Biology Exam #2

Once more than two-thirds of the nephrons have been destroyed by a disease process, urea and other waste products accumulate in the blood.

condition known as uremia

- Binds organs together - Provides support and protection - Fills spaces - Produces blood cells - Stores fat

connective tissue

supports and binds body parts

connective tissue

- Tightly packed cells that form a continuous layer - Numerous functions o Usually protective o Secretion (glands) o Absorption o Excretion o Filtration • On external surfaces, epithelial tissue protects the body from injury, drying out, and possible invasion by microbes • On internal surfaces, epithelial tissue carries out both protective and specific functions • Classified according to cell shape (squamous, cuboidal, columnar) - Classified according to the number of layers in the tissue (simple, stratified, pseudostratified) - glandular epithelium secretes a product

epithelial tissue

covers body surfaces and lines cavities; consists of tightly packed cells that form a continuous layer

epithelial tissue

-Less and less salt available for transport as fluid moves up the thick part of the ascending limb -Osmotic gradient within the renal medulla is therefore created -Urea contributes to high solute concentration in medulla. -->Leaks from lower collecting duct -This results in a concentration gradient favoring reabsorption of water.

establishment of solute gradient

- Forms the supporting meshwork of lymphatic tissue - Found in lymph nodes, spleen, thymus, and bone marrow

reticular connective tissue

thin, highly branched fibers that form delicate supporting networks; fiber in connective tissue; composition of nonfluid matrix

reticular fiber

- Red blood cells - White blood cells - Platelets

formed elements

(based on upright/standing position) Ventral or anterior means toward the:

front

forms when two adjacent plasma membrane channels join; serve to strengthen connections while allowing small molecules to pass; in epithelial cells

gap junctions

can be single or multiple cells; Glandular epithelium secretes a product; endocrine vs. exocrine

gland

Each nephron has its own blood supply, including two capillary regions. -From the renal artery, an afferent arteriole leads into the ______________. -Blood leaves the glomerulus via an efferent arteriole. -The efferent arteriole takes blood to the _______________. -These surround rest of the nephron -Blood then enters the renal vein.

glomerulus; peritubular capillary network

of white blood cells; have visible granules in cytoplasm - Neutrophils: most abundant, phagocytic to bacteria - Basophils: granules stain deep blue, release histamine - Eosinophils: stain deep red, fight parasitic worms

granular leukocytes

-accessory organ of the skin Extend from dermis through epidermis Form from epidermal cells in hair root Become keratinized and die as they are pushed away from root Contracting arrector pili muscles cause "goose bumps" if freightened or feeling cold

hair follicles

(based on upright/standing position) Superior means toward the:

head

Myocardial Infraction -vessel becomes completely blocked -portion of the heart muscle deprived of oxygen

heart attack

swishy sound; may be a result of a leaky valve

heart murmur

- Composed of cells called muscle fibers o Muscle fibers contain actin and myosin filaments o Interaction accounts for sliding movements

muscular tissue

moves the body and its parts

muscular tissue

Major portion of the heart; Consists mainly of cardiac muscle

myocardium

the visible part of the nail; hypochio = nail bed

nail body

-growth of the nail occurs from this epithelial tissue -Becomes keratinized as they grow outward

nail root

-accessory organ of the skin Protect distal part of digits and help pry things open and pick up small objects

nails

Primary homeostatic mechanism that keeps a variable close to a set point -Two components (minimum) usually three -A sensor, a control center -ex: thermostat in house controls furnace and cooling to maintain the temperature it is set at; also regulation of body temperature

negative feedback

a microscopic structure composed of blood vessels and tubules that collect the filtrate which will ultimately become urine; functional unit of the kidney

nephron

Functional units of the kidney; A microscopic view reveals that a kidney is composed of over a million of these

nephrons

contains neurons (nerve cells) and is present in the brain and spinal chord

nervous tissue

receives stimuli, processes that information, and conducts impulses

nervous tissue

- Outnumber neurons nine to one; take up more than half of the volume of the brain - Support and nourish neurons - four types in the brain

neuroglia

Excretion of hypertonic urine depends on reabsorption of water from the loop of the nephron and collecting duct.

osmoregulation (kidney function)

The nervous system and endocrine system work together to function to control other body systems Control systems contribute to homeostasis The control systems direct the effectors, muscles and glands to become active Muscles cause immediate changes Endocrine glands secrete hormones that bring slower changes

the control system

- Cone-shaped muscular organ about the size of a fist - Located between the lungs directly behind the sternum - Tilted so apex points to body's left

the human heart

outer layer of arterial wall; fibrous and loose connective tissue

outer layer

SA node is called the ___________. ¥ Initiates the heartbeat; keeps the heartbeat regular ¥ Sends out an excitatory impulse every 0.85 seconds ¥ Excitatory impulse causes the atria to contract ¥ Excitatory impulse travels to the AV node through atrioventricular bundle (AV bundle) ¥ Then reaches smaller numerous Purkinje fibers ¥ If SA node fails, AV node generates a slower heartbeat --> 40 to 60 beats per minute ¥ Corrected by artificial pacemaker

pacemaker

the _______ is both an exocrine and an endocrine gland (because it secretes digestive juices into small intestine via ducts, and secretes insulin to the bloodstream)

pancreas

¥ O2-rich blood does not mix with O2-poor ¥ Blood must travel through the lungs to go from the right side of the heart to the left side. ¥ The heart is a double pump. ¥ Right ventricle sends oxygen-poor blood into the pulmonary circuit. ¥ Left ventricle sends O2-rich blood into the rest of body. Ð Thicker, more muscular walls to generate stronger force

path of the blood through the heart

ventral cavity; Bladder, rectum, internal reproductive organs

pelvic cavity

Serous membrane that surrounds the heart

pericardium

encloses heart; serous membrane name

pericardium

-lines abdominal cavity and covers organs -->Mesentery supports organs and attaches them to abdominal wall -serous membrane name

peritoneum

a wave effect that passes down the walls of arteries when the aorta expands and then recoils with each ventricular contraction; can be used to determine heart rate.

the pulse

•Lengthwise section of the kidney reveals three regions

renal cortex, renal medulla, renal pelvis

contains cone-shaped tissue masses called renal pyramids

renal medulla

central cavity continuous with ureter

renal pelvis

four valves prevent backflow:

two atrioventricular valves and two semilunar valves

Many major illnesses can cause kidney disease: (These conditions tend to damage the glomeruli, resulting in a decreased glomerular filtration rate, and eventually kidney failure)

-Diabetes -Hypertension -Certain autoimmune diseases

Each heartbeat (Cardiac Cycle) has the following sequence:

-First, the two atria contract simultaneously. -Second, the two ventricles contract simultaneously. -Lastly, all the chambers then relax.

Urine formation is divided into three steps:

-Glomerular filtration -Tubular reabsorption -Tubular secretion

-Hypertension is often called "___________________." - Not detected until a stroke or heart attack occurs - Secondary to narrowing of one's arteries from artherosclerosis -Pumping blood requires greater pressure in narrowed arteries. -Medications used to treat disease vary - Diuretics to reduce blood volume - Vasodilators which dilate blood vessels - Various medications which improve heart function Heart Valve Disease

"the silent killer"

Several mechanisms maintain a pH of ~ 7.4 like:

-Acid-base buffer system -Respiratory center -The kidneys

when blood pressure at the glomerulus is low:

- Juxtaglomerular Apparatus secretes renin - Renin changes angiotensinogen into Angiotensin I - Angiotensin I converted into Angiotensin II - Angiotensin II stimulates the adrenal cortex to release aldosterone - Aldosterone promotes the excretion of K+ and the reabsorption of Na+ - The reabsorption of Na+ is followed by the reabsorption of H2O - Blood volume and blood pressure increase

components of blood

- Plasma- 55% of volume o Variety of inorganic and organic substances dissolved or suspended in water - Formed elements- 45% of volume o Red blood cells (erythrocytes) o White blood cells (leukocytes) o Platelets (thrombocytes)

Midway through the capillary, these forces are equalized - result is no net movement of water:

- Solutes now move down their gradients - Nutrients and oxygen diffuse out of capillary - Wastes and carbon dioxide diffuse into capillary - Movements of gases reversed in pulmonary circuit

functions of blood:

- Transport functions - Regulatory functions - Protective functions

Blood placed in a test tube can be separated into three layers:

- Upper layer is the liquid plasma. - Formed elements are the two lower layers. - Middle layer contains white blood cells and platelets. - Bottom layer contains red blood cells.

functions of integumentary system

-Protects underlying tissues from trauma, pathogen invasion, and water loss -Helps to regulate body temperature -Synthesizes vitamin D -Contains sensory receptors- awareness of surroundings

(of osmoregulation) Reabsorption of water requires:

-Reabsorption of salt -Establishment of solute gradient dependent on salt -Reabsorption of water through channels called aquaporins

treatment options to kidney failure include:

-hemodialysis -an artificial kidney machine -Continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis (CAPD) -kidney transplant

Infections of the bladder and urethra

-infections are likely the most common cause of problems. -Urine leaving the bladder is usually bacteria-free. -The distal urethra is normally colonized with bacteria. -Sometimes harmful bacteria from urethra gain access to the bladder. -Infections are more common in females, whose urethra is shorter and broader.

types of muscular tissue:

-skeletal -smooth (visceral) -cardiac

human body divided into cavities:

-ventral cavity or coelom -dorsal cavity

Functions of the Nephron

1. Filtration (glomerulus); Blood --> Nephron 2 .Reabsorption (Tubules & ducts); Nephron--> Blood 3. Secretion (Tubules & ducts)

Figure 16.1

1. Kidney produces urine 2. Ureters transport urine 3. Urinary bladder stores urine 4. Urethra passes urine to outside

The filtrate that enters the PCT is divided into 2 portions:

1. Reabsorbed Filtrate Components -Most water, nutrients, required salts (ions) 2. Nonreabsorbed Filtrate Components -Some water, most nitrogenous waste, excess salts (ions)

functions of the urinary system:

1. excretes metabolic wastes 2. osmoregulation 3. regulation of acid-base balance 4. secretion of hormones

Another _______% of Americans may have prehypertension.

30%

hypertension affects about _____% of Americans

35%

In acid-base balance, normal pH for most body fluids is _________, which is optimal for most cellular proteins.

7.4

The heart contracts, or beats, about ____ times per minute.

70 times per minute

• More than ______% of Na+ filtered at the glomerulus is returned to the blood. - 67% by PCT - 25% by ascending limb of nephron - About 7% by DCT and collecting duct

99% of Na+

Supported by chordae tendineae AV valve on right = ________ valve AV valve on left = __________ or mitral valve

AV valve on right = tricuspid valve AV valve on left = bicuspid or mitral valve

-When urine needs to be hypertonic, _______________ is produced by the posterior pituitary gland. -In the absence of ADH, collecting duct is impermeable to water - Dilute urine is produced -In the presence of ADH, collecting duct becomes more permeable to water - Concentrated urine is produced

Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

-to harden -Plaque interferes with blood flow by protruding into the artery lumen. -Plaque can cause clots to form by allowing platelets to accumulate. - If clot breaks loose it becomes an embolus - If clot remains stationary it is a thrombus Hypertension

Atherosclerosis

• a hormone secreted by the atria when the cardiac cells are stretched due to increased blood volume. - Another hormone regulating sodium - Secreted by right atrium of heart in response to stretching - indicates increased blood volume - Inhibits renin secretion by juxtaglomerular apparatus - Inhibits aldosterone release - Promotes sodium excretion - natriuresis

Atrial natriuretic hormone (ANH)

-Can form in people of any age -Occur as a result of bladder infections with associated inflammation or prostate enlargement in men -May actually be kidney stones that were carried to the bladder -Can be removed surgically or broken apart by lithotripsy

Bladder stones

the leading cause of death in Western countries; Modern research efforts have resulted in improvements in diagnosis, treatment, and prevention.

CardioVascular Disease (CVD)

molecules--> cells--> _______--->______-->________

Cells are composed of molecules; a tissue has similar types of cells; an organ contains several types of tissues; and several organs make up an organ system.

-Used when hemodialysis centers are not available -Peritoneum is the dialysis membrane - Fresh amount of dialysate is introduced directly into abdominal cavity through a permanently implanted tube - Waste and salts pass from blood vessels in abdominal wall into the dialysate - Fluid is collected several hours later

Continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis (CAPD)

- Contains many collagen fibers closely packed together -Functions in support - Found in dermis and structures such as o Tendons- connect muscles to bones o Ligaments- connect bones to other bones

Dense fibrous connective tissue

-part of a nephron -Cuboidal cells with numerous mitochondria but lacking microvilli -Designed for tubular excretion rather than reabsorption

Distal convoluted tubule (DCT)

-part of the nephron -Bowman capsule -Cup-like structure -Inner layer composed of podocytes o Form pores for passage of small molecules

Glomerular capsule

contains small dissolved molecules in similar concentration as plasma.

Glomerular filtrate

•occurs when blood enters the afferent arteriole and glomerulus. - Blood pressure forces water and small molecules into the glomerular capsule (filtration). o Large molecules and formed elements cannot leave the capillaries. o Unfiltered molecules and components leave the glomerulus via the efferent arteriole. - Nephrons filter about 180 liters of water per day, along with considerable amounts of small molecules and ions. - Remaining processes alter composition of the filtrate.

Glomerular filtration

Heart transplants are usually successful, but shortage of donated hearts remains an issue. -LVAD-left ventricular assist device -TAH-total artificial heart

Heart transplants and artificial hearts

¥ refers to a group of inherited disorders caused by deficiency in a clotting factor. Ð The most common type is hemophilia A, found especially in males. ¥ Faulty gene on X chromosome Ð Internal bleeding can cause serious damage to cells and tissues. ¥ Especially joints, muscles, cartilage Ð Death can result from bleeding into the brain. Ð Hemophilia is treated by blood transfusions and injections of clotting factors.

Hemophilia

____________ control sodium reabsorption at the distal convoluted tubule. Examples include aldosterone and juxtaglomerular apparatus.

Hormones

Disorders of the skin

Human skin can be traumatized and is prone to certain infections Its dryness, slightly acidic pH, and the presence of dead cells in the outermost layers make skin resistant to many pathogens Certain cancers can arise, usually from UV ray damage -Dermatitis

-high blood pressure -Usually caused by a narrowing of the arteries -Age, body size, and athletic conditioning can influence normal variations in blood pressure -Under age 45, a pressure above 130/90mm Hg is considered abnormally high -In older people, a pressure of 140/95mm Hg is considered abnormally high

Hypertension

Human body is organized into 11 organ systems

Integumentary - skin (protects body, temp homeostasis, synthesize vitamin D, receives sensory input) Cardiovascular - heart (transport system for nutrients, waste; provides temp, pH, and fluid homeostasis) Lymphatic and Immune - lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, spleen (defends against infectious disease, provides fluid homeostasis, assists in absorption & transport of fats) Digestive- oral cavity, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, pancreas (ingests, digests, and processes food; absorbs nutrients and eliminates waste; involved in fluid homeostasis) Respiratory - lungs (exchanges gases at both lungs and tissues; assists in pH homeostasis) Urinary - kidneys, urinary bladder (excretes metabolic wastes; provides pH and fluids homeostasis) Skeletal - bones (provides support and protection; assists in movement; stores minerals; produces blood cells) Muscular - muscles (assists in movement and posture; produces heat) Nervous - brain, spinal chord (receives, possesses, and stores sensory input; provides motor output; coordinates organ systems) Endocrine - testes, ovaries, adrenal glands, pancreas, thymus, thyroid, pineal gland (produces hormones; coordinates organ systems; regulates metabolism and stress responses; involved in fluid and pH homeostasis) Reproductive - testes, penis, ovaries, uterus, vagina (produces and transports gametes; nurtures and gives birth to offspring in females)

•___________ maintain the water-salt balance of the blood within normal limits. - Automatically affects blood volume and blood pressure •Most of the water and salt (NaCl) present in the filtrate is reabsorbed across the wall of the proximal convoluted tubule.

Kidneys

-Serves as temporary alternative to heart transplant -Tube passes blood from left ventricle to the LVAD -Blood is pumped to the aorta

LVAD-left ventricular assist device

abnormal white blood cells

Leukemia

- Supports epithelium and many internal organs (binds organs) - Forms a protective covering enclosing many internal organs o Muscles, blood vessels, and nerves - Found in the lungs, arteries, and urinary bladder -has space between components -occurs beneath skin and most epithelial layers

Loose fibrous connective tissue

-form as a result of fragmentation of megakaryocytes in the red bone marrow. Produced at a rate of 200 billion per day 150,000 - 300,000 per mm3 of whole blood Involved in the process of clotting or coagulation At least twelve clotting factors participate with platelets in forming a blood clot Blood clot on the move is called embolism

Platelets (thrombocytes)

-part of the nephron -Cuboidal epithelial cells with microvilli o Increased surface area for reabsorption

Proximal convoluted tubule (PCT)

two semilunar valves are:

Pulmonary semilunar Aortic semilunar

-infection of the kidneys -Usually result from urinary bladder infections -Infection is spread via ureter(s) -Most cured with antibiotics if diagnosed in time -Can cause severe damage

Pyelonephritis

-Water leaves the descending limb of loop because of the osmotic gradient. -->Countercurrent mechanism -Salt is actively pumped out of the ascending limb. -->Osmolarity is lowered -->Fluid is hypotonic -->Urine is hypotonic e.g., when excess water needs to be excreted

Reabsorption of water

The _______________ adjusts proportion of bicarbonate and carbonic acid

Respiratory System

AIDS

T cell levels decreased

-Generally used only on very ill patients -Poor survival rates possibly due to patients' poor condition prior to surgery

TAH-total artificial heart

The cardiovascular system includes two circuits:

The pulmonary circuit -Circulates blood through the lungs The systemic circuit -Circulates blood through the rest of the body

• Molecules and ions are reabsorbed both actively and passively. • Reabsorbed materials travel from the nephron into the blood of the peritubular capillaries. • Sodium is reabsorbed by active transport (about 65%). • Chloride follows and is passively reabsorbed. • This causes an increased osmolarity of the blood, which allows water to be absorbed by osmosis from the tubule into the blood. • Nutrients, such as glucose and amino acids, also return to the blood. • This is a selective process because only molecules recognized by carrier proteins are actively reabsorbed. - Glucose is almost completely reabsorbed due to a plentiful supply of carrier proteins. - Excess glucose ends up being excreted because every substance has a maximum rate of transport. • In diabetes, excess glucose is present in the blood because the liver and muscles failed to store glucose as glycogen. • The kidneys cannot reabsorb all the glucose in the filtrate. • This also causes increased osmolarity in the filtrate, causing less water to be reabsorbed into the peritubular capillary network. • This leads to frequent urination and thirst.

Tubular Reabsorbtion

• is a second way to remove substances from blood and add to tubular fluid - Hydrogen ions, potassium ions, creatinine, many drugs actively transported from the blood • Urine ends up containing two things: - Filtered substances that have not been reabsorbed - Substances that have been actively secreted

Tubular secretion

¥ Blood pressure in veins is low and by itself not enough to move blood back to the heart. ¥ When skeletal muscles contract, they put pressure on veins. ¥ __________ prevent backflow. ¥ Muscle contraction moves blood back to the heart.

Valves prevent backflow

- Fibroblasts enlarge and store fat and become adipocytes - Used for: o Energy storage o Insulation against heat loss or gain o Organ protection found beneath the skin, around the kidneys, and surface of the heart

adipose tissue

ventral cavity; Separated from thoracic cavity by diaphragm; Stomach, liver, spleen, gallbladder, and most of the small and large intestines

abdominal cavity

The pH of blood stays near 7.4 because the blood is buffered.

acid-base buffer system

when pH is less than 7.4

acidosis

disease that occurs suddenly; short duration

acute

act like rivets or "spot welds" to anchor tissues in place, increasing their overall strength; adjacent plasma membranes do not touch but are held together by intercellular filaments firmly attached to cytoplasmic plaques; in epithelial cells

adhesion junction

-Lack visible granules -Typically have kidney-shaped or spherical nucleus - Monocytes: largest white blood cells - Dendritic cells: capture microbes with dendrites, then stimulate other white blood cells for defense - Macrophages: phagocytes - Lymphocytes: two types - T lymphocytes (T cells): kill other cells or regulate responses of other cells - B lymphocytes (B cells): produce antibodies

agranular leukocytes

diuretic that Inhibits ADH secretion; Dehydration causes hangover

alcohol

hormone that promotes the excretion of potassium ions (K+) and the reabsorption of sodium ions (Na+). o The kidneys themselves promote aldosterone release when blood volume/pressure is too low for glomerular filtration.

aldosterone

when pH is greater than 7.4

alkalosis

Ð Too few red blood cells Ð Not enough hemoglobin in red blood cells Ð Three causes ---->Decreased production of red blood cells -Iron-deficiency anemia ---->Loss of red blood cells ---->Destruction of red blood cells

anemia

-Ballooning of a blood vessel - Occurs most often in abdominal aorta or arteries leading to the brain - Atherosclerosis and hypertension can weaken the walls of vessels, leading to an aneurysm - Bursting of blood vessels can be fatal, especially if it occurs in large arteries - Synthetic graft can be used to replaced damaged part of vessel

aneurysm

Coronary artery is partially blocked; Squeezing or burning sensation in the chest

angina pectoris

Ð Catheter is placed in clogged artery Ð Balloon attached to catheter is inflated Ð Expansion increases the lumen of the vessel Ð Stents are often placed to keep vessel open as an alternative to simple angioplasty Ð Stents now frequently drug-eluting to inhibit scarring

angioplasty

largest artery in human body - Approximately 25mm wide - Carries O2-rich blood from heart to other parts of body

aorta

type of blood vessel in the cardiovascular system; carry blood away from the heart; has an inner endothelium

arteries

Arteries eventually branch off into _______ - Average about 0.5mm in diameter - Can be dilated or constricted to regulate blood pressure

arterioles

______________ reduces stickiness of platelets.c - Lowers probability that clot will form - May be used for patients who have symptoms indicating stroke or angina

aspirin

type of neuroglia; star-shaped; provide nutrients

astrocytes

chamber of the heart; thin-walled; pump blood to ventricles

atria

ECG can detect abnormalities (arrhythmias) - the most common type of abnormalities is __________. - Multiple, chaotic impulses generated from SA node - Irregular, fast heartbeat - Palpitation (fluttering sensation) is a symptom of this condition

atrial fibrillation (AF)

nodal tissue located in the base of the right atrium wall

atrioventricular node (AV node)

heart sounds described as a "lub-dub" sound - "Lub" sound - ______________ valves closing - "Dub" sound - _____________ valves closing

atrioventricular valves; semilunar valves

a process that conducts nerve impulses away from the cell body; may have myelin sheath to increase speed

axon

(based on upright/standing position) Dorsal or posterior means toward the:

back

neutrophils elevated

bacterial infections

produce new cells that harden and flatten as they are pushed to the surface by cells forming underneath them

basal cells

-Most common type of cancer affecting the urinary system -In US, fourth most common type of cancer in men and the tenth most common in women -Greatly increased risk with smoking -Can be very malignant, necessitating removal of the bladder

bladder cancer

- Unlike other types of connective tissue, the matrix (ex: plasma) is not made by the cells. - Functions o Transports nutrients and oxygen and removes carbon dioxide and wastes o Helps distribute heat o Plays role in fluid, ion, and pH balance o Protects against disease o Blood clotting protects against fluid loss

blood

-is a connective tissue with a liquid matrix. -has many functions: Transport: nutrients, wastes, hormones Regulation: body temperature, blood and osmotic pressures, pH Protection: disease-causing pathogens, excess loss of blood by clotting mechanisms

blood

¥ When a blood vessel is damaged, the clotting process begins. Ð Platelets clump and form a plug to partially seal a leak. Ð Platelets and damaged tissues release prothrombin activator. ¥ Converts plasma protein prothrombin to thrombin ¥ Requires calcium Ð Thrombin activates fibrinogen to fibrin Ð Clot is composed of network of fibrin threads and trapped cells Ð As damage heals, plasmin breaks down the clot Ð If calcium present, no blood clots

blood clotting

-measured with sphygmomanometer -normally measured on the brachial artery -Expressed in millimeters of mercury (mmHg) -Consists of two numbers that represent systolic and diastolic pressure respectively (Ex: 120/80)

blood pressure

-As blood flows from the aorta into the arteries and arterioles, blood pressure ________. -The difference between systolic and diastolic pressure gradually diminishes. -->In the capillaries, blood flow is slow and fairly even. -Velocity and blood pressure are related to vascular cross-sectional area

blood pressure falls.

Line cavities and the internal spaces of organs and tubes that open to the outside (ex: mucous membrane, serous membrane, synovial membrane, and menings)

body membranes

(based on upright/standing position) Lateral is away from the:

body midline

(based on upright/standing position) Medial is closer to the:

body midline

- The most rigid connective tissue - Extremely hard matrix- formed from: o Calcium salts deposited around collagen fibers give bone rigidity o Protein fibers provide elasticity and strength - Two types ofbone tissue o Compact o Spongy

bone

¥ A stem cell is capable of dividing and producing new cells that can differentiate into particular cell types. ¥ Bone marrow has multipotent stem cells. Ð Gives rise to other stem cells for formed elements ¥ Research has shown that some bone marrow stem cells may be able to give rise to liver, bone, fat, cartilage, heart, and nerve cells. Ð A patient's own bone marrow stem cells could be used for curing certain conditions that may develop later in life. Ð Stem cells may provide solutions for diseases such as diabetes, liver disease, heart disease, Alzheimer's and Parkinson's. Ð Use of one's own stem cells eliminates possible rejection.

bone marrow stem cells

where blood pressure is measured, located on the upper arm

brachial artery

chemical or combination of chemicals Can take up excess H+ or OH Prevents large changes in pH When H+ added to blood the following occurs: H+ + HCO3 H2CO3 When OH- added to blood the following occurs: OH- + H2CO3 HCO3 + H2O

buffer

a group of disorders in which the usual controls of cell division fail, resulting in the production of abnormal cells that invade and destroy healthy tissue

cancers

type of blood vessel in the cardiovascular system; permit exchange of materials with tissues; has an inner endothelium

capillaries

diuretic that Increases glomerular filtration rate; Decreases tubular reabsorption of sodium

caffeine

•Join arterioles to venules -Extremely narrow with thin walls of a single layer of endothelium -Form vast networks in all regions of the body with a total surface area of 6300m2 -Organized into networks called capillary beds present in nearly all regions of the body -Play important role in homeostasis - exchange of substances across thin walls - Oxygen and nutrients diffuse out - Wastes and carbon dioxide diffuse into - Water may also leave capillaries - Excess fluid picked up by lymphatic system -Blood flow to capillary beds varies so that only certain ones are completely open at any given time. - Ex: After eating, capillary beds that serve the digestive system are mostly open. -Those that serve the muscles are mostly closed. -Capillary beds have arteriovenous shunts that bypass the bed. -Blood flows directly from arterioles to venules.

capillaries

¥ Two forces control movement of fluid through a capillary wall. Ð Osmotic pressure tends to cause water to move from tissues to blood. ¥ Created by plasma proteins and salts Ð Blood pressure tends to cause water to move from blood to tissues. Ð more filtration than there is reabsorption (that is where excess fluid comes from)

capillary exchange

Ð At the venous end, osmotic pressure is greater than blood pressure so water moves into capillary. Ð Almost the same amount of water gets reabsorbed as what left the capillary at the arterial end. Ð The small amount of fluid remaining behind can be absorbed by lymphatic capillaries. ¥ Tissue fluid now called lymph ¥ Returned back to systemic venous blood

capillary exchange

types of cancers

carcinomas- cancer of epithelial tissue sarcomas- arising in muscle or connective tissue lymphomas- originate in lymph nodes

- Found only in the walls of the heart - Has branching, striated cells, each with a single nucleus -functions in the pumping of blood - Cells are separate and individual but are bound end to end at intercalated disks - Gap junctions promote the flow of electrical impulses when the heart muscle contracts - involuntary

cardiac muscle

-the volume of blood pumped by the left ventricle per minute. -For a person with an average of 70 beats/min, the cardiac output is 5.25 liter of blood/min.

cardiac output

- Specialized form of dense fibrous connective tissue - Commonly forms smooth surfaces that allow bones to slide against one another in joints - Cells lie in small chambers called lacuna, separated by solid, but flexible matrix - Three types of cartilage o Hyaline, elastic, and fibrocartilage

cartilage

contains the cytoplasm and nucleus

cell body

disease that is long-term, less-severe; develops slowly

chronic disease

protein that gives the connective tissue flexibility and strength; fiber in connective tissue; composition of nonfluid matrix

collagen fiber

-part of nephron -Several nephrons connect to one collecting duct

collecting ducts

columnar-shaped cells; resembling rectangular pillars; cell shape of epithelial tissue

columnar epithelial

- Forms shafts of long bones (occurs in bones of skeleton) - Consists of cylindrical structures called osteons - Central canal of each osteon surrounded by rings of hard matrix - Located in spaces called lacunae -has cells in concentric rings -functions in support and protection

compact bone

negative feedback that directs a response to return conditions to normal levels -ex: controls furnace and cooling to bring back the set point of the thermostat

control center

-Serve the heart muscle itself since blood from the chambers does not nourish the heart -Are the first branches off aorta and lie on the exterior surface of the heart -Coronary capillary beds join to form venules -Venules converge to form cardiac veins which empty into right atrium

coronary arteries

¥ Surgery bypasses blocked areas of coronary arteries. Ð Another blood vessel is grafted to the aorta and then to the blocked coronary artery past the point of blockage. ¥ The proportion of heart attack patients receiving bypass surgery has decreased over the past decade. ¥ Stem cell therapy may be a future treatment for damaged heart tissue. ¥ Clearing Clogged Arteries ¥ Angioplasty with stent placement

coronary bypass operations

dorsal cavity; within the skull; contains the brain

cranial cavity

cube-shaped cells; cell shape of epithelial tissue

cuboidal epithelial

protects nail root; eponychium

cuticle

processes that conduct signals toward the cell body

dendrites

A neuron is a specialized cell with three structures:

dendrites, cell body, axon

skin inflammation- can arise from chemicals or allergic reactions

dermatitis

-region of skin -Fibrous connective tissue beneath epidermis Contains collagen fibers that help prevent overstretching and tearing Contains elastic fibers that maintain tension, but also stretch to allow movement Contains blood vessels that nourish the skin Contains sensory receptors for touch, pain, pressure, and temperature

dermis

relaxation of the heart muscle

diastole

is the pressure in the arteries during ventricular diastole.

diastolic pressure

Abnormality in the body's normal processes that significantly impairs normal function Major causes include blood vessel issues, cancers, infections, inflammation

disease

If the number of any type of white blood cell increases or decreases beyond normal, it may indicate the presence of:

disease

diuretic; Many inhibit active transport of sodium at loop of the nephron or the distal convoluted tubule

diuretic drugs

increase the flow of urine

diuretics

-Retention of water and salt lead to _________. -->Can lead to heart failure -->Treatment Options for Kidney Failure

edema

-Muscle- Gland; negative feedback -ex: When the pancreas detects high blood glucose levels, it secretes insulin, which causes cells to take up glucose --->Blood glucose levels return to normal (set point)

effector

• higher proportion of elastic fibers, so more proportional - Framework of outer ear

elastic cartilage

yellow, contains elastin; protein that is not as strong as collagen, but more elastic; fiber in connective tissue; composition of nonfluid matrix

elastic fiber

-A recording of the electrical changes occurring in the myocardium -is a recording of electrical changes in the myocardium detected at the skin's surface. -Electrodes placed on or near the chest are connected to an instrument that detects and records the myocardium's electrical changes. -P Wave occurs when SA node triggers an impulse -Indicates that atria are about to contract -QRS complex indicates that ventricles are about to contract -T wave occurs after ventricular contraction

electrocardiogram (ECG)

Lines the inner surface of the heart; Membrane consisting of connective tissue and endothelium

endocardium

secrete products into bloodstream

endocrine gland

inner layer of arterial wall; simple squamous epithelium

endothelium

type of neuroglia; line fluid-filled spaces of brain and spinal chord

ependymal cells

-region of skin -Consists of stratified squamous epithelium -consists of basal cells and melanocytes

epidermis

secrete products into ducts

exocrine gland

- The body also has extrinsic ways to regulate the heartbeat. - A cardiac control center is located in the medulla oblongata. - Influences heartbeat via autonomic nervous system -Sympathetic division increases heart rate -Parasympathetic system decreases heart rate - Hormones epinephrine and norepinephrine -Released by adrenal medulla -Stimulate heart to pump faster

extrinsic control of heartbeat

(based on upright/standing position) Posterior means toward the:

feet

•Both loose and dense connective tissue have cells called ___________ - Separated by a jelly-like matrix with collagen and elastic fibers

fibroblasts

• contains strong collagen fibers - Found in structures that withstand tension and pressure such as the pads between vertebrae

fibrocartilage

out of the blood

filtration

Ð 100,000 people/year have faulty heart valves repaired or replaced ¥ May be malformed at birth ¥ May degenerate due to age or disease Ð Common types include: ¥ Stenosis - narrowing of the aortic valve opening ¥ Mitral valve prolapse - thickened "leaflets" of mitral valve protrude back into ventricle Stroke, Heart Attack, and Aneurysm

heart valve disease

-treatment option to kidney failure -Patients whose kidneys are failing may undergo hemodialysis. - Diffusion of dissolved molecules through membrane - Selective permeability - Blood cleansed - pH adjusted - Water and salt balance maintained

hemodialysis

This vein carries the blood to a set of capillaries in the liver.

hepatic portal vein

-the maintenance of a relatively constant internal environment by an organism, or even by a single cell -Even as external conditions change, internal conditions stay within a narrow range -Internal state is often described as one of dynamic equilibrium because internal conditions tend to fluctuate above and below a certain value

homeostasis

• the most common type of cartilage - Contain very fine collagen fibers -functions in support and protection - Found in the nose and ends of long bones and ribs - Forms rings in the walls of respiratory passages - Parts of the fetal skeleton become bone from this tissue -has cells in the lacunae

hyaline cartilage

diagram of pulmonary circuit and systemic circuit in notes

in notes (colorful)

path of the blood through the heart diagram

in notes (colorful)

B cells elevated

infectious mononucleosis

-Skin --->Accessory organs: Hair, nails, sweat glands, and oil gland

integumentary system

The rhythmic contraction of the aorta and ventricles is due to the ______________. -It is made possible by nodal tissue, which has both muscular and nervous characteristics.

intrinsic conduction system

Renin is released by the __________________ when blood pressure is low, which leads to aldosterone release.

juxtaglomerular apparatus

-organ of the urinary system -paired, bean-shaped, reddish-brown organs located in lumbar region -Behind peritoneum -Covered by renal capsule o Tough fibrous connective tissue -Has a depression (hilum) on the concave side o Renal artery enters o Renal vein and ureter exits

kidney

-a disorder of the kidneys -Hard granules that form in the renal pelvis -Composed of substances such as calcium, phosphate, uric acid, and protein -Excess animal protein in diet, imbalanced urinary pH, and urinary tract infections may be contributing factors -May pass unnoticed in the urine; large stones can be very painful

kidney stones

Surgical replacement of defective kidney with a healthy donor kidney - Organ rejection is possible - The best match possibilities are from family members - Current one-year survival rate is 95-98% - Donor organs are in short supply

kidney transplant

¥ When arterial blood carries a reduced amount of O2 ,(because of anemia or high-altitude location) ________ increase production of the hormone erythropoietin. Ð Speeds up maturation of red blood cells in bone marrow

kidneys

-Only kidneys can remove many acids and bases. -Kidneys are slower-acting than the other two mechanisms, but more powerful. -Kidneys reabsorb bicarbonate ions as needed. -Kidneys excrete hydrogen ions as needed. -In urine, ammonia can absorb hydrogen ions. Phosphate provides another means of buffering hydrogen ions in urine

kidneys (acid-base balance)

disease restricted to one part of the body

local disease

-establishment of solute gradient -Has two parts - descending limb and ascending limb -Salt diffuses out of lower part of ascending limb -Salt actively transported out of the upper part of ascending limb -Ascending limb impermeable to water

long loop of nephron

-part of a nephron -U-shaped tube -Lining of simple squamous epithelium

loop of Henle

white half-moon at base; result of thick layer of cells

lunula

•Connective tissue cells are separated by ______, noncellular material that varies in consistency. - Solid, semisolid, or liquid.

matrix

produce the pigment melanin which provide protection against UV radiation

melanocytes

-Body membrane -Lines the dorsal cavity -Protects the brain and spinal cord -Made of connective tissue

menings

type of neuroglia; engulf bacterial and cellular debris

microglia

thickest layer of arterial wall; contains smooth muscle

middle layer

-Body membrane -Line tubes of the digestive, respiratory, urinary and reproductive systems -Made of an epithelium overlying loose fibrous connective tissue -Goblet cells produce mucus -->Protective function

mucous membranes

-accessory organ of the skin Associated with hair follicles Secrete sebum to lubricate hair and skin

oil glands

type of neuroglia; form myelin sheaths

oligodendrocytes

the accumulation of soft masses of fatty materials, such as cholesterol, beneath inner lining of arteries.

plaque

- contains inorganic and organic substances dissolved or suspended in water. -Plasma proteins (7 - 8% of plasma) serve various purposes. ¥ Transport: albumin transports bilirubin, lipoproteins transport cholesterol ¥ Blood clotting: fibrinogen ¥ Fight disease: immunoglobulins ¥ Help maintain blood volume due to large size

plasma

Liquid portion of the blood

plasma

- Cell fragments involved with blood clotting o Help to form a plug that seals damaged blood vessels o Injured tissue release molecules to stimulate the clotting process

platelets (thrombocytes)

line thoracic cavity and lungs; serous membrane name

pleurae

A __________ system in blood circulation begins and ends in capillaries. -Ex: hepatic portal system, associated with the liver --> Capillaries from the villi of the small intestine pass into venules that join to form the hepatic portal vein.

portal system

-Brings about a greater change in same direction (ex: Blood clotting- activated platelets initiate clotting process and release factors that stimulate further clotting) -Involved in processes with a definite cutoff point (ex: Woman giving birth-contractions get stronger until birth occurs)

positive feedback

appears to be layered but each cell touches basement membrane; in epithelial tissue (epithelial tissue classified by number of layers)

pseudostratified epithelium

lining of trachea; sweeps impurities toward the throat

pseudostratified, cilliated columnar

-Oxygen-poor blood from all regions of the body is collected in the right atrium. -It is sent to the lungs from the right side of the heart. -It returns from the lungs to the left side of the heart. -Blood from body collects in right atrium

pulmonary circuit

into the blood

reabsorption

• The kidneys regulate the salt balance in blood by controlling excretion and reabsorption of various ions. • Sodium (Na+) is a key ion in plasma that must be regulated as well as other ions (K+, HCO3, Mg2+).

reabsorption of salt (kidney function)

- Small, biconcave, disk-shaped cells that lack a nucleus - Contain hemoglobin for transport of oxygen o Complex of four units; each contains globin and heme heme contains iron which links to oxygen

red blood cells (erythrocytes)

Ð Manufactured in red bone marrow of certain bones Ð 4-6 million per mm3 of whole blood Ð When mature, lack a nucleus and are biconcave discs Ð Contain hemoglobin ¥ Red iron-containing heme pigment binds oxygen ¥ Carbon monoxide can also bind to heme Ð Combines more readily than oxygen Ð Can be lethal

red blood cells (erythrocytes)

outer granulated layer that dips down in between a radially striated inner-layer

renal cortex

Increasing the breathing rate removes ______. Removes hydrogen ions Forces reaction to the right H+ + HCO3 ↔ H2CO3 ↔ H2O + CO2

removes CO2

negative feedback that detects changes in the environment -ex: detects when the thermostat is above or below the set point

sensor

separates the left and right sides of the heart

septum

-Body membrane -Line thoracic and abdominal cavities -Made of epithelium and loose fibrous connective tissue -Secrete watery fluid for lubrication -Carry specific names according to location (pleurae, pericardium, peritoneum)

serous membrane

lining of small intestine, uterine tubes; absorbs nutrients

simple columnar

lining of kidney tubules, various glands; absorbs molecules

simple cuboidal

single layer of cells in epithelial tissue (epithelial tissue classified by number of layers)

simple epithelium

lining of lungs, blood vessels; protects

simple squamous epithelial tissue

nodal tissue located in the upper dorsal wall of the right atrium

sinoatrial node (SA node)

- Cylindrical, long and multinucleated - Striated due to alternating light and dark bands; with multiple nuclei - Usually attached by tendons to bones of the skeleton; occurs in muscles attached to skeleton - Contraction is under voluntary control which causes bones of the skeleton to move at joints

skeletal muscle

- Cells lack striations; smooth appearance - Occurs in blood vessel walls and and viscera (intestine, stomach, and other internal ograns and blood vessels) these are in the walls of the digestive tract - Cells are spindle-shaped, with a single nucleus - Nuclei form an irregular pattern - involuntary -functions in movement of substances in lumens of body

smooth muscle

Pressure cuff determines the amount of pressure required to stop the flow of blood through an artery; measures blood pressure

sphygmomanometer

- Contains many bony bars and plates, separated by irregular spaces - Found in ends of long bones - Though lighter, still designed for strength

spongy bone

flattened cells; cell shape of epithelial tissue

squamous epithelial

multiple cell layers in epithelial tissue (epithelial tissue classified by number of layers)

stratified epithelium

skin (epidermis); lining of nose, mouth, esophagus, anal canal, vagina; protects

stratified squamous

-known as cerebrovascular accident - An arteriole in the brain bursts or is blocked by an embolus - Lack of O2 to brain can cause paralysis or death because brain tissue dies - Warning signs include numbness in hands or face, difficulty speaking, and temporary blindness in an eye - Strokes more common with age

stroke

-region of skin Loose connective tissue Adipose tissue which stores fat Thermal insulation against heat loss or gain Energy storage

subcutaneous layer

-accessory organ of the skin Some open into hair follicles, others onto skin Assist in modifying body temperature by evaporating heat stored in the fluid

sweat glands

-Body membrane -Made of loose connective tissue -Line freely movable joints -Secrete synovial fluid

synovial membranes

-Blood that is oxygen-rich returns from the lungs and is collected in the right atrium. -Oxygen-rich blood is sent throughout the body except to the lungs. -Blood leaves the left ventricle, travels through the body and is returned to the heart

systemic circuit

disease that affects entire body

systemic disease

contraction of the heart muscle

systole

results from blood forced into the arteries during ventricular systole.

systolic pressure

-Cardiovascular system conducts blood to and away from capillaries -->Exchange of gases, nutrients, and wastes occurs -Tissue fluid, which bathes cells of the body, is refreshed by exchanges with blood -->Oxygen and nutrients move into tissue fluid from the blood -->Carbon dioxide and wastes move from tissue fluid into the blood

the transport system

ventral cavity; lungs and heart

thoracic cavity

forms an impermeable barrier between the cells because adjacent plasma membrane proteins actually join; in epithelial cells

tight junction

is composed of similarly specialized cells that perform a common function in the body.

tissue

Medical treatment for thromboembolism often includes the use of ______________________. - Converts plasminogen into plasmin to dissolve blood clots

tissue plasminogen activator (tPA)

-Recently, researchers have had success growing entire human bladders in the lab and implanting them into a limited number of patients. -Clinical trials of such replacement bladders are ongoing.

treatment for bladder and urethra disorders

Four chambers of the heart:

two atria and two ventricles

-organ of the urinary system -Small muscular tubes about 25 cm long and 5 mm in diameter -Conduct urine from kidney to bladder o Convey urine by peristalsis -Three-layered wall o Inner mucosa, smooth muscle, outer connective tissue

ureters

-organ of the urinary system -Small tube that leads from the urinary bladder to an external opening -Serves to remove urine from the body -Longer in males than females o Also transports semen in males

urethra

- organ of the urinary system -Stores urine until expelled from body -Has three openings o Two for the ureters, one for the urethra -Has expandable wall due to circular fiber and two layers of longitudinal muscle o Transitional epithelium of mucosa become thinner -Has two sphincter muscles to control the release of urine into the urethra

urinary bladder

• is triggered when the urinary bladder fills to 250 ml - Stretch receptors send signal to spinal cord - Motor nerve impulses cause sphincters to relax and bladder to contract, so that urination is possible • In older children and adults, the brain controls this reflex. • Urination/Micturition - Bladder fills to 250ml - Stretch receptors send signal to spinal cord - Motor nerve impulses cause sphincters to relax and bladder to contract

urination

One of the first signs of kidney damage is presence of albumin, white blood cells, and/or red blood cells in the ________.

urine

-Veins and venules take blood from capillary beds to the heart. -Venules drain blood from capillaries and then join to form a vein. -Vein walls are structured similarly to the walls of arteries (three layers). -Less smooth muscle and connective tissue in veins -Overall, the wall of a vein is thinner than that of an artery. -Unlike arteries and arterioles, blood flow in veins is not kept moving by the pumping of the heart. -Some veins have valves to prevent backflow of blood and direct blood towards the heart. -Especially the veins of the lower limbs -Blood flow in veins is primarily dependent on skeletal muscle contraction. -Damage to valves, due to aging or disease, may lead to blood pooling in the veins. - Varicose veins, hemorrhoids are caused by veins enlarging as blood pools and becomes visible at skin surface -Due to thinner walls, veins have a greater capacity to expand. - Serve as blood reservoir (70% of blood at any one time)

veins

type of blood vessel in the cardiovascular system; carry blood toward the heart; has an inner endothelium

veins

chamber of the heart; thick wall; pump blood to lungs and body

ventricle

-Causes uncoordinated contraction of the ventricles; emergency -Requires heart to be defibrillated by applying strong electrical current --> AED - automatic external defibrillator

ventricular fibrillation (VF)

dorsal cavity; made of the vertebrae; contains the spinal chord

vertebral canal

•At arterial end of capillary, hydrostatic pressure is higher so water moves _______, contributes to tissue fluids

water moves out

- Larger cells with a nucleus - Fight infection in different ways o By phagocytosis or adaptive immunity, which includes antibody production

white blood cells (leukocytes)

¥ differ from red blood cells. Ð Usually larger than red blood cells Ð Nucleated Ð Lack hemoglobin Ð 5,000 - 11,000 cells per mm3 of whole blood Ð Fight infection and provide immunity Divided based on structure: granular leukocytes and agranular leukocytes

white blood cells (leukocytes)

3. Regulation of acid-base balance

• Along with the respiratory system, the kidneys regulate the acid-base balance of the blood. • pH is kept at around 7.4. - Accomplished by excretion of H+ and reabsorption of bicarbonate (HCO3)

2. osmoregulation

• Maintenance of the proper balance of water and salt in the blood • Blood volume and pressure related to salt balance - Salts such as NaCl have the ability to cause osmosis. - The more salts in blood, the greater the blood volume. • Kidneys also regulate other ions, K+, HCO3, Ca2+

1. excretes metabolic wastes

• Most are nitrogenous - Urea (primary nitrogenous waste) o by-product of amino acid metabolism - made from ammonia released from amino acids - Ammonium - Creatinine o the breakdown product of creatinine phosphate - Uric acid o made from nucleotide breakdown

4. secretion of hormones

• Renin - leads to secretion of aldosterone (involved in reabsoption of Na+) • Erythropoietin - stimulates red blood cell production • Vitamin D activation - to promote calcium absorption