Biology Chapters 4, 8, and 9

As compared to a prokaryotic cell, eukaryotic cells are about ___________ times larger in size.

10,000

How many alleles do you inherit for the trait human blood?

2

End result of DNA replication

2 almost identical strands of DNA with the change of errors

Eukaryotes have existed for about_____ years,

2 billion years

Result of binary fission

2 identical daughter cells identical to parent cell

Diploid

2 sets of chromosomes =23 pair or 46 total (2n) Somatic cells in human body are diploid contains total of 46 chromosomes

The 46 chromosomes (for humans) can be grouped into _____ pairs. Each pair contains ______

23, one paternal copy and one maternal copy.

How many alleles are involved in the trait human blood?

3 ( IA, IB, I)

Prokaryotes have existed for about_____ years

3.5 billion years

How many phenotype for human blood

4

What would be the probability of a child inheriting Tay-Sachs disease from a mother who is heterozygous for the trait and a father who is homozygous dominant for the trait?

50%

How many genotypes for Human blood

6

This protective cap (telomere) can allow for about ____ (number of) cell divisions from birth.

80-90

Type A blood has __antigens

A

Type B blood has __antibodies

A

Type A blood can donate to____, receive from ____.

A and AB A and O

Type AB blood has __antigens

A and B

Type O blood has __antibodies

A and B

Turner Syndrome

A chromosomal disorder in females in which an X chromosome is missing, making the person Xo, Ox instead of XX

XXX Female Syndrome

A chromosomal disorder in females in which an extra X chromosome is present, making the person XXx, instead of Xx. slightly taller than average but have no obvious physical or mental problems and most XXX females are fertile.

Klinefelter syndrome

A chromosomal disorder in males have an extra X chromosome, making them XXy or Xxy instead of XY.

XYY Male Syndrome(super male)

A chromosomal disorder in males have an extra Y chromosome, making them Xyy instead of XY. tall+acne+lower intelegens

somatic cells

Any cells in the body other than reproductive cells

spindle assembly checkpoint

Are the spindle fibers properly built and and chromosome singe filey attached?

Theory of Endosymbiosis

Eukaryotic cells emerged when mitochondria and chloroplasts, once free-living prokaryotes, took up permanent residence inside other larger cells

DNA synthesis (S phase)

Every chromosome creates an exact duplicate of itself in a process called replication. (Before S pahse, Chromitan coils up further--> singular chromosome---> During S Phase singular chromosome replicate into sister chromatids attached at centromeres)

It is imperative that our cells, such as skin cells, divide in order to replace cells that have died. However, it is also important the cells divide only a limited number of times because _________.

immortal cells present problems such as cancer

In some cases, one allele does not clearly display dominance over another. In this case, individuals with a_______________, genotype express a unique phenotype

incomplete dominance

heterozygote displays blended characteristics of homozygotes

incomplete dominance

amniocentesis

needle puncture of the amniotic sac to withdraw amniotic fluid for analysis 3-4 months into pregnancy

Type o blood has __antigens

no or neither

Gametes with an abnormal number of chromosomes likely were the result of a "mistake" in the process of meiosis. This unequal distribution of genetic material is called ____________.

nondisjunction

List specific cell types that are affected by chemotherapy, radiation, or both.

normal systems that rely on the rapid and constant production of new cells -reduces the rate of red blood cells production -interfering with the division of bone marrow stem cells -reduces the production of platelets and white blood cells -the rapidly dividing cells within hair follicles are also affected

Five specific functions of central vacuole

Nutrient storage: Waste management: Predator deterrence: Sexual reproduction: Physical support:

What are other categories of proteins that can be transmembrane and surface protein?

Receptor Proteins Recognition Proteins Membrane Enzymes

_____________are surface or transmembrane proteins that bind to chemicals in the cell's external environment.

Receptor proteins

_______________are surface or transmembrane proteins that give each cell a "fingerprint" that makes it possible for the body's immune system to distinguish body cells from invaders plus work as receptors.

Recognition proteins

Centromere

Region of a chromosome where the two sister chromatids attach

Endocytosis

process by which a cell takes large material into the cell by infolding of the cell membrane

Apoptosis

programmed cell death prevents cancer

If you were to view an unknown cell type under the microscope, what features would be indicative of a prokaryotic cell?

The absence of membrane enclosed nucleus

Vesicles

small membrane sacs that specialize in moving products into, out of, and within a cell

Sexual reproduction (Vacuole function)

The vacuole may contain pigments that give some flowers the colors that attract pollinators—birds and insects that help the plant reproduce by transferring pollen.

Waste management (Vacuole function)

The vacuole retains waste products and degrades them with digestive enzymes, much like the lysosome in animal cells.

Nutrient storage (Vacuole function)

The vacuole stores hundreds of dissolved substances, including amino acids, sugars, and ions.

Thight junctions

White Lining on tubs; forms watertight seal between cells I.e Small intestine

The mitochondria have a double membrane structure where one membrane is essentially wadded up inside another membrane. The interior of the organelle is referred to as the __________________.

_intermembrane space

Pedigrees

a diagram that traces the inheritance of a particular trait through several generations

The basic structure of the plasma membrane

a fluid phospholipid bilayer

cystic fibrosis

a genetic disease that involves a faulty transmembrane protein

reconstruction and elongation:

a group of several proteins, called a replication complex, binds to each of the exposed strands Polymerase build the new strand 3-5 lagging and 5-3 leading strand

Each phospholipid is a dual-natured molecule composed of the following:

a hydrophilic glycerol molecule head a hydrophobic hydrocarbon tails

endomembrane system

a series of organelles involved in synthesis and modification of molecules within cells

Pleitropy

a single gene influences multiple traits Many traits from one gene

Polygenetic trait

a single phenotype is influenced by multiple genes. many genes to 1 trait

Chorionic villus sampling (CSV)

a small piece of the finger-like projections from the placenta is removed by the syringe. 10-12 weeks into pregnancy

In addition to the phospholipid bilayer structure of the plasma membrane, there are ___________________ found within the membrane.

a variety of protein types

homozygous recessive genotype

aa

The movement of molecules into and out of the cell can occur in one of two ways. When energy is required, the movement is termed ____________ transport. When energy is not required, the movement is termed _____________ transport.

active, passive

Active transport requires energy in order to move large molecules or to move substances _______________.

against their concentration gradients

Meiosis 1: Metaphase 1

all the duplicated, crossed over homologues chromosomes line up in the center

Down Syndrome

an extra copy of chromosome 21

Cystic fibrosis symptoms

an improper salt balance in the cells, and buildup of thick, sticky mucus—particularly in the lungs

____________is if the solute concentrations outside is higher, then water diffuses out the cell.

hypertonic

In terms of osmosis, water will move into a cell that is placed in a___________________ solution, whereas water will exit a cell that is placed in _________________solution.

hypotonic, hypertonic

_____________is if the solute concentrations outside is lower, then water diffuses into the cell.

hyptonic

cell theory

idea that all living things are composed of cells, cells are the basic units of structure and function in living things, and new cells are produced from existing cells

Gap 0 (G0 phase)

- a "resting" phase outside the cell cycle in which no cell division occurs. -The G0 phase may last for days, years (or permanently as in the case of most neurons and heart muscle cells) before resuming cell division.

How do single parent cells replicate during binary fission?

--Double-stranded DNA molecule starting from it's only origin unwinds and split apart like a zipper bases exposed --enzymes bind to the exposed DNA and attach free-floating nucleotides( A+T, C+G) creating two identical double-stranded DNA molecules. --The two new chromosomes attach at a different spot of the plasma membrane --cell then pinches until it divides into daughter cells

List the two major groups of prokaryotes

1.bacteria 2. archaea

List the steps of DNA replication

1.unwinding and separation 2.reconstruction and elongation:

At first glance, incomplete dominance and codominance appear similar to each other. Explain how they are different.

-Incomplete dominance is when nether alleles are dominant instead they are blended in to create a new phenotype RR(Red)*WW(White)= RW(Pink). -Codominance is also when neither alleles are dominant and create a new phenotype but they show up together not blended. (BB(black)* WW(white)= BW(spots/stripes)

Teleophase (Mitosis)

-With two full, identical sets of chromosomes collected at either end of the cell, -chromosomes began to uncoils fading from view nuclear membranes reassembles to divide the parent cell.

A change or alteration of DNA can lead to uncontrolled cell growth. List some possible causes for this sort of change or alteration.

-chemicals that mutate DNA -sources of high energy such as X rays, the sun, or nuclear radiation -by some viruses

Chromosomes

-condense form sister chromatids . -linear or circular strand of DNA with specific sequences of base pairs.

asexual reproduction advantages

-fast, easy, efficient - genetically identical if environment is stable

Describe, specifically, how the gamete differs between males and females

-female gamete > male gamete because it has more cytoplasm. -During the production of sperm four evenly sized cells become sperm. During egg production, the cell divides genetic material evenly but nearly all of the cytoplasm goes to one of the cells.

How are sex chromosomes different than the other 22 pairs of non sex chromosomes(autosomes)?

-have genetic infomration that is not sex specific, while sex chromsomes do -have two copies of same kind one from each parent, but sex chromsomes have two copies of different kind (female xx, male xy)

Provide an example of exocytosis in cells

-hormone insulin transported out of pancreatic cells - communication between cells in brain and other parts of the nervous system occurs as one cell releases large numbers of very small molecules, called neurotransmitters, by exocytosis.

List items that might need to cross the plasma membrane of a cell.

-take in food and nutrients and dispose of waste products. -build and export molecules needed elsewhere -mediates communications with the external environment and with other cells, and adhesion to other cells or surfaces -controls the flow of molecules (including water) into and out of the cell

Cells are three-dimensional structures where chemical reactions occur. List some examples of the sorts of reactions that occur in cells.

-transport raw materials and fuel into the cell export finished materials and waste products out of the cell most, but not all, cell types contain DNA a molecule that contains the information that directs the formation of various cellular products within the cell the chemical reactions in the cell, the cell's ability to reproduce itself.

Haploid

1 set of chromosomes= no pair just 23 total

For any given trait, an individual receives exactly ____ copy(copies) of a gene from each parent via their gamete. This leads to individuals whose diploid cells have exactly _______ copies of each gene.

1,2

Phases of the cell cycle

1. Interphase (G1, S, G2) 2. Mitosis (PMAT) 3. Cytokinesis (cell division)

The two goals of meiosis are

1. It reduces the amount of genetic material in gametes. 2. It produces gametes that differ from one another with respect to the combinations of alleles they carry.

Eukaryotic cell division is part of the cell cycle. What is the Purpose of cell cycle

1. Replace dead/damaged cells 2. Create new life after fertilization

There are two modalities or mainstream methods of treating cancer. They are:

1. chemotherapy 2. radiation

Describe the five steps involved in producing a karyotype.

1. obtain a cell 2. cultured the cell with nutrients 3. midway through division treat with a chemical that stops them 4. viewed under microscope slide, w/added stain for better visibility. 5. arranged by size and shape and displayed on a monitor

Provide three examples of human phenotypes that can be shaped by the factors other than genes

1. personality 2. body weight 3. intelligence

There are two reasons that the rules of probability are used in genetics. Those reasons include

1. process of segregation 2.fertilization is a chance event

How are cancer cells different from normal cells?

1.Cancer cells lose their "contact inhibition." 2.Cancer cells can divide indefinitely 3.Cancer cells have reduced "stickiness."

endosymbiotic theory evidence

1.Double membranes on chloroplasts & mitochondria 2.Organelles with own DNA - circular molecules highly related to bacterial DNA 3.Size of organelles similar to prokaryotes and divide by fission 4.Chloroplasts and mitochondria have ribosomes, similar to those found in bacteria

three features of Mendel's work

1.Pea plants reproduce quickly which makes them an ideal study organisms 2.They have numerous easily categorized traits (shape, color) 3.Distant population were established

Codominance

A condition in which neither of two alleles of a gene is dominant or recessive.

Punnett Square

A diagram showing the possible outcomes of a cross between two individuals; the possible crosses are shown in the manner of a multiplication table.

spindle fibers

A part of the cytoskeleton of a cell, formed in prophase (in mitosis) or prophase I (in meiosis), from which extend the fibers that organize and separate the sister chromatids.

Solute

A substance that is dissolved in a water or gas.

Phagocytosis

A type of endocytosis in which a cell engulfs large particles or whole cells

Pinocytosis

A type of endocytosis in which the cell ingests extracellular fluid and its dissolved solutes.

Karyotype

A visual display of the complete set of chromosomes. A karyotype is a useful diagnostic tool because it can be prepared very early in the fetus's development to assess whether it has an abnormality in the number of chromosomes or in their structure. And because the test shows all of the chromosomes, even the sex hromosomes, it also reveals the sex of the fetus.

Type O blood can donate to____, receive from ____.

A,B,AB,O O

Type AB blood can donate to____, receive from ____.

AB A,B, AB,O

When the mitochondria produce energy, three products are produced. Those include____________________. In order to produce ATP, the mitochondria must have a constant source of_______________.

ATP, Carbon dioxide, and water oxygen

Show a Punnett square for the albinism trait between a homozygous recessive parent and a pigmented homozygous dominate parent. Indicate the phenotypic ratio for the offspring.

All heterozygous (Mm) All Pigmented

____________cells contain a ______________ plasma membrane that separates the interior of the cell from the external environment. This membrane performs the essential functions of holding the contents of a cell in place and regulating passage into and out of the cell.

All, dual-layered

A copy or variation of a gene that can be passed from a parent is termed a(n)___________.

Allele

Mendel's law of segregation

Alleles segregate from one another during the formation of gametes.

unwinding and separation

Although eukaryotes DNA have multiple origins, double stranded DNA molecule with the help of an enzyme helicase unwinds and separates into two strands from a specific origin of replication.

Lysosomes

An organelle containing digestive enzymes for dismantling macromolecules that are no longer needed by the cell for reuse or disposal

Genotype

An organism's genetic makeup, or allele combinations.

Because they don't have a cell wall to limit expansion, __________cells may explode in hypotonic solutions instead of just swell.

Animal

List the features that differentiate eukaryotic animal cells from plant cells.

Animals have centriole but.. no chloroplast no cell wall no vacuole

Cancerous cells are often described as invasive. How does their invasiveness affect surrounding tissues and/or organs?

As a tumor gets larger, it uses up nutrients and energy, takes up more and more space, and presses against neighboring cells and tissues. Eventually, the tumor may block other cells and tissues from carrying out their normal functions and even kill them.

Binary fission is _______ type of reproduction.

Asexual

Type A blood has __antibodies

B

Type B blood has __antigens

B

Type B blood can donate to____, receive from ____.

B and AB B and O

Endosymbiotic theory can explain why mitochondria have their own DNA. Although we are used to thinking about our DNA being equally contributed by both parents, this is not the case with mitochondrial DNA. Which parent do you receive your mitochondrial DNA from? Why is this the case?

Because sperms contribute DNA and no cytoplasm mitochondrial DNA is something that we inherit exclusively from our mothers through egg cells

How can meiosis be used to explain why linked traits do not assort independently of one another?

Because they are on the same chromosome, they are always going to travel together. Unless they were separated during crossing over in meiosis

Explain how the beta-blocker category of drugs works to reduce blood pressure and anxiety.

Beta blockers reduce anxiety by binding to the receptors, holding on, and blocking the adrenaline from doing its job.That way in stressful situations or for someone with high blood pressure it reduces the binding adrenaline to beta receptors to that causes the heart to beat faster and increase your blood pressure longer or more than it is normal.

Among ____________, it is the females that have one copy of two different sex chromosomes, while males have only one type, so the sex of offspring is determined by the female.

Birds

If you wanted to have a karyotype created of your genetic makeup, where would the cells likely come from?

Blood

Rh blood group

Category of blood type. Rh is positive, without it is negative

Cancer cells have reduced "stickiness."

Cells are normally held together by adhesion molecules, proteins within cell membranes. And cancer cells, too, usually group together, forming a tumor. But the membranes of cancer cells tend to have reduced adhesiveness,

Although a few types of cells are visible, most are very small. Why is it that most cells are so very tiny?

Cells are small because they need to keep a surface area to volume ratio that allows for adequate intake of nutrients while being able to excrete the cell's waste.

Different types of cells have different numbers of mitochondria. Which types of cells in the human body would have a lot of mitochondria based on their energy demands? Which types of cells might have less mitochondria?

Cells that have large energy requirements, such as muscle, liver, and sperm cells in animals and fast-growing root cells in plants, are packed densely with mitochondria Cells that are not very metabolically active, such as some fat storage cells in humans, have very few mitochondria.

_________are the smallest independently functioning living units. Each ________ can perform all basic functions of life including reproducing itself.

Cells, cell

________________helps the membrane maintains its flexibility, preventing the membrane from becoming too fluid or floppy at moderate temperatures and acting as a sort of antifreeze, preventing the membrane from becoming too rigid at freezing temperatures.

Cholesterol

Meiosis 2: Prophase 2

Chromosomes condense again making them visible under microscope

Metaphase (mitosis)

Chromosomes line up in the middle of the cell attached to Spidle fibers by their centromeres'

Additional cytoskeletal elements

Cillia, Flagella

heterozygote displays characteristics of both homozygotes

Codominance

Pleitropy Example

Cystic fibrosis, Sickle cell anemia

homozygous dominant genotype

DD

Four basic features prokaryotic cells

DNA Cytoplasm Ribosomes Plasma Membrane

__________houses genetic material in a central control center called nucleus

Eukaryotic

Just as with mitosis, in meiosis _________________ must take place in interphase before the process of cell division begins. Therefore, each ______has an identical copy, or there are 46 pairs of sister chromatids (92 chromosomes total) before meiosis begins.

DNA replication, homologue or 23 pair

Heterozygous

Dd

The smooth ER in liver cells has a very specialized role, which is

Detoxifying enzymes in the smooth ER reduce the harmfulness of alcohol, antibiotics, barbiturates, amphetamines, or other stimulants that we may consume, along with many toxic metabolic waste products formed in our bodies

_________________ is the ________________ movement of solute, across the plasma membrane from the side of the membrane that has a _______________________ of the substance to the side of the membrane that has a _______________ of the substance.

Diffusion, spontaneous/passive higher concentration lower concentration

describe how a dominant allele is different from a recessive allele.

Dominant and recessive alleles are defined by their action when they are in the heterozygous state. A dominant allele and is said to "mask" the effect of the other allele, which is called the recessive allele.

Mendel's experiments in crossing pea plants led to predictable results. For example, crossing true-breeding purple pea plants with white pea plants always led to purple offspring. This is because the purple color is _________, whereas white color is ___________.

Dominate, recessive

Explain how telomere can protectively limit cell divisions.

Each time DNA divides, the process by which chromosomes are duplicated causes the telomere at each end of every chromosome to get a bit shorter.

additive effects

Effects from alleles of multiple genes that all contribute to the ultimate phenotype for a given characteristic.

What organelles are apart of endomembrane system?

Endoplasmic reticulm (Rough and Smooth) Golgi Apparatus

How do membrane "fingerprints" cause problems with organ transplants? What do we try to do to get around this rejection?

Fingerprint on the cells of the donated organ is not identical to your own; so your body sees the new organ as a foreign object and fights against it. To prevent organ rejection, doctors must administer drugs that suppress your immune system.

The plasma membrane is often referred to as a fluid mosaic. Explain what this term means.

Fluid- moving Mosaic- a tapestry of several types of molecules (phospholipids, cholesterols, and proteins)

Longest to shortest duration of cell cycle

G1, S, G2, M

Prokaryotic Cytoplasm function

Gel like fluid in the cell where chemical reactions take place

In fertilization, two______ cells unite to produce a a new individual with the proper _____________cell.

Haploid, Diploid

Suppose your roommate has dimples. Can you be sure of her genotype? Explain your answer.

Her phenotype may be having dimples but her set of genes could be homozygous dominant(DD) or heterozygous in having dimples(Dd).

Suppose that a female exhibits red-green color-blindness. What must the genotypes of her parents have been?

Heterozygous, homozygous recessive

Meiosis 1

Homologous chromosomes separate

law of independent assortment

How gene separate during meiosis has no relation to how other genes separate. they sort independently from each other

multiple allelism example

Human blood

A key factor in the replication of DNA is its feature of complementarity. Explain what it means to say DNA strands are complementary.

In the double-stranded DNA molecule, the base on one strand always has the same pairing partner. A pairs with T (and vice versa), and G pairs with C (and vice versa).

Cytoplasm and the Cytoskeleton Form the Cell's ________________.

Internal Environment, Provide Support, and Can Generate Motion

G2/M checkpoint checks for

Is DNA replicated properly ? right before mitosis

G1/S checkpoint checks for

Is the DNA damaged? Does the cell have sufficient nutrients? right before proceeding to S phase

asexual reproduction disadvantages

Less variation (and therefore less adapted to environmental changes)

Microfilaments

Long, thin fibers that generate forces, including those important in cell contraction and cell division.

Glycoproteins

Membrane carbohydrates that are covalently bonded to proteins.

_________________are surface or transmembrane proteins that accelerate chemical reactions on the plasma membrane's surface.

Membrane enzymes

Law of Segregation

Mendel's law that states that the pairs of homologous chromosomes separate in meiosis so that only one chromosome from each pair is present in each gamete

mitosis purpose

Mitosis is important in an organism's growth and the replacement of cells.

_________are Passed on as Independent Features:

Moist traits

Cancer cells lose their "contact inhibition."

Most normal cells divide until they touch other cells or collections of cells (tissues). At that point, they stop dividing. Cancer cells, however, ignore the signal that they are at high density and continue to divide.

facilitated diffusion

Movement of specific molecules across cell membranes through protein channels

Is it possible for a multicellular organism to be made of prokaryotic cells

No, given the small size and lack of membrane bound nucleus and other organelles, it's not possible to incorporate them into a prokaryotic cell.

Are eukaryotes always multicellular?

No, many fungi are unicellular, and the Protista (or protists) are a huge group, of which most are single-celled organisms invisible to the naked eye. Nonetheless, because all prokaryotes are single-celled and thus invisible, all the plants and animals that we see around us are eukaryotic organisms even though they are single celled.

Type AB blood has __antibodies

No/ neither

Eukaryotic cells have a variety of membrane-bound_____________________ , which distinguish them from prokaryotic cells.

Organelles

What is one sepecialized and the two types of diffusion?

Osmosis is special and simple and facilitated are the two types

What are the three ways Endocytosis can occur?

Phagocytosis, Pinocytosis and Receptor-mediated endocytosis

Show a Punnett square for the dimples trait between a homozygous recessive parent and a heterozygous parent. Indicate the phenotypic ratio for the offspring.

Phenotype: 2/4 Dimples , 2/4 No Dimples Genotype: 2 /4 heterozygous, (Dd) 2/4 homozygous recessive (dd)

Mitochondria

Powerhouse of the cell, organelle that is the site of producing energy from carbohydrates, fats, or proteins

________________active transport relies directly on ATP to fuel molecular movement across the membrane

Primary

The proton pumps in your stomach are examples of ___________.

Primary active transport becuse...All of this H+ pumping increases your ability to digest the food but requires the use of the high-energy molecule ATP—because protons would not normally flow into a region against their concentration gradient

Two types of cells

Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic

The term "cell" was first used in the 1600s by _______________ after viewing cork under a microscope

Robert Hooke

gap junctions

Secret passage way;Function like passageways allowing the movement of cytoplasm, molecules and other signals to pass between cells I.e Muscle tissue

Which is more fatal missing non sex chromosomes or sex chromosomes?

Sex chromosomes

Why is it easy relatively easy to predict with single gene traits?

Simple cross punt squares and either they have it or they don't trait

The end result of meiosis in both males and females are reproductive cells, or gametes. However, in males these cells eventually become___________, and in females these are__________.

Sperm and eggs

Define benign tumor

Such as many moles, are just masses of normal cells that do not spread. They can usually be removed safely without any lasting consequences.

X chromosome

The X chromosome is relatively large and carries a great deal of genetic information relating to a large number of non-sex-related traits.

Y chromosome

The Y chromosome is tiny and carries genetic information about only a very small number of traits.

Why is it advantageous that the egg carries extra cytoplasm?

The extra cytoplasm carried by the egg contains a large supply of nutrients and other chemical resources to help with initial development of the organism following fertilization.

invagination of membrane

The idea is that the plasma membrane around the cell may have folded in on itself to form inner compartments, which subsequently became modified and specialized

receptor-mediated endocytosis

The movement of specific molecules into a cell by the inward budding of membranous vesicles containing proteins with receptor sites specific to the molecules being taken in; enables a cell to acquire bulk quantities of specific substances.

What benefits do organelles confer for eukaryotic cells?

The physical separation of compartments within a eukaryotic cell provides distinct areas in which different chemical reactions can occur at the same time.

Predator deterrence (Vacuole function)

The poisonous, nasty-tasting materials that accumulate inside the vacuoles of some plants make a powerful deterrent to animals that might try to eat parts of the plant.

Why is it absolutely essential that the lysosomes need to be walled off from the rest of the cell by a membrane?

They are filled with about 50 different digestive enzymes and a super-acidic fluid, a corrosive broth so powerful that a burst lysosome would rapidly kill the cell by digesting many of its component parts.

What comprises the "fingerprints" on the surface of your cells?

They tell your immune system, "I belong here." Cells with an improper fingerprint are recognized as foreign and are attacked by your body's defenses. (made from a variety of molecules located on the outer surface of the cell membrane. Some fingerprint molecules differ from cell to cell, depending on the specific function of the cell, and others are common to all of your cells.)

Intermediate filaments

Threadlike proteins in the cell's cytoskeleton that are roughly twice as thick as microfilaments

___________________proteins span the entire membrane because their tertiary structure has hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions, whereas ___________________ or peripheral proteins, reside primarily on the inner or outer surface of the membrane due to their hydrophilic structure.

Transmembrane, surface proteins

What is the only transmembrane proteins?

Transport proteins

____________are transmembrane proteins that help polar or charged substances pass through the plasma membrane.

Transport proteins

offspring's sex is determined by the temperature at which the eggs are kept. Cool male, warm female

Turtles

Explain one possible reason why the chances of having a child with a chromosomal abnormality, or a disorder related to an incorrect number of chromosomes, increases as the mother's age increases.

Unlike men whose sperm-producing cells are produced every couple of weeks after puberty, women eggs began meiosis near the time the woman was born and the constant division can wear and tear the eggs

Desmosomes

Velcro; holds sheets of cells together while allowing fluid to pass between neighboring cells I.e electrical signal telling muscle cells to contract is passed from cell to cell through gap junctions

molecules (chiefly carbohydrates bound to protein) that from the surface of a cell and can "turn on" a body's defenses against foreign invaders.

antigens

thylakoids

are responsible for the collection of solar energy for photosynthesis.

In ants_________, and wasps, sex is determined by the number of chromosome sets an individual possesses. Males are haploid and females are diploid. A female can fertilize an egg with sperm she has stored after mating, producing a female. Or she can lay the unfertilized egg, which develops into a male.

bees

Prokaryotes (Method(s) of division)

binary fission

What are the typical modes of transmission of the HIV virus?

blood, semen, vaginal fluid, or breast milk

What are the potential fates of items that exit the Golgi apparatus?

bud off from the Golgi apparatus in a vesicle, which then moves into the cytosol. If the molecules are destined for delivery and use elsewhere in the body, the transport vesicle eventually fuses with the cell's plasma membrane and dumps the molecules into the bloodstream via exocytosis

Speaking in terms of the immune system response, what would happen if a person with type A blood were to receive a type B blood transfusion?

can cause destruction of red blood cells, low blood pressure, and even death.

What is metastasis?

cancer cells leaving a tumor and invading other parts of the body

Gap 1 (G1 phase)

cells grow, carry out normal functions, and replicate their organelles

The cell wall is made of____________ , a carbohydrate. This structure provides several types of protection to plant cells.

cellulose

The ______________ is a structure that takes up much of the volume in the plant cell

central vacuole

The cell-cycle control system includes _________.

checkpoints

1. reduce the likelihood of completing cell division when errors have occurred in the process 2. respond to feedback conveying information about the cell's internal and external environment

checkpoints purpose

The______________in cells are responsible for photosynthesis. Similar to mitochondria, chloroplasts have a double membrane that can be explained by the theory of endosymbiosis.

chloroplasts

DNA is located within the nucleus. It associates with a variety of proteins to keep it organized and prevent breakage. In this form, the DNA is referred to as __________ .

chromatin

In order for independent assortment to occur, the traits must exist on separate _________.

chromosomes

Meiosis 1: Prophase 1

chromosomes condense and crossing over occurs

Within a pedigree, females are represented by a _______ and males are represented by ___________. How can you tell which individuals in a pedigree contain a trait of interest?

circle,squares

Chromosomes in prokaryotes

circular single smaller than DNA of eukaryotes, DNA w/ proteins attached at one site to the cell membrane

Although osmosis involves only the movement of water, it is influenced by the _______________inside or outside the cell that are unable to move across the membrane.

concentration of other molecules

Osmosis

diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane

Define radiation

directs high-energy radiation only at the part of the body where a tumor is located. As with chemotherapy, the radiation process is not perfect, and nearby tissue is often harmed.

Cytokinesis

division of the cytoplasm to form two separate daughter cells

If a pedigree shows a carrier for a specific trait, what does this mean?

does not exhibit the trait but can have offspring that do, is referred to as a carrier of the trait (Hh)

If a trait of interest is located on an autosome, the pattern of inheritance will be

dominant or recessive

Define chemotherapy

drugs that interfere with cell division are administered, slowing down the growth of tumors. Because these drugs interfere with rapidly dividing cells throughout the body (not just the rapidly dividing cancer cells), they can have very unpleasant side effects.

polar bodies

each of the small cells that bud off from an oocyte at the two meiotic divisions and do not develop into ova.

Meiosis 2

each of the two new cells divides again, so that each of the four daughter cells contains a single chromosome from the homologous pair.

Prokaryotic plasma membrane function

encloses the cell contents

Nucleus

houses the genetic material of a cell, directing the synthesis of proteins within the cell.

Mistakes are possible during the process of replication, which would result in a type of mutation. What are the possible outcomes of that "mistake"?

errors are caught and repaired or lead to the production of a different protein or DNA of a gamete-producing cell, a new gene can sometimes enter a population in the next generation and be acted on by evolution.

Besides having a nucleus, ____________ contain a variety of membrane-bound organelles, including a nucleus.

eukaryotic cells

What is crossing over?

exchange of some genetic material between a paternal homologous chromosome and a maternal homologous chromosome, leading to a chromosome carrying genetic material from each; also called recombination.

Provide an example of a human trait that would not be considered a single-gene trait

eye color

polygenic trait example

eye color, skin color, height

Proteins and phospholipid heads within the plasma membrane can be modified with carbohydrate chains. These modified molecules serve as identifying markers for the cell, which can be recognized by the immune system. This can be beneficial in terms of_____________ but bad in terms of _______________________, where we want foreign cells to be able to exist in the body.

fighting foreign cells that cause disease, situations, such as transplants

Many prokaryotes have a________________, a long, thin, rotating, whip-like projection of the plasma membrane that moves the cell through the medium in which it lives.

flagellum (pl. flagella)

What is the primary function of the rough ER?

fold and package proteins for shipment to other locations in the endomembrane system, to the cell surface, or to the outside of the cell.

Prophase (mitosis)

following replication, the sister chromatids condense, the spindle forms and the nuclear envelope breaks down.

Describe the benefits that are afforded by this double-membraned structure in Mitochondria.

for energy conversion. surface area on which to conduct chemical reactions.

linked traits

genes that do NOT assort independently because they are on the same chromosome

The ultimate phenotype expressed is shaped by both the _______ inherited in combination with the_________.

genes, environment

sexual reproduction advantages

genetic variation means less susceptibility to disease, better adaption, increased survival

The three purposes of the cytoskeleton are as follows

give cells shape and support controls the intracellular traffic, serving as a series of tracks the elaborate scaffolding of the cytoskeleton is dynamic and can generate force, it gives all cells some ability to control their movement

In addition to Recognition proteins ______serve as part of the membrane's fingerprint.

glycoproteins

How is the protein altered in a person with cystic fibrosis

gradual accumulation of chloride ions within cells primarily in the lungs and digestive tract.

Groups of proteins, including ____________ influence the rate of the cell cycle. These proteins are important in the cell-cycle control system.

growth factors, cell-cycle control system.

Gap 2 (G2 phase)

growth occurs in shorter duration from G1 with duplicated genetic material

Cillia

hair like projections of a cell that move in wave like motion

The phospholipids orient themselves so that the __________ are facing the aqueous environment inside and outside the cell, while the ___________are tucked together in the interior of the membrane.

head, tails

How does the plasma membrane stay attached to the rest of the cell?

held in a proper orientation by hydrophobic and hydrophilic forces, the plasma membrane is often described as a fluid mosaic

The passing of characteristics from parents to offspring via genes is referred to as___________.

heredity

Meiosis 1: Anaphase 1

homologues are pulled to either side of the cell a duplicate of the 23 pair on one end and 23 pair on the other

When an individual inherits two of the same allele from both parents, we call this ___________ and when an individual inherits two different alleles from its parents, we call this _________.

homozygous, heterozygous

_____________is if the solute concentrations is blanced then water movement is balanced.

isotonic

Sister chromatids

joined chromatid

chromosomes in eukaryotes

linear multiple larger than prokaryotes, DNA enclosed in nucleus

The smooth endoplasmic reticulum deals in the synthesis of _________________

lipids such as fatty acids, phospholipids, and steroids, as well as carbohydrates.

Chromtin

long strands of DNA found in the eukaryotic cell nucleus

Which gender is more likely to exhibit a sex-linked recessive trait?

males

Gametes undergo

meiosis division

Plasmodesmata (plants)

microscopic channels which traverse the cell walls of plant cells, enabling transport and communication between them

Three types of cytoskeletal elements

microtubules, microfilaments, intermediate filaments

Eukaryotes (Method(s) of division)

mitosis and meiosis

somatic cells undergo

mitosis division

sexual reproduction disadvantage

more time, effort and risk contracting disease and chance for errors

What do we say when a substance is moving from a side of higher construction to a lower concentration?

moving down its concentration gradient

a single gene with more than two alleles

multiple allelism

Meiosis 1: Telophase 1 and Cytokinesis

nuclear membranes form, the cell separates into 2 cells each containing 23 pairs of chromosomes or 46 chromosomes total

Meiosis 2: Telophase 2 and Cytokinesis

nuclear membranes reassemble and the two daughter cells pinch into four haploid gametes.

The nucleus is kept separate from the rest of the cell by the _________ membrane. It is structured like the _________, except it is composed of ________of phospholipids.

nuclear, plasma membrane, two bilayers

The ____________is found within the nucleus where it produces the subunits needed to produce ribosomes.

nucleolus

Prokaryotic DNA function

one or more circular loops or linear strands that contain genetic information needed for cell growth, survival, and reproduction

hermaphrodite

organisms that produce both male and female gametes. Earthworms and garden snails.

Gonads

ovaries and testes

simple diffusion

passive movement of a solute with no carrier protein

Many prokaryotes have a ____________much thinner, hair-like projections that help prokaryotes attach to surfaces and can serve as "tubes" through which they exchange DNA.

pili (sing. pilus)

What sorts of things does the plant cell wall provide protection against?

protection from feeding insects and other animals. Cell walls also help make plants more water-tight—an important feature in organisms that cannot move out of the hot sun to reduce water loss through evaporation.

Histones

protein molecules found tightly coiled in eukaryotic chromosomes in addition to DNA

Antibodies

proteins molecules produced to fight off the antigen not found in the body

Types of eukaryotic cells

protists, fungi, plants, animals

Give an example of a cell type that is frequently replaced and how often replacement occurs

red blood cell two to four months cells lining the intestines about every three weeks. Hair follicles, too, contain some of the most rapidly dividing cells

When a single gene influences a trait (a single-gene trait), will the inheritance of that trait be relatively easy or difficult to predict?

relatively easy

Gamets

reproductive cells, sperm cells and egg cells

Define a malignant tumor

result of unrestrained growth of cancerous cells. Malignant tumors shed and spread cancer cells, a process called metastasis

The rough endoplasmic reticulum appears "rough" due to the presence of ______________ on its surface.

ribosome

Many prokaryotes have a ______________ that protects and gives shape to the cell. Some have a sticky, sugary capsule as their outermost layer. This sticky outer coat provides protection and enhances prokaryotes' ability to anchor in place when necessary.

rigid cell wall

What are some additional structures prokaryotic cells posses?

rigid cell wall flagellum (pl. flagella), pili (sing. pilus)

________ active transport couples the movement of one substance across the membrane, moving down its concentration gradient while another substance moves against its concentration gradient.

secondary

If a trait of interest is located on the X or Y chromosome, the pattern of inheritance will be

sex-linked traits

Meiosis 2: Anaphase 2

similar to anaphase in mitosis, sister chromatids are pulled to opposites sides of the cells

Meiosis 2: Metaphase 2

similar to metaphase in mitosis, Sister chromatids are lined up at equatorial plate

Binary fission begins with a _________(the original cell)

single parent cell

Anaphase (Mitosis)

sister chromatids separate

Chiasma

site of crossing over

What happens to molecules in the Golgi apparatus?

slight modifications to the molecules often involves tagging molecules (much like adding a postal address or tracking number) to direct them to some other part of the organism.

Two major categories of cell types in the body are

somatic and Gametes cells

The inner compartment of chloroplasts is filled with a fluid called _____________where the DNA is located. This is also the site of sugar production during photosynthesis.

stroma

A protective cap located at the end of the DNA, called a ____________acts to limit the number of cell divisions an individual cell undergoes.

telomere

Homologous

term used to refer to chromosomes that each have a corresponding chromosome from the opposite-sex parent

Before Meiosis 2 begins

the DNA molecules (now in the form of chromatid pairs) briefly uncoil and fade from view It is important to note that in the brief interphase before prophase II, there is no replication of any of the chromosomes.

Tonicity

the ability of a surrounding solution to cause a cell to gain or lose water

End result of meiosis

the creation of four haploid daughter cells, each with a set of 23 individual chromosomes. These chromosomes contain a combination of traits from the individual's diploid set of chromosomes.

Cancer cells can divide indefinitely

the divide more than 80-90 times unlike other cells

Interphase

the part of cell cycle consisting of 3 phases in which cell grows and prepares to divide

mitoic phase

the part of cell cycle consisting of 4 phases in which division occurs.

turgor pressure

the pressure that is exerted on the inside of cell walls and that is caused by the movement of water into the cell

Excytosis

the process by which a large substance is released from the cell through a vesicle that transports the substance to membrane to let the substance out

Phenotype

the set of observable characteristics of an individual resulting from the interaction of its genotype with the environment.

How can you tell which individuals in a pedigree contain a trait of interest?

the shapes are shaded to indicate that an individual exhibits the trait of interest.

Microtubules

the thick, rigid, hollow tubes that are the tracks to which molecules and organelles within the cell can become attached and moved along. Microtubules also help to pull chromosomes apart during cell division. Continuously built, disassembled, and rebuilt, microtubules rarely last more than about 10 minutes in a cell.

Prokaryotic Ribosomes function

the thousands little granular bodies scattered throughout the cytoplasm and turn genetic information into proteins

What happens when a person with Rh-positive blood donates to someone with Rh-negative blood?

their immune system attacks the Rh antigens as foreign invaders—an immune response that can vary from mild, which passes unnoticed, to severe, which can lead to death

Inside each chloroplast are stacks of small discs called________________

thylakoids

A gamete with an extra chromosome is called a_________.

trisomy

Physical support (Vacuole function)

turgor pressure as a result of osmosis in vacuole is responsible for the pressure that allows stems, flowers, and other plant parts to stand upright.

The end result of Mitosis

two new daughter cells, each with an identical nucleus containing identical genetic material

Define cancer

uncontrolled cell growth and division

The Golgi apparatus is another part of the endomembrane system. The contents of the rough ER and smooth ER are moved to the Golgi apparatus via transport________________.

vesicles

chromatid

when chromatin duplicates, one half of it is chromatid

When can nondisjunction occur in meiosis?

when homologues fail to separate during meiosis I: anaphase 1, or when sister chromatids fail to separate during meiosis 2: anaphase 2

Flagella

whiplike tails projecting from the cell surface; sperm are among the most mobile of all animal cells. Some spermicidal birth control methods prevent conception by disabling the flagellum and immobilizing the sperm cells

The combination of sex chromosomes a male carries is______ and the combination a female carry is ______.

xy, xx