol, ester linkage (bond between hydroxyl and carboxyl), triacylglycerol (triglyceride)
NADP+ reductase catalyzes transfer of electrons from * to *
fd to NADPH
predators
feed on animals least able to avoid detection, escape, or defend themselves
two mechanisms for oxidization without oxygen
fermentation and anaerobic respiration
seedless plants
ferns (reproduce by spores) ferns most widespread seedless tracheophytes reproduce by spores homosporous (bisexual gametophyte) restricted to moist habitats because of flagellated sperm (antheridium to archegonium)
second etc
ferredoxin
zygote
fertilized egg
founder effect
few individuals isolated from larger population
intermediate filaments
fibrous proteins supercoiled into thicker cables. 8-12 nm. Made of keratin. Maintanance of shape (tension bearing), anchorage of nucleus and other organelles, formation of nuclear lamina. More permanent. Important in fixing position of organelles. Nucleus sits within cage, fixed by branches. impulses of axons strengthened by filaments too
Telophase
final stage of mitosis and of meiosis I and II, in which the chromosomes reach the spindle poles, nuclear envelopes form around each set of daughter chromosomes, and the nucleoli reappear
darwin proposed ancestral species because of specimens of * from *
finches; galapagos islands
microvili
finger like projections of the cell plasma membrane. the function is to increase surface area
turgid
firm
prophase
first and longest phase of mitosis, during which the chromosomes become visible and the centrioles separate and take up positions on the opposite sides of the nucleus. centrosomes move apart. Dna forms chromosomes. Nucleoli disappear. Sister chromatids. Mitotic spindle begins to form.
prophase
first phase of mitosis in which chromosomes become visible and nuclear membraine disappears
glycolysis
first step in releasing the energy of glucose, in which a molecule of glucose is broken into two molecules of pyruvic acid
clumped
fish
if only 1 allele at a particular locus
fixed in the gene pool
when two carbons are joined by a double bond
flat shape
electrons removed form glucose by NAD+ transferred to
flavoprotein
animal cells
flexible cell membrane, vacuoles, cilia or flagella
if chlorophyll is isolated from chloroplasts and illuminated, it
flouresces in the red-orage spectrum and gives off heat
ecosystems-
flow of energy; cycling of nutrients. producers use light to make sugar. consumers consume producers and other consumers
electron microscope
focuses bean of electrons through specimen or on surface
Length of Mendel's typical breeding Experiment
followed trait at least through F2 generation
cytoskeleton manipulates plasma membrane to form
food vacuoles and phagocytic vesicles.
food chains interwoven in
food web
transpirational pull-cohesion tension theory
for each molecule of water that evaporates from a leaf by transpiration, another molecule of water is drawn in at the root to replace it
temperate deciduous forest
forest in a temperate region, characterized by trees that drop their leaves annually
carbon unparalleled in ability to
form molecules: large, complex, diverse
positional information operating on finer scale establishes specific number of correctly oriented segments and triggers
formation of each segment's characteristic structures
food vacuoles
formed by phagocytosis
condensation reaction (dehydration)
forming bonds between two monomers by losing a water molecule.
tube nucleus
forms the pollen tube from the stigma to the ovule
hydrogen bond
forms when a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to one electronegative atom is also attracted to another electronegative atom
endemic
found nowhere else in the world
karl van frisch
found out how bees tell each other to go find flowers
for atoms with valence electrons in s and p orbitals, the s and three p hybridize to form
four new hyprid orbitals
second
four oribtals (2s is sphere and three dumbbell p 2p orbitals)
pioneer in determining amino acid sequence of proteins
frederick sanger
most prevalent disaccharide
fructose
function of monosaccharides
fuel for cells and raw material for building molecules
repressible enzymes
function in anabolic pathways; their synthesis is repressed by high levels of the end product
function of BRCAs
function in cell's DNA damage repair pathway
cell
fundamental unit of structure and function; lowest level of organism that can perform all activities required for life
three major checkpoints in
g1, g2, and M
Grants studied
galapagos finches
gametangia
gametes and zygotes in protective jacket that prevents them from drying out
humans and animals
gametes are only haploid cells. meiosis occurs in germ cells, which undergo no further division. after fertilization, diploid zygote divides and forms multicellular organism
maternal effect gene
gene that, when mutant in mother, results in mutant phenotype in offspring, regardless of offspring's own genotype
locus
gene's specific location along length of a chromosome
Two problems with the Davson-Danielli sandwich
generalization that all cell membranes are identical, membrane proteins are not very soluble in water
life cycle
generation-to-generation sequence of stages in reproductive history of an organism
dna is the substance of
genes
law of independent assortment applies only to
genes on different chromosomes (not homologous)
oncogene arises from
genetic change that leads to increase in amount of proto-oncogene's protein or in activity of each protein molecule
crossing over
genetic rearrangement between nonsister chromatids
library
genome
almost all cells in organism have same genome. differential gene regulation resutls from
gens being regulated differently in each cell type
development of malignant tumor paralleled by
gradual accumulation of mutations that convert proto-oncogenes to oncogenes and knock out tumor-suppressor genes
permafrost
ground that is permanently frozen
most common tissue type in plant
ground tissue
early 20th c, studied anatomy of embryos and manipulated embryonic tissues
groundwork. didn't reveal specific molecules that guide development or determine how patterns are established
clone
group of genetically identical individuals
population
group of individuals of one species living in one area who have the ability of interbreeding and interacting with each other
population
group of individuals of same species that live in same area and produce fertile offspring
tissues
groups of similar cells
negative tropism
growth away from a stimulus
genes that regulate growth and division include genes for
growth factors, receptors, and intracellular molecules of signaling pathways
seed plants
gymnosperms, angiosperms or anthophyta (flowering plants) more advanced and numerous than seedless divided into gymnosperms (cones) and angiosperms (flowers and fruit) heterosporous megaspores (female_ microspores (male) sperm don't have flagella
first concrete evidence that genes somehow direct developmental processes
h
molecular shape is crucial in biology because it determines
how biological molecules recognize and respond to one another with specificity
Package
how two characters are transmitted from parents to offspring
dominantly inherited disorders
human disorders due to dominant alleles; Ex. achondroplasia; huntington's disease
large proteoglycans can be formed from
hundreds noncovalently attached to polysaccharide
A eukaryotic chromosome may have _____ or even _____ or origins of replication.
hundreds, thousands
phloem vessels consist of chains of * or elements whose end walls contain * that facilitate the flow of fluid from one cell to the next
sieve tube members, sieve plates
releasers
sign stimuli exchanged between members of the same species
prokaryotic cells
simpler and smaller than eukaryotic celles; dna isn't separated from rest of the cell. no membrane-enclosed organelles
exponential growth
simplest model for population growth in which growth is unrestrained (no immigration/ emigration, envy's with unlimited resources) characteristic of a population that has been recently introduced into an area
coordinate control
single on-off switch can control whole cluster of genes
hydrogen ion
single proton with charge of 1+
(Vocabulary) binds to and stabilizes a single-stranded DNA until it can used as a template
single-strand binding protein
Single-strand binding protein binds to and stabilizes _____ until it can be used as a template.
single-stranded DNA
mitochondria
site of cellular respiration, about 1-10 micrometers
nucleolus
site of rRNA synthesis (where ribosomes are made); also functions in regulation of some cellular processes, such as cell division
chloroplasts
sites of photosynthesis
5 properties of populations
size, density, dispersion, survivorship curves, age structure diagrams
most organic compounds contain * in addition to carbon
hydrogen
organic molecules that have an abundance of * are excellent fuels because their bonds are a source of hilltop electrons
hydrogen
partial positive
hydrogen
cohesion
hydrogen bonds hold togetherr
most frequent partners of carbon
hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen
enzymes that digest starch by hydrolyzing alpha linkages can't
hydrolyze beta linkages in cellulose
proton binds to water molecule
hydronium ion
amphipatic
hydrophilic region and hydrophobic region
membrane held together primarily by
hydrophobic interactions
seven chemical groups most important in biological processes
hydroxyl, carbonyl, carboxyl, amino, sulfhydryl, phosphate, methyl
vitalism
idea that organic compounds arise only in organisms
dihybrid cross
illustrates the inheritance of two characters; produces four phenotypes in the F2 Generation; used to develop law of independent assortment
longitudinal axis
imaginary line that runs down the middle of a limb
proximate causes
immediate environmental events and conditions that affect behaviour
almost all cells in organism have identical genome except
immune cells
adaptive evolution
improved match between organisms and environment
integrins
in animal cells, a transmembrane receptor protein that interconnects the extracellular matrix and the cytoskeleton.
centrosome
in animal cells, assembly of spindle microtubules starts here. microtubule-organizing center
mesoglea
in cnidarians, the jellylike material located between the ectoderm and the endoderm
two locations of protein synthesis
in cytosol (free ribosomes), on outside of rough ER or the nuclear envelope (bound ribosomes)
difference between chemiosmosis in chloroplasts and mitochondria
in hitochondria, electrons of etc arefrom organic molecules. in chloroplasts, they're from water. Mitochondria use chemiosmosis to transfer chemical energy to atp. chloroplasts transform light energy into chemical energy in atp
citric acid cycle
in mitochondrial matrix or cytosol of prokaryotes, completes breakdown of glucose by oxidizing a derivative of pyruvate to carbon dioxide
pr
inactive type of phytochrome that absorbs red light with a wavelength of 660 nm, and is then rapidly converted in the active form, Pfr.
zebra mussel
inch-long mollusk imported accidentally from Europe
at biochemical level, TS is
incompletely dominant
DNA polymerases proofread newly made DNA, replacing any _____.
incorrect nucleotides
density-dependent factors
increase directly as pop density increases (competition for food, buildup of waste, predation, disease)
secondary growth
increase in girth
microvilli
increase surface area
biological magnification
increasing concentration of a harmful substance in organisms at higher trophic levels in a food chain or food web
methods for genetic variation
independent assortment of chromosomes, crossing over, random fertilizaiton
convergent evolution
independent evolution of similar features in different lineages
2nd Inheritance: Each pair of alleles segregates
independently, airing gamete formation
organism
individual living thing
population
individuals of species in specific area
natural selection
individuals with heritable characteristics survive and reproduce at higher rate. increases natch between organism and environment
darwin's inferences
individuals with inherited traits that are best suited to env't are more likely to reproduce; over time, more individuals in pop. with advantageous traits. explains unity and diversity
noble gases said to be
inert
trichinosis
infestation by trichina larvae that are transmitted by eating inadequately cooked meat (especially pork), nematode larvae encysted in muscle; makes muscle elastic
differences in geometric isomers arise from
inflexibility of double bonds
epigenetic inheritance
inheritance of traits transmitted by mechanisms not directly involving nucleotide sequence
alleles
inherited characteristics
characters
inherited features that vary among species
fixed action pattern
innate behavior that occurs as an unchangeable sequence of actions
pigments of chloroplast on
inner membrane
minus sign indicates
inside is negative relative to outside
cellulose in food passes through digestive tract as
insoluble fiber
science and technology are
interdependent
two compartments of inner membrane
intermembrane space and mitochondrial matrix (contains enzymes, DNA, and ribosomes, proteins for respiration are built into inner membrane)
cell cycle regulated by
internal and external signals
resolution
inversely related to wavelength
cnidarians
invertebrates that have stinging cells and take food into a central body cavity
flavoprotein oxidizes as it passes electrons to
iron-sulfur protein
acidification of the oceans
is happening via absorption of CO2 from the atmosphere, may interfere with production of about 20 percent of the planet's oxygen, and is a measurable phenomenon decrease in concentration of carbonate ions (CO32-)
some atoms have more neutrons than others; these different forms are called
isotopes
What a Test Cross does
it crosses an individual with the dominant phenotype with an individual that is homozygous recessive for a trait
because CO2 is a very simple molecule and lacks hydrogen,
it is often considered inorganic, even though it contains carbon
an electron's energy level is correlated with
its average distance from the nucleus
chimp lady
jane goodall
fructose
ketose
have lots of aquaporins
kidneys and blood
killfish
kill guppies
disadvantage of EM
kills, introduces artifacts
multicellular eukaryotes that ingest other organisms
kingdom animalia
absorb nutrients from surroundings
kingdom fungi
multicellular eukaryotes that photosynthesize
kingdom plantae
made acetic acid
kolbe
dual control of lac operon
lac repressor (-) and CAP (+)
Smooth ER
lacks ribosomes. synthesizes lipids (steroids, oils, phospholipids), metabolizes carbs, detoxifies poison (usually by adding hydroxyl) (liver cells, sedative phenobarbital and other barbiturates), stores calcium
(Vocabulary) A discontinuously synthesized DNA strand that elongates by means of Okazaki fragments, each synthesized in a 5'?3' direction away from the replication fork.
lagging strand
freshwater biomes
lakes, ponds, rivers, streams and wetlands, have a salt concentration of less than 1% and are closely linked to the soils and biotic components of the terrestrial biomes through which they pass
lipids
large biological molecules that do not form polymers; unifying feature is tehat they are hydrophobic. mostly hydrocarbons
ATP synthase
large protein that uses energy from H+ ions to bind ADP and a phosphate group together to produce ATP. multisubunit complex with four parts of polypeptides. Smallest molecular rotary motor in nature
plant
larger than animals, don't move, cell wall, one large vacuole, chloroplasts
eukaryotic cells generally
larger than prokaryotic; contains DNA in nucleus bound by membranous nuclear envelope; membrane-bound organelles, cytoplasm between plasma membrane and nucleus
aquatic biomes
largest portion of biosphere, water covers roughly 75% of the globe containing fresh water and marine water
planula larva
larva of medusa stage, they are free swimming and eventually settle to the bottom and become a polyp
telophase
last phase of mitosis, chromosome are in two new cells and nuclear membranes start to reform. Daughter nuclei form. Nuclear envelopes arise.
hydrostatic skeleton
layers of circular and longitudinal muscles, together with the water in the gastrovascular cavity, that enable movement
(Vocabulary) The new complementary DNA strand synthesized continuously along the template strand toward the replication fork in the mandatory 5'?3' direction.
leading strand
classic conditioning
learning to associate two stimuli, even unrelated stimuli, beyond the organism's control; involuntary; neutral stimulus can be made to trigger an unconditioned stimulus; Pavlov's dog salivation experiment (ex. dogs salivate at tone)
location of photosynthesis
leaves
chloroplasts found in
leaves and green organs in plants and algar
bicoid research groundbreaking because
led to identification of specific protein required for earliest steps in pattern formation, increased understanding of mother's role in initial phases of embryonic development, principle that gradient of morphogens can determine polarity and position confirmed
vestigial structures
leftover. loss of function
fatty acids vary in
length and number and locations of double bonds
carbon chains vary in
length and shape
150 years
length genetics as been around
in chloroplasts, * drive(s)electron flow down ETC
light
gap juncitons
like plasmodesmota. Made of membrane proteins that surround pore
flaccid
limp
steroids
lipids with carbon skeleton of four fused rings; vary in chemical groups attached to rings
aminocentesis
liquid that bathes the fetus is removed and tested
solution
liquid that is homogenous mixture
trp repressor synthesized in inactive form with
little affinity for trp operator
k-strategists
live at density near carrying capacity: few young, intense parenting, slow maturation, large young, reproduce many times (mammals)
glycogens mainly in
liver and muscle
monosaccharides classified by
location of carbonyl (aldose or ketose), number of carbons in carbon skeleton
deductive reasoning
logic flows from general to specific
set limits on cell size
logistics of carrying out cellular metabolic functions
fatty acid
long carbon skeleton (16 or 18) with filler hydrogen. carbon at one end is part of carboxyl, attached to hydrocarbon chain
polymer
long molecule of similar or identical building blocks linked by covalent bonds; carbohydrates, proteins, nucleic acids
fibers
long thin and fibrous occur in bundles used to make rope and flax fibers
artificial change over short time, natural selection over
long time
tracheids
long, thin cells that overlap and are tapered at the ends. secondary cell walls hardened with lignin so they support plant and transport nutrients and water
euchromatin
loose
spongy mesophyll
loose tissue beneath the palisade layer of a leaf; has many air spaces between its cells
addition of phosphate group to amino acid next to methylated amino acid
loosens
steps of acetyl CoA transition
loses co2, forms acetate and NADH, and coenzyme A attached to acetate
oxidization
loss of electrons
interaction of general transcription factors and RNA polymerase II with promoter usually leads to - of initiation and production of - RNA transcripts
low rate, few
water diffuses from
low solute to high solute
states of animal cell
lysed, normal, crenated
autophagy
lysosomes recycle organelles and macromolecules. surrounded by double membrane and lysosome fuses with outer membrane.
enzymes
macromolecules that speed up dehydration
platelet-derived growth factor
made by blood cell fragments called platelets. Required for division of fibroblasts in culture
cellulose
major component of wall of plant cells; polymer of glucose, but the glucosidic linkages differ based on alpha and beta rings of glucose
things messed up in cancer cells
make required growth facrot themselves, abnormality in signaling pathway that conveys growth factor's signal to cell cycle control system even in the absence of that actor. Abnormal cell cycle control system
chemical reactions
making and breaking of chemical bonds
two glucose molecules form
maltose
strong evidence of hypothesis comes from experiments with
mammalian cells grown in culture. Two cells in different phases were fused to form a single ecll with two nuclei. Cyclin diffused into other cells
monotremes
mammals that lay eggs
multifactorial disorders
many human diseases have both genetic and environmental components; example: heart disease and cancer
supramolecular
many molecules ordered into a higher level of organization
Cross F1 Plants
many of the plants had purple flowers, but some had white flowers
Why Mendel Chose Peas
many variety; could strictly control which plants mated with which; bisexual; many traits known; cross and self pollinating
grant
marine life in edinburough
organisms are captured, tagged, and released
mark and recapture
superscript to left of element's symbol
mass number
- set up sequential program of gene regulation carried out as cells divide, and this program makes cells become different in coordinated fashion
materials placed in egg by mother
cytoplasmic determinants
maternal substances in egg that influence course of early development
consanguineous mating
mating between relatives can increase the probablility of the appearance of genetic diseases
has mass and takes up space
matter
saturated fatty acids
maximum number of hydrogen and no double bonds
biotic potential
maximum rate at which a population could increase under ideal conditions
resolution
measure of distance two points can be separated and distinguished
surface tension
measure of how hard it is to stretch or break surgace
quantitative
measurements, tables, graphs
cytoskeleton regulates biochemical activities in response to
mechanical stimulation
operon method
mechanism for control of gene expression in bacteria, 1961 francois jacob and jacques monod at pasteur institute in paris
process
mechansims of change. natural causes
maintain species' chromosome count
meiosis and fertilization
fungi and protists
meiosis occurs without multicellular diploid. produces haploid cells that divide my mitosis
fluid mosaic model
membrane is a fluid structure with a mosaic of various proteins embedded in or attached to bilayer of phospholipids
organelles
membrane-enclosed compartments
What happened in 1915
membranes were isolated from red blood and found to have lipids and proteins
chloroplasts in * in interior of leaf
mesophyll
genes of bacterial genome switched on or off by changes in
metabolic status of cell
seeds and pollen
method of dispersing offspring
all are hydrophilic, increase solubility of organic compounds in water, and are functional except
methyl
genomic imprinting
methylation permanently regulates expression of maternal or paternal allele
Epistasis Example
mice black coat BB is dominant to brown bb, but another allele Cc determines whether the color in the mouse is deposited; CC or Cc -> yes, cc -> no color
cell wall composed of
microfibrils of cellulose synthasized by cellulose synthaze and secreted into matrix of polysaccharides and proteins. Strong fibers in a ground substance
microvilli made of
microfilaments
pseudopedia function
microfilaments assemble and disassemble. filaments near trailing end interact with myosin and contract. this contraction forces interior into pseudopodium which extends until the actin reforms
cilia and flagella
microtubule containing extensions that project from some cells and act as locomotor apendages
spindle
microtubule structure that separates chromosomes during mitosis. includes centrosomes, spindle microtubules, and asterse
centrosome
microtubules grow out of it. composed of centrioles
Ehrhardt discovered that
microtubules in cell cortex guide cellulose synthase as it synthesizes and deposits fibrils
Between primary walls of adjacent cells
middle lamella, think layer rich in sticky pectin polysaccharides.
2001, david and karin pfennig of UNC and WIlliam harcombe tested bates's
mimicry hypothesis
micropyle
minute opening in the wall of an ovule through which the pollen tube enters
enantiomers
mirror images
(Vocabulary) The cellular process that uses specific enzymes to remove and replace incorrectly paired nucleotides.
mismatch repair
If chromosomes of germ cells became shorter in every cell cycle, essential genes would eventually be _____ from the gametes they produce.
missing
energy released at each stage of ETC stored in * and can be used to make ATP
mitochondrion
well supported by studies of colorectal cancer
model of mutistep path to cancer
food pyramid
model to demonstrate interaction of organisms in food chain and loss of energy
functions of golgi
modifies products of ER, manufactures macromolecules, sorts and packages materials
distinctive properties of organic molecules depend not only on the carbonic skeleton but also on
molecular components attached to it
Allows compartimentalized specialization in cells
molecular makeup
in the third state of respiration, ETC accepts electrons from first two stages and passes them from one molecule to another, until they're combined with * and *, forming *
molecular oxygen and hydrogen ions, forming water
angiosperms or anthophyta
monocots or dicots flowers and fruits most diverse plant species ovary - fruit ovule - seed 90 percent of all plants burrs, wings, bright, sweet
simplest carbohydrates
monosaccharides (simple sugars)
diverse communities more productive because
more stable and survive longer, better able to withstand and recover from env't stresses
physicists have split the atom into
more than a hundred types of particles
- is generally needed to produce all the changes characteristic of a full-fledged cancer cell
more than one somatic mutation
recent research suggests that the mosaic model is more * than *
mosaic than fluid
dominant species
most abundant or highest biomass in community, exert control over abundance and distribution of other species
chlorophyll a
most photosynthetic, violet-blue and red, CH3, blue green
aerobic respiration
most prevalent and efficient catabolic pathway in which oxygen is consumed as a reactant along with the organic fuel
genetic changes that convert proto-oncogenes to oncogenes
movement of DNA within genome, amplification of proto-oncogene, point mutations in control element or proto-oncogene
continental drift
movement of continents
diffusion
movement of molecules so that they spread evenly. type of thermal motion
facilitated diffusion
movement of specific molecules across cell membranes through protein channels
sperm nucleus
moves through the pollen tube, then splits to form two sperm cells
cystic fibrosis symptoms
mucus build up in some internal organs; abnormal absorption of nuitrients in the small intestine
plants are defined as
multicelled, eukaryotic, photosynthetic autotrophs
skeletal muscle cells have
muscle specific versions of proteins and membrane receptor proteins
genetic differences produced by
mutation and sexual reproduction
embryonic lethals
mutations with phenotypes causing death at embryonic or larval stage
actin filaments in a muscle cell are interdigitated with thicker filaments of a protein called *; it acts as a microfilament-based motor protein
myosin
haploid
n
p53 gene
named for 53,000 dalton molecular weight of protein product, tumor-suppressor gene. protein it encodes promote synthesis of cell cycle-inhibiting proteins. Guardian angel of teh genome
hardy-Weinberg principle
named for british and german dudes from 1908. states that frequencies of alleles and genotypes will remain constant from generation to generation as long as only mendelian segregation and recombination are at work (in hardy-weinberg equilibrium)
causes of microevolution
natural selection, genetic drift, gene flow
greenhouse effect
natural situation in which heat is retained in Earth's atmosphere by carbon dioxide, methane, water vapor, and other gases
discovery science describes * through *
natural structures and processes; observation and analysis of data
pH
negative logarithy of hydrogen ion concentration
anion
negatively charged ion
electrons
negatively charged particles
cytoskeleton
network of fibers extending through cytoplasm, organizes activities, microtubules, microfilaments, and intermediate fibers. gives mechanical support and maintains shape.
endoplasmic reticulum
network of membranes in cytoplasm. continuous with nuclear envelope. network of membranous tubules and sacs called cisternae. separates internal compartment of ER (ER lumen or cisternal space) from cytosol
Enzymes called DNA polymerases catalyze the elongation of _____ at a replication fork.
new DNA
At the end of each replication bubble is a replication fork, a Y-shaped region when _____ are elongating.
new DNA strands
centrioles
nine triplet microtubules in a ring. resemble basal bodies
radioactive carbon decays to form
nitrogen
It was known that DNA is a polymer of _____, each consisting of a _____, a _____, and _____.
nitrogenous base, sugar, phosphate group
five conditions for HW
no mutations, random mating, no natural selection, extremely large population, no gene flow
isotonic
no net movement
prokaryotic cells
no nucleus, nucleoid, no membrane-bound organelles, cytoplasm
prokaryotic cells
no nucleus, nucleoid, no membrane-bound organelles, cytoplasm bound by plasma membrane
bryophytes
non-vascular plants. primitive plants that lack transport vessels (xylem and phloem) absorb water by difussion flagellated sperm lack lignen-fortified tissue needed for tall plants restricted to moist habitats role in terrestrial ecosystems grow on rocks, soil and trees
G0 phase
nondividing state in which a cell has left the cell cycle
abiotic factors
nonliving: temp, water, sunlight, wind, rocks, and soil
hydrophobic regions
nonpolar amino acids in alpha helices
tumor-suppressor genes
normal products inhibit cell division. proteins they encode help prevent uncontrolled cell growth
horses from
north america
keystone species
not abundent, but exert major control over other species in a community
Genetic Composition
not always revealed by traits; PP and Pp are both purple
characteristics of chloroplasts and mitochondria
not part of endomembrane system, double membrane, protein made by free ribosomes, have own DNA, semiautonomous
endomembrane system
nuclear envelope, ER, golgi, lysosomes, vacuoles, plasma membrane
nuclear envelope lined by
nuclear lamina
(Vocabulary) An enzyme that cuts DNA or RNA, either removing one or a few bases or hydrolyzing the DNA or RNA completely into its component nucleotides
nuclease
sieve cells are alive at maturity although they lack
nuclei, ribosomes, vacuoles
Each nucleotide that is added to a growing DNA strand is a _____ .
nucleoside triphosphate
(Vocabulary) A repair system that removes and then correctly replaces a damaged segment of DNA using the undamaged strand as a guide.
nucleotide excision repair
In _____, a nuclease cuts out and replaces damaged stretches of DNA.
nucleotide excision repair
almost all of mass of atom is in
nucleus
eukaryotic cells
nucleus, membrane-bound organelles, cytoplasm between plasma membrane and nucleus, larger than prokaryotic cells
gives each molecule unique properties
number and arrangement of functional groups
amplification increases
number of copies of PO
each atom that can share valence electrons has a bonding capacity corresponding to the
number of covalent bonds the atom can form
species richness
number of different species in community
atomic number tells number of protons and
number of electrons
daunting
number of genes (13700), mutations could be embryonic lethals, cytoplasmic determinants had to be studied as well
density
number of individuals per unit area or volume
coefficients indicate
number of molecules
molarity
number of moles of solute per liter of solution
zero population growth
number of people at each age group about the same and birth rates and death rates about equal
atomic number
number of protons
subscript before number
number of protons
mRNA produced in
nurse cells
nobel prize in 1995
nusslein-volhard, wieschaus, lewis
distinguished by
nutrition
endosperm
nutritive tissue surrounding the embryo within seeds of flowering plants
pheromones
odorless chemicals that serve as social signals to members of one's species
electrons of an atom have potential energy because
of how they are arranged in relation to the nucleus
traits also influence
offspring
Inheritance Patterns
often more complex than predicted by Mendelian genetics
chlorophyll b
olive green
discrete from * gene locus with * alleles and quantitative from
one, different, two or more genes on a single phenotypic character
herbaceous plants
only primary growth
stomates
open and close to exxchange gas and minimize water loss
low NPP high global NPP
open oceans
stomates
openings in leaf tissue that gases normally move into and out of
operon
operator, promoter, genes they control
key properties of life
order, regulation, response to the environment, evolutionary adaptation, grown and development, reproduction, energy processing
even cells that don't have mitochondria, like giardia, have
organelles that probably evolved form mitochondria
substrate molecule
organic molecule generated as an intermediate during catabolism of glucose
hydrocarbons
organic molecules consisting of only carbon and hydrogen
inheritance of acquired characteristics
organism passes on modifications
fossils document
origins of major new groups
(Vocabulary) Site where the replication of a DNA molecule begins, consisting of a specific sequence of nucleotides.
origins of replication
autosomes
other chromosomes
cortex
outer cytoplasmic layer of cell
valence shell
outermost electron shell
valence electrons
outermost electrons
the chemical behavior of an atom depends mostly on the number of electrons in the
outermost shell
molecules that start on the inside face of the er end up on
outside of PM
how many species extinct
over 99%
body plan
overall three d arrangement. must be established and superimposed on the differentiation process
Topoisomerase corrects "_____" ahead of replication forks by breaking, swiveling, and _____ DNA strands.
overwinding, rejoining
in citric acid cycle, Acetyl CoA combines with * to form *
oxaloacetate to form citrate
peroxisomes
oxidative organelles that use peroxidase to dissolve stuff; specialized metabolic compartments bounded by a single membrane. break down h2o2. detoxifies things, transfers hydrogen from susbtrates to oxygen. grow larger by incroporating proteins in cytosol, lipids in ER, and lipids in peroxisome
fermentation
oxidization without ETC or oxygen
fuel is * and oxygen is *
oxidized, reduced
NAD+ functions as a(n) * during respiration
oxidizing agent
cyt a3 passes electrons to
oxygen
more negative in water
oxygen
one of the most electronegative elements
oxygen
partial negative
oxygen
pulls electrons down the chain
oxygen
in cells, partners usually
oxygen or nitrogen
strongest biological oxidizing agent known
p680+
acid precipitation
pH lower than 5.2
how do kinetochore microtubules function in pole-ward movement of chromosomes
pacman or reeled in
homozygous
pair of identical alleles for a character
single bond
pair of shared electrons
colonized land during
paleozoic area
three types of ground tissue
parenchyma, collenchyma, sclerenchyma
cortex
parenchymal cells with plastids for storage of starch and such
gary borisy's lab at university of wisconsin
parman mechanism
fermentation
partial degradation of sugars without oxygen
subatomic particles
particles inside an atom (protons, neutrons, electrons)
ribosomes
particles of rRNA and protein; carry out protein synthesis
internal membranes
partition cells into organelles; many have enzymes
use and disuse
parts that are used get longer and stronger, those that aren't deteriorate
food chain
path along wchich food is transferred from one trophic (feeding) level to another
evolution in two different ways
pattern and process
development of spatial organization in which the tissues and organs of an organism are all in their characteristic places
pattern formation
dispersion
pattern of spacing of individuals within the area the population inhabits
sugars with 5
pentose
cooperation
people working together for a common goal
replace rubisco in c4 plants
pep carboxylase
amino acids formed by
peptide bonds
in 1911 discovered virus that causes cancer in chickens
peyton rous
metaphase
phase of mitosis in which chromosomes line up in the center of the cell
anaphase
phase of mitosis in which sister chromatids are pulled to opposite sides of the cell
In 1952, Hershey and Chase performed experiments showing that DNA is the genetic material of a _____ known as _____. To determine the source of genetic material in the phase, they designed an experiment showing that only one of the two components of T2 enters an _____ cell during infection.
phase, T2, E.Coli cell
make up 4%
phosphorous, sulfur, calcium, potassium, sodium, chlorine, magnesium
The terminal functional group on the 5' end is _____, and the terminal function group on the 3' end is _____.
phosphorus, hydroxyl
why are glucose numbers inexact
phosphorylation and redox aren't directly coupled. ATP yield varies depending on type of shuttle. Proton motive-force may drive other work
photosynthesis generates * and * used by mitochondria for cellular respiration
photosynthesis
PKU
phynylketonuria, metabolic disorder with phenylalanine
Phenotypes include
physical appearance, physiology, internal anatomy, behavior; reflects its overall genotype and unique environmental history
morphogenesis
physical processes that give organism shape
B.F. Skinner
pioneer of operant conditioning who believed that everything we do is determined by our past history of rewards and punishments. he is famous for use of his operant conditioning aparatus which he used to study schedules of reinforcement on pidgeons and rats.
water passes from one cell to another through *, areas with no secondary cell wall
pits
abscisic acid
plant hormone that inhibits cell division in buds and vascular cambium
auxins
plant hormones that promote cell elongation
epiphytes
plants such as mosses, lichens, and orchids, that grow on other plants but do not take nutrients from them
day-neutral plants
plants whose flowering cycle is not sensitive to periods of light and dark
photosynthesis occurs in
plants, algae, protists, prokaryotes
all cells
plasma membrane, cytosol, chromosomes, ribosomes
basic features of all cells
plasma membrane, cytosol, chromosomes, ribosomes
holes in cell wall
plasmodesmata
acid rain caused by
pollutants in water and air
sporopollenin
polymer resistant to damage in spores and pollen
polysaccharide
polymers of sugars with storage and structural roles
DNA polymerases cannot initiate synthesis of a _____; they can only add nucleotides to the _____ end.
polynucleotide, 3
nucleic acids are polymers called
polynucleotides
polymers of amino acids
polypeptides
carbohydrate macromolecules
polysaccharides
communities made of
pops that interact with env't and each other
lines each pore
pore complex; intricate protein structure that regulates entry and exit of RNA and macromolecules
central activities of biology
posing questions, seeking science-based answers
molecular shape determined by
position of atoms' orbitals
differing ring structure of glucose result from
position of hydroxyl on carbon 1 (alpha is below, beta is above)
the molecular cues that control pattern formation
positional information
cation
positively charged ion
nuclear matrix
possible framework of fibers in nuclear interior
"Blending" Hypothesis "Particulate" Hypothesis
possible genetic principles that account for the transmission of traits from parents to offspring
in hypothesis based, deductions usually
predictions
hypothesis leads to *
predictions that can be tested
(Vocabulary) An enzyme that joins RNA nucleotides to make the primer using the parental DNA strand as a template.
primase
(Vocabulary) A short stretch of RNA with a free 3' end, bound by complementary base pairing to the template strand, that is elongated with DNA nucleotides during DNA replication.
primer
Most DNA polymerases require a _____ and a _____.
primer, DNA template strand
read lyells'
principles of geology
addition rule
probability that one of two ore more mutually exclusive events will occur is calculated by adding their individual probabilities
eutrophication
process by which a body of water becomes too rich in dissolved nutrients, leading to plant growth that depletes oxygen
endocytosis
process by which a cell takes material into the cell by infolding of the cell membrane
cell differentiation
process by which cells become specialized in structure and function
pinocytosis
process by which certain cells can engulf and incorporate droplets of fluid. nonspecific
cleavage
process by which cytokinesis occurs
crossing-over
process by which homologous chromosomes exchange pieces, resulting in greater genetic variety
natural selection
process in which individuals with certain inherited traits leave more offspring than individuals with other traits
phagocytosis
process in which phagocytes engulf and digest microorganisms and cellular debris, wraps pseudopodia around and forms vacuole
origin of replication
process of cell division initiated when DNA of bacterial chromosome begins to replicate on this specific place on chromosome, producing two origins
evolution
process of change that has transformed life on earth from its earliest beginnings to dthe diversity of organisms living today
hydrogenation
process of converting unsaturated fats to saturated fats by adding hydrogen
cellular respiration
process that releases energy by breaking down glucose and other food molecules in the presence of oxygen. uses aerobic and anaerobic processes
F2 Generation
produced when F1 individuals pollinate with each other; 2nd familial generation
autotrophs
producer that makes organic molecules from carbon dioxide and inorganic molecules
energy in food flows
producers to herbivores to carnivores
bicoid phenotype suggested that
product of mother's bicoid gene essential for setting up anterior end of fly and might be concentrated at future anterior end of embryo
negative G indicates
products store less energy that reactants and reaction can happen spontaneously
genes
program
anaerobic respiration in
prokaryotes that live without oxygen. Use ETC and sulfate ion at end of respiratory chain. produce H2S
anaerobic respiration
prokaryotic cells use substances other than oxygen as reactants
point mutation in
promoter or enhancer that controls PO, increasing expression or in coding sequence, changing genes product to protein that is more active or more resistant to degradation
methylation of histone tails
promotes condensation
most important part of meiosis is * because
prophase I, crossing over
bound to proteins
prosthetic groups, nonprotein components essential for the catalytic functions of certain enzymes
seed coat
protective outer layer of seeds of flowering plants
cell wall
protects, maintains shape, prevents uptake of water. thicker than membrane and .1 to several micrometers
capsule
protein coating adaptation
nuclear lamina
protein lattice that adds to shape of nucleus
growth factor
protein released by certain cells that stimulates other cells to divide
cyclin
protein that gets name from cyclically fluctuating concentration in the cell
When T.H. Morgan's group showed that genes are located on chromosomes, the two components of chromosomes-_____ and _____-became candidates for the genetic material.
protein, DNA
determine membrane functions
proteins
bound ribosomes usually make
proteins for insertion in membranes; lysosomes.
channel proteins
proteins that provide passageways through the membrane for certain hydrophilic (water-soluble) substances such as polar and charged molecules
transcription factors
proteins that switch on genes by binding to DNA and helping the RNA polymerase to bind
free ribosomes usually make
proteins that work in cytosol; ex. enzymes that catalyze sugar breakdown
in 5 kingdom era, single celled eukaryotes were in kingdom
protista
Domain eukarya contains
protistangroups, plantae, fungi, and animalia
normal version of cellular genes
proto-oncogenes
main electrogenic pump of plants, fungi, and bacteria
proton pump (pumps hydrogen ions out of cell)
atomic nucleus
protons and neutrons; core; center; positive charge
Mendel's Law of Segregation
proved blending hypothesis is incorrect
localized contraction of actin and myosin play role in amoeboid
pseudopodia
energy must be added to
pull an atom away from an atom
contractile vacuoles
pump excess water
similarities between chloroplasts and mitochondria
pump protons (from mitochondrial matrix to intermembrane space or from stroma into thylakoid space)
alcohol fermentation
pyruvate is converted to ethanol in two steps. first releases co2 from pyruvate, which is converted to acetaldehyde. then acetaldehyde is reduced by NADH to ethanol
lactic acid fermentation
pyruvate reduced directly by NADH to form lactate with no release of CO2
heat of vaporization
quantity of heat a liquid must absorb for 1 go to be converted to gas
echinodermata
radially symmetrical marine invertebrates including e.g. starfish and sea urchins and sea cucumbers
carbon 14 is
radioactive
acid rain
rain containing acids that form in the atmosphere when industrial gas emissions (especially sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides) combine with water
calorie
raise 1g by 1 degree C
genetic drift
random change in allele frequencies that occurs in small populations (founder effect and bottlenecking). significant in small populations. can cause allele frequencies to change at random. can lead to loss of genetic variation within populations. can cause harmful alleles to become fixed
cause cancer
random mutations, environmental influences, chemical carcinogens, radiation, viruses
three to one, 3:1
ratio of purple flowers to white flowers in the F2 generation
magnification
ratio of size to real size
one phosphate may be split off as a result of
reaction with water (HOPO32-) ADP
dynamic equilibrium
reactions still going on, but with no net effect on the concentrations of reactants and products. concentrations in a ratio
at organismal level, TS is
recessive
data
recorded observations; info on which scientific inquiry is based
chemical elements essential to life are
recycled
gametophyte generation
reduced
cholesterol function
reduces fluiditiy at moderate, hinders solidification at low
base
reduces hydrogen ion concentration
reductionism
reduction of complex systems to simpler components that are more manageable to study
concentration gradient
region along which density of substance decreases
cell cycle differences result from
regulation at the molecular level
APC's functions
regulation of cell migration and adhesion
homology
related species with characteristics with underlying similarity even though they have different functions
chromatin
relaxed form of DNA and proteins
ras protein, encoded by ras gene, is a G protein that
relays signal from growth factor receptor on PM to a cascade of protein kinases that synthesizes protein that stimulates cell cycle
hydrocarbons can undergo reactions that
release a large amount of energy
nike tinbergen
releasers are environmental factors which cause special behaviors, visual responses
releases energy stored in organic molecules and this energy is used to synthesize ATP
relocation of electrons
fossils
remains or traces of organisms form past in sedimentary rocks
protein products of tumor suppressor genes
repair damaged DNA, control adhesion of cells, are components of cell-signaling pathways that inhibit cell cycle
evidence must stand up to the criterion of
repeatability
hydrophobic
repels water
dinoflagellates
replicated chromosomes are attached to nuclear envelope and separate as the nucleus elongates prior to dividing.
(Vocabulary) A Y-shaped region on a replicating DNA molecule where the parental strands are being unwound and new strands are growing.
replication fork
homologous structures
represent variations on structural scheme present in common ancestor
model
representation of natural phenomena
models
representation of natural phenomena; diagrams, 3d objects, computer programs, equations
structural formula
represents the covalent bonds by dashes and shows the arrangement of covalently bonded atoms
r-strategists
reproduce rapidly when env't is uncrowded and resources vast: many young, little parenting, rapid maturation, small young, reproduce once (insect)
asexual reproduction
reproduction that does not involve the union of gametes and in which a single parent produces offspring that are genetically identical to the parent
ability of cells to divide- basis of
reproduction, growth, repair
analogous
resemble but not related
two related outcomes other than extinction when two species in habit same niche
resource partitioning, character displacement
gravitropism
response of a plant to the force of gravity
geotropism
response to earth's gravity, as the growing of roots downward in the ground
hydrolysis
reverse of dehydration; disassembles polymers into monomers; "break using water"
3tc interferes with
reverse transcriptase
all chemical reacations are
reversible
most of world depends on * for survival
rice, beans, soy, corn, wheat
cellulose fibrils oriented at * to cell expansion
right angels
monosaccharides form * in aqueous solutions
rings
credited w/ nucleus
robert brown
slender cytoplasmic projections from epidermal cells called * extend from each cell and increase absorptive surface area
root hairs
branch roots
roots branch from the inside, not from axillary buds. They push from the ground tissue and epidermis unitl it emerges from the primary root
aerial roots
roots that never touch the ground & take in moisture from the air
most abundant protein on earth
rubisco
pace sequential events of the cell cycle
rythmic fluctuations
lysosome
sac of hydrolytic enzymes. hydrolyze proteins, fats, polysaccharides, and nucleic acids. work best in acidic lysosomes. Made by rough ER and edited by golgi. special shape prevents it from being digested
golgi apparatus
sacs of cisternae. cis back and trans front
membranes as fluid as
salad oil
geometric isomers
same covalent arrangements but different spatial arrangements
scientists use * to estimate number of organisms living in one area
sampling techniques
most animal fats are
saturated
* mocks coral snake
scarlet kingsnake
deternimed that all plants are made of cells
schleiden
determined that all animals are made of cells
schwann
idealized process of inquiry
scientific method
inquiry
search for information and explanation
lateral meristem provides *
secondary growth
woody plants
secondary growth responsible for thickening of roots and shoots
Mendel made observations in other pea plant characteristics
seed color, flower position, seed shape
control elements
segments of noncoding DNA that help regulate transcription bby binding certain proteins
plasma membrane
selective barrier; phospholipid bilayer. Phospholipids, proteins, cholesterol
(Vocabulary) Type of DNA replication in which the replicated double helix consists of one old strand, derived from the old molecule, and one newly made strand.
semiconservative model
Watson and Crick's _____ of replication predicts that when a double helix replicates, each daughter molecules will have one old strand and one newly made strand.
semiconservative model
differing effects of enantiomers demonstrate that organisms are
sensitive to even subtle variations in molecules
Replication begins at special sites called origins of replication, where the two DNA strands are _____, opening up a replication "_____." Replication proceeds in both directions from each _____, until the entire molecule is _____.
separated, bubble, origin, copied
cell fractionation
separates major organelles and sub cellular structures
glucose and other organic fuels are broken down in
series of steps, each catalyzed by an enzyme
gamete
sex cell, sperm or egg
most genetic vatriation from
sexual reproduction
covalent bond
sharing of pair of valence electrons by 2 atoms
an electron loses potential energy when it
shifts form a less electronegative atom toward a more electronegative one
sclereids
short and irregular in shapes. make up seed coats and pits
The primer is _____ , and the _____ end serves as the serving point for the new DNA strand.
short, 3
Recessively inherited disorders
show only in individuals homozygous for the allele; mating between relatives can increase the probablility of the appearance of them; examples cystic fibrosis, sickle-cell disease
survivorship or mortality curves
show size and composition of population
type 1
shows organisms with low death rates in young and middle age and high mortality in old age. Lots of parenting (humans)
action spectrum demonstrated by
Engelmenn using algae
ultimate causes
Evolutionary conditions that have slowly shaped the behaviour of a species over generations
When _____ mixed heat-killed remains of pathogenic strain with living cells of the harmless strain, some living cells became _____. He called this phenomenon _____.
Griffith, pathogenic, transformation
positive tropism
Growth towards a stimulus
diploblastic
Having two germ layers.
What happened in 1935
Hugh Davson and James Danielli suggested that the membrane was coated on both sides with hydrophilic proteins, because the surface of a phospholipid bilayer consisting of pure phospholipids adheres less strongly to water than does the surface of a biological membrane
factors that affect the rate of transpiration
Humidity of The Air. Wind Movement. Temperature of The Air. Light
Mendelian Crosses
Monohybrid; crosses that work with a single character at a time, example purple x white flowers, tall x short stems
cline
graded change in character along geographic axis
morphogen gradient hypothesis
gradients of substances called morphogens establish an embryo's axes and other features of its form
Meiosis
A two-stage type of cell division in sexually reproducing organisms that results in gamates with half the chromosome number of the original cell
agonistic behavior
A type of behavior involving a contest of some kind that determines which competitor gains access to some resource, such as food or mates.
desert
A type of biome characterized by low moisture levels and infrequent and unpredictable precipitation. Daily and seasonal temperatures fluctuate widely
fibrous root system
A root system common to monocots consisting of a mat of thin roots spreading out below the soil surface.
phytochrome
A type of light receptor in plants that mostly absorbs red light and regulates many plant responses, such as seed germination and shade avoidance.
bundle sheath cells
A type of photosynthetic cell arranged into tightly packed sheaths around the veins of a leaf.
Sex Chromosomes
One of the 23 pairs of chromosomes in the human, contains genes that will determine the sex of the individual
halophiles
"salt-loving" archaea that live in environments that have very high salt concentrations
formula for mark and recapture
((number marked in first catch)(total number in second catch))/ number of recaptures in second catch
clone
(1) A lineage of genetically identical individuals or cells. (2) In popular usage, a single individual organism that is genetically identical to another individual (3) As a verb, to make one or more genetic replicas of an individual or cell.
radicle
(anatomy) a small structure resembling a rootlet (such as a fibril of a nerve)
*plant evolution diagram
...
*study glycolysis cycle*
...
*study images*
...
Cyclin-dependent kinases
...
ETC makes no ATP directly
...
after fertilization and laying of egg, larva gors through larval stages
...
all living things require water more than anything else
...
all of life connected
...
anchoraged signaled to cell cycle control system via pathways involvnig plasma membrane proteins and elements of the cytoskeleton linked to tehm
...
cancer cells exhibit neither density-dependent inhibition nor anchorage dependence
...
cytoskeletal elements and motor proteins work with plama membrane
...
discovery science works and doesn't necessarily use scientific method
...
dissociation of water molecules rare but important
...
fish to vertebrates to amphibians
...
form fits function
...
formula for photosynthesis
...
info about ECM probably reaches nucleus by mecanical and chemical signaling pathways. (Mechanical include fibronectin, integrins, and microfilaments). Changes in cytoskeleton may trigger chemical signals, leading to changes in proteins being made by cell and therefore changes in teh cell's funciton
...
methylation patterns are passed on
...
most scientists work in teams, communicate, etc
...
most solar radiation deflected by atmosphere
...
mutation in ras leads to hyperactive cell division
...
natural selection ins not the only mechanism for evolution
...
noncoding RNAs can regulate gene expression at multiple steps
...
november 1859; on the origin of species by means of natural selection
...
observations that can't be verified cannot count as evidence
...
on allele by allele basis
...
opiates have shapes similar to endoprhins and bind to endorphin receptors
...
origins possible anchored there by proteins
...
stabilize soil and provide home for insects and animals
...
study charts
...
non motile cilia
... acts as antenna for ell. primary cilicia. present in most vertabrates. membrane proteins transmit molecular signals to interior and trigger sugnal pathways. brain function and embryonic development
Photosystem II
One of two light-harvesting units of a chloroplast's thylakoid membrane; it uses the P680 reaction-center chlorophyll.
*% efficient
40
polymers are constructed from only * to * common monomers
40 to 50
vegetative propagation
A form of asexual reproduction in which plants produce genetically identical offshoots (clones) of themselves, which then develop into independent plants.
Photosystem I
One of two light-harvesting units of a chloroplast's thylakoid membrane; it uses the P700 reaction-center chlorophyll.
lateral meristem
A meristem that thickens the roots and shoots of woody plants. The vascular cambium and cork cambium are lateral meristems.
photorespiration
A metabolic pathway that consumes oxygen, releases carbon dioxide, generates no ATP, and decreases photosynthetic output; generally occurs on hot, dry, bright days, when stomata close and the oxygen concentration in the leaf exceeds that of carbon. dioxide. protects plants
feedback inhibition
A method of metabolic control in which the end product of a metabolic pathway acts as an inhibitor of an enzyme within that pathway.
biological control
A method of pest control that involves the use of naturally occurring disease organisms, parasites, or predators to control pests
linear electron flow
A route of electron flow during the light reactions of photosynthesis that involves both photosystems (I and II) and produces ATP, NADPH, and O2. The net electron flow is from H2O to NADP+.
C4 plants
A plant that prefaces the Calvin cycle with reactions that incorporate CO2 into four-carbon compounds, the end product of which supplies CO2 for the Calvin cycle. bundle sheath and besophyll
C3 plants
A plant that uses the Calvin cycle for the initial steps that incorporate CO2 into organic material, forming a three-carbon compound as the first stable intermediate.
chemiosmosis
A process for synthesizing ATP using the energy of an electrochemical gradient and the ATP synthase enzyme.
Mitosis
A process of nuclear division in eukaryotic cells conventionally divided into five stages: prophase,prometaphase,metaphase,anaphase,and telophase.
bundle sheath
A protective covering around a leaf vein, consisting of one or more cell layers, usually parenchyma.
gated channels
A protein channel in a cell membrane that opens or closes in response to a particular stimulus (chemical or electrical)
catabolite activator protein
A protein that can bind to the CAP binding site upstream of certain prokaryotic operons, facilitating binding of RNA polymerase and stimulating gene expression.
acoelomates
A solid-bodied animal lacking a cavity between the gut and outer body wall.
cnidocytes
A specialized cell for which the phylum Cnidaria is named; consists of a capsule containing a fine coiled thread, which, when discharged, functions in defense and prey capture
primary electron acceptor
A specialized molecule sharing the reaction center with the pair of reaction-center chlorophyll a molecules; it accepts an electron from one of these two chlorophylls.
Kinetochore
A specialized region of the centromere that links each sister chromatid to the mitotic spindle. structure of proteins associated with specific sections
transport proteins
A transmembrane protein that helps a certain substance or class of closely related substances to cross the membrane.
tumor-suppressor gene involved in colorectal cancer
APC, adenomatous polyposis coli
respiration breaks fuel down, generating
ATP
primary energy-transferring molecule
ATP (adenosine triphosphate)
part of complex spuns around when reaction proceed in direction of
ATP hydrolysis (Hiroyasu Itoh and colleagues)
energy payoff
ATP produced by substrate-level phosphorylation and NAD+ is reduced to NADH from the oxidation of glucose
trace element
An element indispensable for life but required in extremely minute amounts.
inducible enzymes
An enzyme whose transcription can be stimulated by an abundance of its substrate (as opposed to repressible enzyme). Usually in catabolism.
sign stimuli
An external sensory stimulus that triggers a fixed action pattern
spectrophotometer
An instrument that measures the proportions of light of different wavelengths absorbed and transmitted by a pigment solution.
electrogenic pump
An ion transport protein that generates voltage across a membrane.
cytochromes
An iron-containing (heme group) protein that is a component of electron transport chains in the mitochondria and chloroplasts of eukaryotic cells and the plasma membranes of prokaryotic cells
dominance hierarchies
An observed ranking system in primate societies ordering individuals from high (alpha) to low standing corresponding to predictable behavioral interactions including domination.
light microscope
An optical instrument with lenses that refract (bend) visible light to magnify images of specimens. limited by wavelength. up to 1000X
Cell Cycle
An ordered sequence of events in the life of a dividing eukaryotic cell, composed of the M, G1, S, and G2 phases
extremophiles
An organism that requires an extreme environment in which to flourish; some exist in environments with extremely high temperatures or in extremely salty environments.
chordata
Animals with notochord, a dorsal nerve cord, a postanal tail, and pharyngeal gill slits at some time in their lives. Most are vertebrates, though some are not. [E.g. of invertebrates: tunicates, amphioxus, and acorn worms]. Includes fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals.
Crafted lenses
Antoni von Leeuwenhoek
Somatic Cell
Any cell in a multicellular organism except a sperm or egg cell.
konrad lorenz
Austrian zoologist who studied the behavior of birds and emphasized the importance of innate as opposed to learned behaviors (1903-1989)
particulate hypothesis
Black and White marbles shaken together; each retain their own characteristics
_____ state that in any species there is an equal number of A and T bases, and an equal number of G and C bases.
Chargaff's rule
homologous chromosomes
Chromosome pairs of the same length, centromere position, and staining pattern that possess genes for the same characters at corresponding loci. One homologous chromosome is inherited from the organism's father, the other from the mother.
apical dominance
Concentration of growth at the tip of a plant shoot, where a terminal bud partially inhibits axillary bud growth.
when mutations don't hurt
DNA that doesn't code for protein, redundancy of amino acids, change may not alter amino acid function
central dogma
DNA-RNA-Protein
individuals
DO NOT EVOLVE
investigated role of microtubules in orienting cellulose fibrils
David Ehrhardt.
apical meristem
Embryonic plant tissue in the tips of roots and in the buds of shoots that supplies cells for the plant to grow in length.
most important checkpoint in mammalian cells
G1. exits cycle and goes to g0 phase. Most cells in human body are in this phase
product
G3P
* developed competitive exclusion principle after studying effects of interspecific competition of paramecium
GF Gause
net primary productivity
GPP minus energy used by producers for cellular respiration
james hutton
GRADUAL MECHANISMS OF EARTH'S GEologic features still operating
in animals, step 5 produces. plants produce
GTP by substrate-level phosphorylatiion; ATP
centrioles
Function: Help organize microtubule assembly, although not essential for this function in eukaryotic cells. Also help with cell division. Structure: 9 sets of triplet microtubules arranged in a ring structure.
proton-motive force
H+ gradient that drives H+ through H+ channels
in straight structures (beta), * atoms on one strand can bond with * on other strands
H, OH groups
multiprotein complexes labeled
I to IV
names for citric acid cycle
Krebs for Hans Krebs, German-British scientist; tricarboxylic acid cycle
aortic arches
Large and muscular tubes. By means of alternate contraction and relaxation, they keep the blood flowing.
macromolecules
Large molecules that are formed by joining smaller organic molecules together
2nd Law of Inheritance
Law of Independent Assortment; Mendel followed two characters at the same time and crossed two, true-breeding parents differing in two characters; produces dihybrids in the F1 generation, heterozygous for both characters
Mendelian Inheritance governed by
Law of Probability
1st Law of Inheritance
Law of Segregation; Mendel followed a single trait, color and the F1 offspring produced in this cross were monohybrids heterozygous for one character
associative learning
Learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning).
pigment
Light-absorbing molecule
sexual dimorphism
Marked differences between the secondary sex characteristics of males and females
- of histones protrudes outward
N terminus
most versatile electron acceptor in cellular respiration and functions in several redox steps in breakdown of glucose
NAD+
most energy transferred to * and * during citric acid cycle
NAD+ and FAD
account for most of energy extracted from glucose in glycolysis and citric acid cycle
NADH and FADH2
hydrogen ions usually passed first to electron carrier
NAD^+ (derivative of niacin)
(Vocabulary) A short segment of DNA synthesized away from the replication fork on a template strand during DNA replication, many of which are joined together to make up the lagging strand of newly synthesized DNA.
Okazaki fragments
The lagging strand is synthesized as a series of segments called _____ , which are joined together by _____ .
Okazaki fragments, DNA ligase
"either-or manner" "true-breeding"
Only variation of characteristics Mendel tracked
to include silent mutations
PCR-based methods and restriction fragment analysis
250 mya
Pangaea
tubular heart
Part of an insects circulatory system; contracts and pushes blood to cavities for gas exchange to occur between cells
awarded Nobel prize in 1978 for proposing chemiosmotic model
Peter mitchell
taproot
Primary root found in some plants that grows longer and thicker than other roots
peripheral proteins
Protein appendages loosely bound to the surface of the membrane and not embedded in the lipid bilayer.
bolting
Rapid lengthening of internodes caused by gibberellic acid
cyclic AMP
Secondary chemical messenger that directs the synthesis of protein by ribosomes
nematoda
Roundworms; soil; pseudocoelomates; complete digestive tract; may be parasitic
1972
S.J. Singer and G. Nicolson proposed that membrane proteins are dispersed in bilayer with hydrophilic regions protruding
myoblasts
Stem cells that fuse to form skeletal muscle during embryonic development, with the result that the mature cells are long cylinders with multiple nuclei.
cytokinins
Stimulates cell division and growth of lateral buds. Causes dormant seeds to sprout.
aldose
Sugar containing an aldehyde group C=O (carbonyl is at the end)
Chiasmata
The X-shaped, microscopically visible region representing homologous chromatids that have exchanged genetic material through crossing over during meiosis.
Karyotype
The appearance of the chromosomal makeup of a somatic cell in an individual or species (including the number and arrangement and size and structure of the chromosomes)
cotransport
The coupling of the "downhill" diffusion of one substance to the "uphill" transport of another against its own concentration gradient.
differential gene expression
The expression of different sets of genes by cells with the same genome.
guttation
The exudation of water droplets, caused by root pressure in certain plants.
G1 phase
The first growth phase of the cell cycle, consisting of the portion of interphase before DNA synthesis begins.
receptor-mediated endocytosis
The movement of specific molecules into a cell by the inward budding of membranous vesicles containing proteins with receptor sites specific to the molecules being taken in; enables a cell to acquire bulk quantities of specific substances. Enables the cell to acquire bulk quantities of specific substances
estuaries
The lower end of a river, where it meets ocean. Saltwater and freshwater mix here. Estuaries are known to be very productive.
synapsis
The pairing of replicated homologous chromosomes during prophase I of meiosis
Anaphase
The part of the mitotic cell cycle where the daughter chromosome pairs are being pulled to opposite poles.
Interphase
The period in the cell when the cell is not dividing. During interphase, cellular metabolic activity is high, chromosomes and organelles are duplicated, and cell size may increase
G2 phase
The second growth phase of the cell cycle, consisting of the portion of interphase after DNA synthesis occurs.
Mitotic Phase
The shortest part of the cell cycle that includes mitosis and cytokinesis.
S Phase
The synthesis phase of the cell cycle, constituting the portion of interphase during which DNA is replicated.
MPF
This is formed when cyclin-dependent kinase and cyclin come together during interphase. This phosphorylates things like the nuclear envalope to make it unstable so it will break apart. It also phosphorylates the binding proteins on chromosomes to break them down into chromatids.
stickleback fish
Tinbergen, males develop red coloration on belly, which is the releasing stimulus for attacks; males attacked red-bellied crude models rather than the detailed but non-red models
transpirational pull
Transpirational pull is the main phenomenon driving the flow of water in the xylem tissues of large plants.Transpirational pull results ultimately from the evaporation of water from the surfaces of cells in the interior of the leaves. This evaporation causes the surface of the water to recess into the pores of the cell wall. Inside the pores, the water forms a concave meniscus. The high surface tension of water pulls the concavity outwards, generating enough force to lift water as high as a hundred meters from ground level to a tree's highest branches. Transpirational pull only works because the vessels transporting the water are very small in diameter, otherwise cavitation would break the water column. And as water evaporates from leaves, more is drawn up through the plant to replace it. When the water pressure within the xylem reaches extreme levels due to low water input from the roots (if, for example, the soil is dry), then the gases come out of solution and form a bubble - an embolism forms, which will spread quickly to other adjacent cells, unless bordered pits are present (these have a plug-like structure called a torus, that seals off the opening between adjacent cells and stops the embolism from spreading).
tundra
Treeless arctic or alpine biome characterized by cold, harsh winters, a short growing season, and potential for frost any month of the year; vegetation includes low-growing perennial plants, mosses and lichens
integral proteins
Typically transmembrane proteins with hydrophobic regions that completely span the hydrophobic interior of the membrane.
developed dyes that allowed him to observe behavior of chromosomes during mitosis and cytokinesis. Coined terms mitosis and chromatin
Walther Flemming
1857
When Mendel began his research with peas
Recessive Flower Color Gene
White; only produces its type when its paired with another recessive
Wilkins and Franklin were using a technique called _____ to study molecule structure.
X-ray crystallography
embryonic root
[...] is the part of the embryo that grows into the root of the plant
ivan pavlov
a Russian researcher in the early 1900s who was the first research into learned behavior (conditioning) who discovered classical conditioning
coelom
a cavity in the mesoderm of an embryo that gives rise in humans to the pleural cavity and pericardial cavity and peritoneal cavity
molecular formula
a chemical formula that shows the number and kinds of atoms in a molecule, but not the arrangement of the atoms.
Epistasis
a gene at one locus alters the phenotypic expression of a gene at a second locus
Pleiotropy
a gene has multiple phenotypic effects; causes problems like cystic fibrosis, sickle-cell disease.
clade
a group of biological taxa or species that share features inherited from a common ancestor
clone
a group of genetically identical cells or organisms derived from a single cell or individual by some kind of asexual reproduction
gibberellins
a growth hormone that causes a wide variety of effects. One role is to stimulate growth of stems by promoting cell division. Farmers use it to make fruit grow larger.
character
a heritable feature that varies among individuals for example flower color
Mendel's Model
a hypothesis that explains the 3:1 inheritance pattern among the F2 offspring
ozone layer
a layer in the stratosphere (at approximately 20 miles) that contains a concentration of ozone sufficient to block most ultraviolet radiation from the sun
two polar bodies
a mature fertilized zygote will have
three types of plant tissue
dermal, vascular, ground
evolution
descent with modification
sessile
describes an organism that remains attached to a surface for its entire life and does not move
discovery
describing
qualitative
descriptions
pyramidal shape characteristic of * nations with half of the population under the age of *
developing, 20
functions of cell division in multicellular organisms
development, growth, repair
located genes on fly's genetic map and connected
developmental abnormalities to specific genes
gametosphyte
give rides to gametes by mitosis
biosphere
global ecosystem
fuel for cells
glucose
most common monosaccharide
glucose (c6h12o6)
energy flow in respiration
glucose- NADH- ETC- proton-motive force - ATP
downhill route of cellular respiration
glucose-NADH-ETC-Oxygen
function of middle lamina
glues adjacent cells together
fat
glycerol and fatty acids
animals store a polysaccharide called *, a polymer of * that is like amylopectin but more *
glycogen, glucose, extensively branched
most respiring cells deriving energy from glucose use * to produce starting material for citric acid cycle
glycolysis
pathways of respiration
glycolysis, citric acid cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation
extracellular matrix
glycoproteins (proteins with covalently bonded carbohydrate)
glucoproteins made in
golgi
food chain not dependent on sun
one around deep-ocean thermal vents
polar covalent bond
one atom is bonded to a more electronegative atom
point mutation
one base in a gene
parasitism
one benefits, other harmed (tapeworm)
commensalism
one benefits, other is neutral (barnacles)
monotcots
one cotyledon, scattered vascular bundles, parallel leaf venation, flowers in 3s, fibrous roots
self-pollination
one flower as both parents; results in pure-bred offspring where the offspring are identical to the parents
radioactive isotope
one in which the nucleus decays spontaneously, giving off particles and energy
identified proteins
one looks like tubulin. one looks like actin
myoD
one of several "master regulatory genes" that produce proteins that commit the cell to becoming skeletal muscle; transcription factor that binds to enhancers of various target genes. stimulates expressino of myoD gene. coordinately controlled
polyp
one of two forms that coelenterates take e.g. a hydra or coral: usually sedentary and has a hollow cylindrical body usually with a ring of tentacles around the mouth
medusa
one of two forms that coelenterates take: is the free-swimming sexual stage in the life cycle of a coelenterate and has a gelatinous umbrella-shaped body and tentacles
unsaturated fatty acids
one or more double bonds (cis bond)
protein
one ore more polypeptides
protostome coelomates
the mouth develops first in the digestive tract (mollusks, annelids and arthropods)
migration
the movement of persons from one country or locality to another
senescence
the organic process of growing older and showing the effects of increasing age
ectoderm
the outer germ layer that develops into skin and nervous tissue
hypocotyl
the part of a plant embryo directly below the cotyledons, forming a connection with the radicle.
neutrons
the particles of the nucleus that have no charge
inheritance
the passing of traits from parents to offspring
density-dependent inhibition
the phenomenon observed in normal animal cells that causes them to stop dividing when they come into contact with one another