Biology Chapters 4, 8, and 9
As compared to a prokaryotic cell, eukaryotic cells are about ___________ times larger in size.
10,000
How many alleles do you inherit for the trait human blood?
2
End result of DNA replication
2 almost identical strands of DNA with the change of errors
Eukaryotes have existed for about_____ years,
2 billion years
Result of binary fission
2 identical daughter cells identical to parent cell
Diploid
2 sets of chromosomes =23 pair or 46 total (2n) Somatic cells in human body are diploid contains total of 46 chromosomes
The 46 chromosomes (for humans) can be grouped into _____ pairs. Each pair contains ______
23, one paternal copy and one maternal copy.
How many alleles are involved in the trait human blood?
3 ( IA, IB, I)
Prokaryotes have existed for about_____ years
3.5 billion years
How many phenotype for human blood
4
What would be the probability of a child inheriting Tay-Sachs disease from a mother who is heterozygous for the trait and a father who is homozygous dominant for the trait?
50%
How many genotypes for Human blood
6
This protective cap (telomere) can allow for about ____ (number of) cell divisions from birth.
80-90
Type A blood has __antigens
A
Type B blood has __antibodies
A
Type A blood can donate to____, receive from ____.
A and AB A and O
Type AB blood has __antigens
A and B
Type O blood has __antibodies
A and B
Turner Syndrome
A chromosomal disorder in females in which an X chromosome is missing, making the person Xo, Ox instead of XX
XXX Female Syndrome
A chromosomal disorder in females in which an extra X chromosome is present, making the person XXx, instead of Xx. slightly taller than average but have no obvious physical or mental problems and most XXX females are fertile.
Klinefelter syndrome
A chromosomal disorder in males have an extra X chromosome, making them XXy or Xxy instead of XY.
XYY Male Syndrome(super male)
A chromosomal disorder in males have an extra Y chromosome, making them Xyy instead of XY. tall+acne+lower intelegens
somatic cells
Any cells in the body other than reproductive cells
spindle assembly checkpoint
Are the spindle fibers properly built and and chromosome singe filey attached?
Theory of Endosymbiosis
Eukaryotic cells emerged when mitochondria and chloroplasts, once free-living prokaryotes, took up permanent residence inside other larger cells
DNA synthesis (S phase)
Every chromosome creates an exact duplicate of itself in a process called replication. (Before S pahse, Chromitan coils up further--> singular chromosome---> During S Phase singular chromosome replicate into sister chromatids attached at centromeres)
It is imperative that our cells, such as skin cells, divide in order to replace cells that have died. However, it is also important the cells divide only a limited number of times because _________.
immortal cells present problems such as cancer
In some cases, one allele does not clearly display dominance over another. In this case, individuals with a_______________, genotype express a unique phenotype
incomplete dominance
heterozygote displays blended characteristics of homozygotes
incomplete dominance
amniocentesis
needle puncture of the amniotic sac to withdraw amniotic fluid for analysis 3-4 months into pregnancy
Type o blood has __antigens
no or neither
Gametes with an abnormal number of chromosomes likely were the result of a "mistake" in the process of meiosis. This unequal distribution of genetic material is called ____________.
nondisjunction
List specific cell types that are affected by chemotherapy, radiation, or both.
normal systems that rely on the rapid and constant production of new cells -reduces the rate of red blood cells production -interfering with the division of bone marrow stem cells -reduces the production of platelets and white blood cells -the rapidly dividing cells within hair follicles are also affected
Five specific functions of central vacuole
Nutrient storage: Waste management: Predator deterrence: Sexual reproduction: Physical support:
What are other categories of proteins that can be transmembrane and surface protein?
Receptor Proteins Recognition Proteins Membrane Enzymes
_____________are surface or transmembrane proteins that bind to chemicals in the cell's external environment.
Receptor proteins
_______________are surface or transmembrane proteins that give each cell a "fingerprint" that makes it possible for the body's immune system to distinguish body cells from invaders plus work as receptors.
Recognition proteins
Centromere
Region of a chromosome where the two sister chromatids attach
Endocytosis
process by which a cell takes large material into the cell by infolding of the cell membrane
Apoptosis
programmed cell death prevents cancer
If you were to view an unknown cell type under the microscope, what features would be indicative of a prokaryotic cell?
The absence of membrane enclosed nucleus
Vesicles
small membrane sacs that specialize in moving products into, out of, and within a cell
Sexual reproduction (Vacuole function)
The vacuole may contain pigments that give some flowers the colors that attract pollinators—birds and insects that help the plant reproduce by transferring pollen.
Waste management (Vacuole function)
The vacuole retains waste products and degrades them with digestive enzymes, much like the lysosome in animal cells.
Nutrient storage (Vacuole function)
The vacuole stores hundreds of dissolved substances, including amino acids, sugars, and ions.
Thight junctions
White Lining on tubs; forms watertight seal between cells I.e Small intestine
The mitochondria have a double membrane structure where one membrane is essentially wadded up inside another membrane. The interior of the organelle is referred to as the __________________.
_intermembrane space
Pedigrees
a diagram that traces the inheritance of a particular trait through several generations
The basic structure of the plasma membrane
a fluid phospholipid bilayer
cystic fibrosis
a genetic disease that involves a faulty transmembrane protein
reconstruction and elongation:
a group of several proteins, called a replication complex, binds to each of the exposed strands Polymerase build the new strand 3-5 lagging and 5-3 leading strand
Each phospholipid is a dual-natured molecule composed of the following:
a hydrophilic glycerol molecule head a hydrophobic hydrocarbon tails
endomembrane system
a series of organelles involved in synthesis and modification of molecules within cells
Pleitropy
a single gene influences multiple traits Many traits from one gene
Polygenetic trait
a single phenotype is influenced by multiple genes. many genes to 1 trait
Chorionic villus sampling (CSV)
a small piece of the finger-like projections from the placenta is removed by the syringe. 10-12 weeks into pregnancy
In addition to the phospholipid bilayer structure of the plasma membrane, there are ___________________ found within the membrane.
a variety of protein types
homozygous recessive genotype
aa
The movement of molecules into and out of the cell can occur in one of two ways. When energy is required, the movement is termed ____________ transport. When energy is not required, the movement is termed _____________ transport.
active, passive
Active transport requires energy in order to move large molecules or to move substances _______________.
against their concentration gradients
Meiosis 1: Metaphase 1
all the duplicated, crossed over homologues chromosomes line up in the center
Down Syndrome
an extra copy of chromosome 21
Cystic fibrosis symptoms
an improper salt balance in the cells, and buildup of thick, sticky mucus—particularly in the lungs
____________is if the solute concentrations outside is higher, then water diffuses out the cell.
hypertonic
In terms of osmosis, water will move into a cell that is placed in a___________________ solution, whereas water will exit a cell that is placed in _________________solution.
hypotonic, hypertonic
_____________is if the solute concentrations outside is lower, then water diffuses into the cell.
hyptonic
cell theory
idea that all living things are composed of cells, cells are the basic units of structure and function in living things, and new cells are produced from existing cells
Gap 0 (G0 phase)
- a "resting" phase outside the cell cycle in which no cell division occurs. -The G0 phase may last for days, years (or permanently as in the case of most neurons and heart muscle cells) before resuming cell division.
How do single parent cells replicate during binary fission?
--Double-stranded DNA molecule starting from it's only origin unwinds and split apart like a zipper bases exposed --enzymes bind to the exposed DNA and attach free-floating nucleotides( A+T, C+G) creating two identical double-stranded DNA molecules. --The two new chromosomes attach at a different spot of the plasma membrane --cell then pinches until it divides into daughter cells
List the two major groups of prokaryotes
1.bacteria 2. archaea
List the steps of DNA replication
1.unwinding and separation 2.reconstruction and elongation:
At first glance, incomplete dominance and codominance appear similar to each other. Explain how they are different.
-Incomplete dominance is when nether alleles are dominant instead they are blended in to create a new phenotype RR(Red)*WW(White)= RW(Pink). -Codominance is also when neither alleles are dominant and create a new phenotype but they show up together not blended. (BB(black)* WW(white)= BW(spots/stripes)
Teleophase (Mitosis)
-With two full, identical sets of chromosomes collected at either end of the cell, -chromosomes began to uncoils fading from view nuclear membranes reassembles to divide the parent cell.
A change or alteration of DNA can lead to uncontrolled cell growth. List some possible causes for this sort of change or alteration.
-chemicals that mutate DNA -sources of high energy such as X rays, the sun, or nuclear radiation -by some viruses
Chromosomes
-condense form sister chromatids . -linear or circular strand of DNA with specific sequences of base pairs.
asexual reproduction advantages
-fast, easy, efficient - genetically identical if environment is stable
Describe, specifically, how the gamete differs between males and females
-female gamete > male gamete because it has more cytoplasm. -During the production of sperm four evenly sized cells become sperm. During egg production, the cell divides genetic material evenly but nearly all of the cytoplasm goes to one of the cells.
How are sex chromosomes different than the other 22 pairs of non sex chromosomes(autosomes)?
-have genetic infomration that is not sex specific, while sex chromsomes do -have two copies of same kind one from each parent, but sex chromsomes have two copies of different kind (female xx, male xy)
Provide an example of exocytosis in cells
-hormone insulin transported out of pancreatic cells - communication between cells in brain and other parts of the nervous system occurs as one cell releases large numbers of very small molecules, called neurotransmitters, by exocytosis.
List items that might need to cross the plasma membrane of a cell.
-take in food and nutrients and dispose of waste products. -build and export molecules needed elsewhere -mediates communications with the external environment and with other cells, and adhesion to other cells or surfaces -controls the flow of molecules (including water) into and out of the cell
Cells are three-dimensional structures where chemical reactions occur. List some examples of the sorts of reactions that occur in cells.
-transport raw materials and fuel into the cell export finished materials and waste products out of the cell most, but not all, cell types contain DNA a molecule that contains the information that directs the formation of various cellular products within the cell the chemical reactions in the cell, the cell's ability to reproduce itself.
Haploid
1 set of chromosomes= no pair just 23 total
For any given trait, an individual receives exactly ____ copy(copies) of a gene from each parent via their gamete. This leads to individuals whose diploid cells have exactly _______ copies of each gene.
1,2
Phases of the cell cycle
1. Interphase (G1, S, G2) 2. Mitosis (PMAT) 3. Cytokinesis (cell division)
The two goals of meiosis are
1. It reduces the amount of genetic material in gametes. 2. It produces gametes that differ from one another with respect to the combinations of alleles they carry.
Eukaryotic cell division is part of the cell cycle. What is the Purpose of cell cycle
1. Replace dead/damaged cells 2. Create new life after fertilization
There are two modalities or mainstream methods of treating cancer. They are:
1. chemotherapy 2. radiation
Describe the five steps involved in producing a karyotype.
1. obtain a cell 2. cultured the cell with nutrients 3. midway through division treat with a chemical that stops them 4. viewed under microscope slide, w/added stain for better visibility. 5. arranged by size and shape and displayed on a monitor
Provide three examples of human phenotypes that can be shaped by the factors other than genes
1. personality 2. body weight 3. intelligence
There are two reasons that the rules of probability are used in genetics. Those reasons include
1. process of segregation 2.fertilization is a chance event
How are cancer cells different from normal cells?
1.Cancer cells lose their "contact inhibition." 2.Cancer cells can divide indefinitely 3.Cancer cells have reduced "stickiness."
endosymbiotic theory evidence
1.Double membranes on chloroplasts & mitochondria 2.Organelles with own DNA - circular molecules highly related to bacterial DNA 3.Size of organelles similar to prokaryotes and divide by fission 4.Chloroplasts and mitochondria have ribosomes, similar to those found in bacteria
three features of Mendel's work
1.Pea plants reproduce quickly which makes them an ideal study organisms 2.They have numerous easily categorized traits (shape, color) 3.Distant population were established
Codominance
A condition in which neither of two alleles of a gene is dominant or recessive.
Punnett Square
A diagram showing the possible outcomes of a cross between two individuals; the possible crosses are shown in the manner of a multiplication table.
spindle fibers
A part of the cytoskeleton of a cell, formed in prophase (in mitosis) or prophase I (in meiosis), from which extend the fibers that organize and separate the sister chromatids.
Solute
A substance that is dissolved in a water or gas.
Phagocytosis
A type of endocytosis in which a cell engulfs large particles or whole cells
Pinocytosis
A type of endocytosis in which the cell ingests extracellular fluid and its dissolved solutes.
Karyotype
A visual display of the complete set of chromosomes. A karyotype is a useful diagnostic tool because it can be prepared very early in the fetus's development to assess whether it has an abnormality in the number of chromosomes or in their structure. And because the test shows all of the chromosomes, even the sex hromosomes, it also reveals the sex of the fetus.
Type O blood can donate to____, receive from ____.
A,B,AB,O O
Type AB blood can donate to____, receive from ____.
AB A,B, AB,O
When the mitochondria produce energy, three products are produced. Those include____________________. In order to produce ATP, the mitochondria must have a constant source of_______________.
ATP, Carbon dioxide, and water oxygen
Show a Punnett square for the albinism trait between a homozygous recessive parent and a pigmented homozygous dominate parent. Indicate the phenotypic ratio for the offspring.
All heterozygous (Mm) All Pigmented
____________cells contain a ______________ plasma membrane that separates the interior of the cell from the external environment. This membrane performs the essential functions of holding the contents of a cell in place and regulating passage into and out of the cell.
All, dual-layered
A copy or variation of a gene that can be passed from a parent is termed a(n)___________.
Allele
Mendel's law of segregation
Alleles segregate from one another during the formation of gametes.
unwinding and separation
Although eukaryotes DNA have multiple origins, double stranded DNA molecule with the help of an enzyme helicase unwinds and separates into two strands from a specific origin of replication.
Lysosomes
An organelle containing digestive enzymes for dismantling macromolecules that are no longer needed by the cell for reuse or disposal
Genotype
An organism's genetic makeup, or allele combinations.
Because they don't have a cell wall to limit expansion, __________cells may explode in hypotonic solutions instead of just swell.
Animal
List the features that differentiate eukaryotic animal cells from plant cells.
Animals have centriole but.. no chloroplast no cell wall no vacuole
Cancerous cells are often described as invasive. How does their invasiveness affect surrounding tissues and/or organs?
As a tumor gets larger, it uses up nutrients and energy, takes up more and more space, and presses against neighboring cells and tissues. Eventually, the tumor may block other cells and tissues from carrying out their normal functions and even kill them.
Binary fission is _______ type of reproduction.
Asexual
Type A blood has __antibodies
B
Type B blood has __antigens
B
Type B blood can donate to____, receive from ____.
B and AB B and O
Endosymbiotic theory can explain why mitochondria have their own DNA. Although we are used to thinking about our DNA being equally contributed by both parents, this is not the case with mitochondrial DNA. Which parent do you receive your mitochondrial DNA from? Why is this the case?
Because sperms contribute DNA and no cytoplasm mitochondrial DNA is something that we inherit exclusively from our mothers through egg cells
How can meiosis be used to explain why linked traits do not assort independently of one another?
Because they are on the same chromosome, they are always going to travel together. Unless they were separated during crossing over in meiosis
Explain how the beta-blocker category of drugs works to reduce blood pressure and anxiety.
Beta blockers reduce anxiety by binding to the receptors, holding on, and blocking the adrenaline from doing its job.That way in stressful situations or for someone with high blood pressure it reduces the binding adrenaline to beta receptors to that causes the heart to beat faster and increase your blood pressure longer or more than it is normal.
Among ____________, it is the females that have one copy of two different sex chromosomes, while males have only one type, so the sex of offspring is determined by the female.
Birds
If you wanted to have a karyotype created of your genetic makeup, where would the cells likely come from?
Blood
Rh blood group
Category of blood type. Rh is positive, without it is negative
Cancer cells have reduced "stickiness."
Cells are normally held together by adhesion molecules, proteins within cell membranes. And cancer cells, too, usually group together, forming a tumor. But the membranes of cancer cells tend to have reduced adhesiveness,
Although a few types of cells are visible, most are very small. Why is it that most cells are so very tiny?
Cells are small because they need to keep a surface area to volume ratio that allows for adequate intake of nutrients while being able to excrete the cell's waste.
Different types of cells have different numbers of mitochondria. Which types of cells in the human body would have a lot of mitochondria based on their energy demands? Which types of cells might have less mitochondria?
Cells that have large energy requirements, such as muscle, liver, and sperm cells in animals and fast-growing root cells in plants, are packed densely with mitochondria Cells that are not very metabolically active, such as some fat storage cells in humans, have very few mitochondria.
_________are the smallest independently functioning living units. Each ________ can perform all basic functions of life including reproducing itself.
Cells, cell
________________helps the membrane maintains its flexibility, preventing the membrane from becoming too fluid or floppy at moderate temperatures and acting as a sort of antifreeze, preventing the membrane from becoming too rigid at freezing temperatures.
Cholesterol
Meiosis 2: Prophase 2
Chromosomes condense again making them visible under microscope
Metaphase (mitosis)
Chromosomes line up in the middle of the cell attached to Spidle fibers by their centromeres'
Additional cytoskeletal elements
Cillia, Flagella
heterozygote displays characteristics of both homozygotes
Codominance
Pleitropy Example
Cystic fibrosis, Sickle cell anemia
homozygous dominant genotype
DD
Four basic features prokaryotic cells
DNA Cytoplasm Ribosomes Plasma Membrane
__________houses genetic material in a central control center called nucleus
Eukaryotic
Just as with mitosis, in meiosis _________________ must take place in interphase before the process of cell division begins. Therefore, each ______has an identical copy, or there are 46 pairs of sister chromatids (92 chromosomes total) before meiosis begins.
DNA replication, homologue or 23 pair
Heterozygous
Dd
The smooth ER in liver cells has a very specialized role, which is
Detoxifying enzymes in the smooth ER reduce the harmfulness of alcohol, antibiotics, barbiturates, amphetamines, or other stimulants that we may consume, along with many toxic metabolic waste products formed in our bodies
_________________ is the ________________ movement of solute, across the plasma membrane from the side of the membrane that has a _______________________ of the substance to the side of the membrane that has a _______________ of the substance.
Diffusion, spontaneous/passive higher concentration lower concentration
describe how a dominant allele is different from a recessive allele.
Dominant and recessive alleles are defined by their action when they are in the heterozygous state. A dominant allele and is said to "mask" the effect of the other allele, which is called the recessive allele.
Mendel's experiments in crossing pea plants led to predictable results. For example, crossing true-breeding purple pea plants with white pea plants always led to purple offspring. This is because the purple color is _________, whereas white color is ___________.
Dominate, recessive
Explain how telomere can protectively limit cell divisions.
Each time DNA divides, the process by which chromosomes are duplicated causes the telomere at each end of every chromosome to get a bit shorter.
additive effects
Effects from alleles of multiple genes that all contribute to the ultimate phenotype for a given characteristic.
What organelles are apart of endomembrane system?
Endoplasmic reticulm (Rough and Smooth) Golgi Apparatus
How do membrane "fingerprints" cause problems with organ transplants? What do we try to do to get around this rejection?
Fingerprint on the cells of the donated organ is not identical to your own; so your body sees the new organ as a foreign object and fights against it. To prevent organ rejection, doctors must administer drugs that suppress your immune system.
The plasma membrane is often referred to as a fluid mosaic. Explain what this term means.
Fluid- moving Mosaic- a tapestry of several types of molecules (phospholipids, cholesterols, and proteins)
Longest to shortest duration of cell cycle
G1, S, G2, M
Prokaryotic Cytoplasm function
Gel like fluid in the cell where chemical reactions take place
In fertilization, two______ cells unite to produce a a new individual with the proper _____________cell.
Haploid, Diploid
Suppose your roommate has dimples. Can you be sure of her genotype? Explain your answer.
Her phenotype may be having dimples but her set of genes could be homozygous dominant(DD) or heterozygous in having dimples(Dd).
Suppose that a female exhibits red-green color-blindness. What must the genotypes of her parents have been?
Heterozygous, homozygous recessive
Meiosis 1
Homologous chromosomes separate
law of independent assortment
How gene separate during meiosis has no relation to how other genes separate. they sort independently from each other
multiple allelism example
Human blood
A key factor in the replication of DNA is its feature of complementarity. Explain what it means to say DNA strands are complementary.
In the double-stranded DNA molecule, the base on one strand always has the same pairing partner. A pairs with T (and vice versa), and G pairs with C (and vice versa).
Cytoplasm and the Cytoskeleton Form the Cell's ________________.
Internal Environment, Provide Support, and Can Generate Motion
G2/M checkpoint checks for
Is DNA replicated properly ? right before mitosis
G1/S checkpoint checks for
Is the DNA damaged? Does the cell have sufficient nutrients? right before proceeding to S phase
asexual reproduction disadvantages
Less variation (and therefore less adapted to environmental changes)
Microfilaments
Long, thin fibers that generate forces, including those important in cell contraction and cell division.
Glycoproteins
Membrane carbohydrates that are covalently bonded to proteins.
_________________are surface or transmembrane proteins that accelerate chemical reactions on the plasma membrane's surface.
Membrane enzymes
Law of Segregation
Mendel's law that states that the pairs of homologous chromosomes separate in meiosis so that only one chromosome from each pair is present in each gamete
mitosis purpose
Mitosis is important in an organism's growth and the replacement of cells.
_________are Passed on as Independent Features:
Moist traits
Cancer cells lose their "contact inhibition."
Most normal cells divide until they touch other cells or collections of cells (tissues). At that point, they stop dividing. Cancer cells, however, ignore the signal that they are at high density and continue to divide.
facilitated diffusion
Movement of specific molecules across cell membranes through protein channels
Is it possible for a multicellular organism to be made of prokaryotic cells
No, given the small size and lack of membrane bound nucleus and other organelles, it's not possible to incorporate them into a prokaryotic cell.
Are eukaryotes always multicellular?
No, many fungi are unicellular, and the Protista (or protists) are a huge group, of which most are single-celled organisms invisible to the naked eye. Nonetheless, because all prokaryotes are single-celled and thus invisible, all the plants and animals that we see around us are eukaryotic organisms even though they are single celled.
Type AB blood has __antibodies
No/ neither
Eukaryotic cells have a variety of membrane-bound_____________________ , which distinguish them from prokaryotic cells.
Organelles
What is one sepecialized and the two types of diffusion?
Osmosis is special and simple and facilitated are the two types
What are the three ways Endocytosis can occur?
Phagocytosis, Pinocytosis and Receptor-mediated endocytosis
Show a Punnett square for the dimples trait between a homozygous recessive parent and a heterozygous parent. Indicate the phenotypic ratio for the offspring.
Phenotype: 2/4 Dimples , 2/4 No Dimples Genotype: 2 /4 heterozygous, (Dd) 2/4 homozygous recessive (dd)
Mitochondria
Powerhouse of the cell, organelle that is the site of producing energy from carbohydrates, fats, or proteins
________________active transport relies directly on ATP to fuel molecular movement across the membrane
Primary
The proton pumps in your stomach are examples of ___________.
Primary active transport becuse...All of this H+ pumping increases your ability to digest the food but requires the use of the high-energy molecule ATP—because protons would not normally flow into a region against their concentration gradient
Two types of cells
Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic
The term "cell" was first used in the 1600s by _______________ after viewing cork under a microscope
Robert Hooke
gap junctions
Secret passage way;Function like passageways allowing the movement of cytoplasm, molecules and other signals to pass between cells I.e Muscle tissue
Which is more fatal missing non sex chromosomes or sex chromosomes?
Sex chromosomes
Why is it easy relatively easy to predict with single gene traits?
Simple cross punt squares and either they have it or they don't trait
The end result of meiosis in both males and females are reproductive cells, or gametes. However, in males these cells eventually become___________, and in females these are__________.
Sperm and eggs
Define benign tumor
Such as many moles, are just masses of normal cells that do not spread. They can usually be removed safely without any lasting consequences.
X chromosome
The X chromosome is relatively large and carries a great deal of genetic information relating to a large number of non-sex-related traits.
Y chromosome
The Y chromosome is tiny and carries genetic information about only a very small number of traits.
Why is it advantageous that the egg carries extra cytoplasm?
The extra cytoplasm carried by the egg contains a large supply of nutrients and other chemical resources to help with initial development of the organism following fertilization.
invagination of membrane
The idea is that the plasma membrane around the cell may have folded in on itself to form inner compartments, which subsequently became modified and specialized
receptor-mediated endocytosis
The movement of specific molecules into a cell by the inward budding of membranous vesicles containing proteins with receptor sites specific to the molecules being taken in; enables a cell to acquire bulk quantities of specific substances.
What benefits do organelles confer for eukaryotic cells?
The physical separation of compartments within a eukaryotic cell provides distinct areas in which different chemical reactions can occur at the same time.
Predator deterrence (Vacuole function)
The poisonous, nasty-tasting materials that accumulate inside the vacuoles of some plants make a powerful deterrent to animals that might try to eat parts of the plant.
Why is it absolutely essential that the lysosomes need to be walled off from the rest of the cell by a membrane?
They are filled with about 50 different digestive enzymes and a super-acidic fluid, a corrosive broth so powerful that a burst lysosome would rapidly kill the cell by digesting many of its component parts.
What comprises the "fingerprints" on the surface of your cells?
They tell your immune system, "I belong here." Cells with an improper fingerprint are recognized as foreign and are attacked by your body's defenses. (made from a variety of molecules located on the outer surface of the cell membrane. Some fingerprint molecules differ from cell to cell, depending on the specific function of the cell, and others are common to all of your cells.)
Intermediate filaments
Threadlike proteins in the cell's cytoskeleton that are roughly twice as thick as microfilaments
___________________proteins span the entire membrane because their tertiary structure has hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions, whereas ___________________ or peripheral proteins, reside primarily on the inner or outer surface of the membrane due to their hydrophilic structure.
Transmembrane, surface proteins
What is the only transmembrane proteins?
Transport proteins
____________are transmembrane proteins that help polar or charged substances pass through the plasma membrane.
Transport proteins
offspring's sex is determined by the temperature at which the eggs are kept. Cool male, warm female
Turtles
Explain one possible reason why the chances of having a child with a chromosomal abnormality, or a disorder related to an incorrect number of chromosomes, increases as the mother's age increases.
Unlike men whose sperm-producing cells are produced every couple of weeks after puberty, women eggs began meiosis near the time the woman was born and the constant division can wear and tear the eggs
Desmosomes
Velcro; holds sheets of cells together while allowing fluid to pass between neighboring cells I.e electrical signal telling muscle cells to contract is passed from cell to cell through gap junctions
molecules (chiefly carbohydrates bound to protein) that from the surface of a cell and can "turn on" a body's defenses against foreign invaders.
antigens
thylakoids
are responsible for the collection of solar energy for photosynthesis.
In ants_________, and wasps, sex is determined by the number of chromosome sets an individual possesses. Males are haploid and females are diploid. A female can fertilize an egg with sperm she has stored after mating, producing a female. Or she can lay the unfertilized egg, which develops into a male.
bees
Prokaryotes (Method(s) of division)
binary fission
What are the typical modes of transmission of the HIV virus?
blood, semen, vaginal fluid, or breast milk
What are the potential fates of items that exit the Golgi apparatus?
bud off from the Golgi apparatus in a vesicle, which then moves into the cytosol. If the molecules are destined for delivery and use elsewhere in the body, the transport vesicle eventually fuses with the cell's plasma membrane and dumps the molecules into the bloodstream via exocytosis
Speaking in terms of the immune system response, what would happen if a person with type A blood were to receive a type B blood transfusion?
can cause destruction of red blood cells, low blood pressure, and even death.
What is metastasis?
cancer cells leaving a tumor and invading other parts of the body
Gap 1 (G1 phase)
cells grow, carry out normal functions, and replicate their organelles
The cell wall is made of____________ , a carbohydrate. This structure provides several types of protection to plant cells.
cellulose
The ______________ is a structure that takes up much of the volume in the plant cell
central vacuole
The cell-cycle control system includes _________.
checkpoints
1. reduce the likelihood of completing cell division when errors have occurred in the process 2. respond to feedback conveying information about the cell's internal and external environment
checkpoints purpose
The______________in cells are responsible for photosynthesis. Similar to mitochondria, chloroplasts have a double membrane that can be explained by the theory of endosymbiosis.
chloroplasts
DNA is located within the nucleus. It associates with a variety of proteins to keep it organized and prevent breakage. In this form, the DNA is referred to as __________ .
chromatin
In order for independent assortment to occur, the traits must exist on separate _________.
chromosomes
Meiosis 1: Prophase 1
chromosomes condense and crossing over occurs
Within a pedigree, females are represented by a _______ and males are represented by ___________. How can you tell which individuals in a pedigree contain a trait of interest?
circle,squares
Chromosomes in prokaryotes
circular single smaller than DNA of eukaryotes, DNA w/ proteins attached at one site to the cell membrane
Although osmosis involves only the movement of water, it is influenced by the _______________inside or outside the cell that are unable to move across the membrane.
concentration of other molecules
Osmosis
diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane
Define radiation
directs high-energy radiation only at the part of the body where a tumor is located. As with chemotherapy, the radiation process is not perfect, and nearby tissue is often harmed.
Cytokinesis
division of the cytoplasm to form two separate daughter cells
If a pedigree shows a carrier for a specific trait, what does this mean?
does not exhibit the trait but can have offspring that do, is referred to as a carrier of the trait (Hh)
If a trait of interest is located on an autosome, the pattern of inheritance will be
dominant or recessive
Define chemotherapy
drugs that interfere with cell division are administered, slowing down the growth of tumors. Because these drugs interfere with rapidly dividing cells throughout the body (not just the rapidly dividing cancer cells), they can have very unpleasant side effects.
polar bodies
each of the small cells that bud off from an oocyte at the two meiotic divisions and do not develop into ova.
Meiosis 2
each of the two new cells divides again, so that each of the four daughter cells contains a single chromosome from the homologous pair.
Prokaryotic plasma membrane function
encloses the cell contents
Nucleus
houses the genetic material of a cell, directing the synthesis of proteins within the cell.
Mistakes are possible during the process of replication, which would result in a type of mutation. What are the possible outcomes of that "mistake"?
errors are caught and repaired or lead to the production of a different protein or DNA of a gamete-producing cell, a new gene can sometimes enter a population in the next generation and be acted on by evolution.
Besides having a nucleus, ____________ contain a variety of membrane-bound organelles, including a nucleus.
eukaryotic cells
What is crossing over?
exchange of some genetic material between a paternal homologous chromosome and a maternal homologous chromosome, leading to a chromosome carrying genetic material from each; also called recombination.
Provide an example of a human trait that would not be considered a single-gene trait
eye color
polygenic trait example
eye color, skin color, height
Proteins and phospholipid heads within the plasma membrane can be modified with carbohydrate chains. These modified molecules serve as identifying markers for the cell, which can be recognized by the immune system. This can be beneficial in terms of_____________ but bad in terms of _______________________, where we want foreign cells to be able to exist in the body.
fighting foreign cells that cause disease, situations, such as transplants
Many prokaryotes have a________________, a long, thin, rotating, whip-like projection of the plasma membrane that moves the cell through the medium in which it lives.
flagellum (pl. flagella)
What is the primary function of the rough ER?
fold and package proteins for shipment to other locations in the endomembrane system, to the cell surface, or to the outside of the cell.
Prophase (mitosis)
following replication, the sister chromatids condense, the spindle forms and the nuclear envelope breaks down.
Describe the benefits that are afforded by this double-membraned structure in Mitochondria.
for energy conversion. surface area on which to conduct chemical reactions.
linked traits
genes that do NOT assort independently because they are on the same chromosome
The ultimate phenotype expressed is shaped by both the _______ inherited in combination with the_________.
genes, environment
sexual reproduction advantages
genetic variation means less susceptibility to disease, better adaption, increased survival
The three purposes of the cytoskeleton are as follows
give cells shape and support controls the intracellular traffic, serving as a series of tracks the elaborate scaffolding of the cytoskeleton is dynamic and can generate force, it gives all cells some ability to control their movement
In addition to Recognition proteins ______serve as part of the membrane's fingerprint.
glycoproteins
How is the protein altered in a person with cystic fibrosis
gradual accumulation of chloride ions within cells primarily in the lungs and digestive tract.
Groups of proteins, including ____________ influence the rate of the cell cycle. These proteins are important in the cell-cycle control system.
growth factors, cell-cycle control system.
Gap 2 (G2 phase)
growth occurs in shorter duration from G1 with duplicated genetic material
Cillia
hair like projections of a cell that move in wave like motion
The phospholipids orient themselves so that the __________ are facing the aqueous environment inside and outside the cell, while the ___________are tucked together in the interior of the membrane.
head, tails
How does the plasma membrane stay attached to the rest of the cell?
held in a proper orientation by hydrophobic and hydrophilic forces, the plasma membrane is often described as a fluid mosaic
The passing of characteristics from parents to offspring via genes is referred to as___________.
heredity
Meiosis 1: Anaphase 1
homologues are pulled to either side of the cell a duplicate of the 23 pair on one end and 23 pair on the other
When an individual inherits two of the same allele from both parents, we call this ___________ and when an individual inherits two different alleles from its parents, we call this _________.
homozygous, heterozygous
_____________is if the solute concentrations is blanced then water movement is balanced.
isotonic
Sister chromatids
joined chromatid
chromosomes in eukaryotes
linear multiple larger than prokaryotes, DNA enclosed in nucleus
The smooth endoplasmic reticulum deals in the synthesis of _________________
lipids such as fatty acids, phospholipids, and steroids, as well as carbohydrates.
Chromtin
long strands of DNA found in the eukaryotic cell nucleus
Which gender is more likely to exhibit a sex-linked recessive trait?
males
Gametes undergo
meiosis division
Plasmodesmata (plants)
microscopic channels which traverse the cell walls of plant cells, enabling transport and communication between them
Three types of cytoskeletal elements
microtubules, microfilaments, intermediate filaments
Eukaryotes (Method(s) of division)
mitosis and meiosis
somatic cells undergo
mitosis division
sexual reproduction disadvantage
more time, effort and risk contracting disease and chance for errors
What do we say when a substance is moving from a side of higher construction to a lower concentration?
moving down its concentration gradient
a single gene with more than two alleles
multiple allelism
Meiosis 1: Telophase 1 and Cytokinesis
nuclear membranes form, the cell separates into 2 cells each containing 23 pairs of chromosomes or 46 chromosomes total
Meiosis 2: Telophase 2 and Cytokinesis
nuclear membranes reassemble and the two daughter cells pinch into four haploid gametes.
The nucleus is kept separate from the rest of the cell by the _________ membrane. It is structured like the _________, except it is composed of ________of phospholipids.
nuclear, plasma membrane, two bilayers
The ____________is found within the nucleus where it produces the subunits needed to produce ribosomes.
nucleolus
Prokaryotic DNA function
one or more circular loops or linear strands that contain genetic information needed for cell growth, survival, and reproduction
hermaphrodite
organisms that produce both male and female gametes. Earthworms and garden snails.
Gonads
ovaries and testes
simple diffusion
passive movement of a solute with no carrier protein
Many prokaryotes have a ____________much thinner, hair-like projections that help prokaryotes attach to surfaces and can serve as "tubes" through which they exchange DNA.
pili (sing. pilus)
What sorts of things does the plant cell wall provide protection against?
protection from feeding insects and other animals. Cell walls also help make plants more water-tight—an important feature in organisms that cannot move out of the hot sun to reduce water loss through evaporation.
Histones
protein molecules found tightly coiled in eukaryotic chromosomes in addition to DNA
Antibodies
proteins molecules produced to fight off the antigen not found in the body
Types of eukaryotic cells
protists, fungi, plants, animals
Give an example of a cell type that is frequently replaced and how often replacement occurs
red blood cell two to four months cells lining the intestines about every three weeks. Hair follicles, too, contain some of the most rapidly dividing cells
When a single gene influences a trait (a single-gene trait), will the inheritance of that trait be relatively easy or difficult to predict?
relatively easy
Gamets
reproductive cells, sperm cells and egg cells
Define a malignant tumor
result of unrestrained growth of cancerous cells. Malignant tumors shed and spread cancer cells, a process called metastasis
The rough endoplasmic reticulum appears "rough" due to the presence of ______________ on its surface.
ribosome
Many prokaryotes have a ______________ that protects and gives shape to the cell. Some have a sticky, sugary capsule as their outermost layer. This sticky outer coat provides protection and enhances prokaryotes' ability to anchor in place when necessary.
rigid cell wall
What are some additional structures prokaryotic cells posses?
rigid cell wall flagellum (pl. flagella), pili (sing. pilus)
________ active transport couples the movement of one substance across the membrane, moving down its concentration gradient while another substance moves against its concentration gradient.
secondary
If a trait of interest is located on the X or Y chromosome, the pattern of inheritance will be
sex-linked traits
Meiosis 2: Anaphase 2
similar to anaphase in mitosis, sister chromatids are pulled to opposites sides of the cells
Meiosis 2: Metaphase 2
similar to metaphase in mitosis, Sister chromatids are lined up at equatorial plate
Binary fission begins with a _________(the original cell)
single parent cell
Anaphase (Mitosis)
sister chromatids separate
Chiasma
site of crossing over
What happens to molecules in the Golgi apparatus?
slight modifications to the molecules often involves tagging molecules (much like adding a postal address or tracking number) to direct them to some other part of the organism.
Two major categories of cell types in the body are
somatic and Gametes cells
The inner compartment of chloroplasts is filled with a fluid called _____________where the DNA is located. This is also the site of sugar production during photosynthesis.
stroma
A protective cap located at the end of the DNA, called a ____________acts to limit the number of cell divisions an individual cell undergoes.
telomere
Homologous
term used to refer to chromosomes that each have a corresponding chromosome from the opposite-sex parent
Before Meiosis 2 begins
the DNA molecules (now in the form of chromatid pairs) briefly uncoil and fade from view It is important to note that in the brief interphase before prophase II, there is no replication of any of the chromosomes.
Tonicity
the ability of a surrounding solution to cause a cell to gain or lose water
End result of meiosis
the creation of four haploid daughter cells, each with a set of 23 individual chromosomes. These chromosomes contain a combination of traits from the individual's diploid set of chromosomes.
Cancer cells can divide indefinitely
the divide more than 80-90 times unlike other cells
Interphase
the part of cell cycle consisting of 3 phases in which cell grows and prepares to divide
mitoic phase
the part of cell cycle consisting of 4 phases in which division occurs.
turgor pressure
the pressure that is exerted on the inside of cell walls and that is caused by the movement of water into the cell
Excytosis
the process by which a large substance is released from the cell through a vesicle that transports the substance to membrane to let the substance out
Phenotype
the set of observable characteristics of an individual resulting from the interaction of its genotype with the environment.
How can you tell which individuals in a pedigree contain a trait of interest?
the shapes are shaded to indicate that an individual exhibits the trait of interest.
Microtubules
the thick, rigid, hollow tubes that are the tracks to which molecules and organelles within the cell can become attached and moved along. Microtubules also help to pull chromosomes apart during cell division. Continuously built, disassembled, and rebuilt, microtubules rarely last more than about 10 minutes in a cell.
Prokaryotic Ribosomes function
the thousands little granular bodies scattered throughout the cytoplasm and turn genetic information into proteins
What happens when a person with Rh-positive blood donates to someone with Rh-negative blood?
their immune system attacks the Rh antigens as foreign invaders—an immune response that can vary from mild, which passes unnoticed, to severe, which can lead to death
Inside each chloroplast are stacks of small discs called________________
thylakoids
A gamete with an extra chromosome is called a_________.
trisomy
Physical support (Vacuole function)
turgor pressure as a result of osmosis in vacuole is responsible for the pressure that allows stems, flowers, and other plant parts to stand upright.
The end result of Mitosis
two new daughter cells, each with an identical nucleus containing identical genetic material
Define cancer
uncontrolled cell growth and division
The Golgi apparatus is another part of the endomembrane system. The contents of the rough ER and smooth ER are moved to the Golgi apparatus via transport________________.
vesicles
chromatid
when chromatin duplicates, one half of it is chromatid
When can nondisjunction occur in meiosis?
when homologues fail to separate during meiosis I: anaphase 1, or when sister chromatids fail to separate during meiosis 2: anaphase 2
Flagella
whiplike tails projecting from the cell surface; sperm are among the most mobile of all animal cells. Some spermicidal birth control methods prevent conception by disabling the flagellum and immobilizing the sperm cells
The combination of sex chromosomes a male carries is______ and the combination a female carry is ______.
xy, xx
