Biology Final Exam Study Guide

50%

achondroplasia is a form of dwarfism caused by a dominant allele. The homozygous dominant genotype causes death, so individuals who have this condition are all heterozygotes. If a person with achondroplasia mates with a person who does not have achondroplasia, what percentage of their children would be expected to have achondroplasia?

Hydrogenation

adds hydrogen,- converts unsaturated fats to saturated fats,- makes liquid fats solid at room temperature

uncontrolled growth

all evolving populations have the potential to produce more offspring than can be supported by the environment. Cancer cells, with their _____________________, clearly demonstrate such overproduction.

isotonic

an ___________ solution has an equal concentration of solute.

Science

an approach to understanding the natural world that is based on inquiry—a search for information, evidence, explanations, and answers to specific questions.

methanogens

A third group of Archaea are ________________, which live in anaerobic (oxygen-free) environments and give off methane as a waste product.

facilitated diffusion

Substances that do not cross membranes spontaneously, or otherwise cross very slowly, can be transported via proteins that act as corridors for specific molecules.

thylakoids

Suspended in the stroma are interconnected membranous sacs called ________

ABO blood groups

The ___________________________ in humans involve three alleles of a single gene.

alleles

The alternative versions of genes are called

two cells, each with the same amount of genetic material and the same genetic information

The cells that result from the mitotic cell cycle can be described as

bacteria

restriction enzymes are obtained from

bacilli

rod-shaped shape of prokaryote

experiments

scientific tests

recombinant DNA

DNA that includes nucleotides from two different sources

Uracil

Instead of the base thymine, RNA has a similar but distinct base called

education

A third defense against bacterial disease is

cohesion

this tendency of molecules of the same kind to stick together is called

codons

The instructions for the amino acid sequence of a polypeptide chain are written in DNA and RNA as a series of three-base words called

the DNA of host chromosomes

Viruses that cause cancer can become permanent residents in host cells by inserting their nucleic acid into

gel electrophoresis

cutting DNA with a particular restriction enzyme produces DNA fragments that can be separated by

solute

A _________ is a substance that is dissolved in a liquid solvent, such as the salt in salt water, and the resulting mixture is called a solution.

have two nuclei

A cell that completed the cell cycle without undergoing cytokinesis would

acid

A chemical compound that releases H+ to a solution is an

less dense

A chunk of ice floats because it is _____________ than the liquid water in which it is floating.

base

A compound that accepts H+ and removes them from solution is a

two sister chromatids

A duplicated chromosome consists of _______________________

oncogene

A gene that causes cancer is called an

proto-oncogene

A normal gene with the potential to become an oncogene is called a

The yellow allele is dominant to the green allele

A purebred plant that produces yellow seeds is crossed with a purebred plant that produces green seeds. The seeds of all of the offspring are yellow. Why?

law of segregation

A sperm or egg carries only one allele for each inherited character because the two alleles for a character segregate (separate) from each other during the production of gametes.

each new DNA double helix consists of one old DNA strand and one new DNA strand

After replication, ___________________

atomic number

All atoms of a particular element have the same unique number of protons. This number is the element's

heterozygous

An organism that has two different alleles for a gene is said to be ____________ for that gene.

homozygous

An organism that has two identical alleles for a gene is said to be ___________ for that gene.

extreme halophiles

Another group is the ______________________________ ("salt lovers"), Archaea that thrive in salty environments.

pathogens

Bacteria and other organisms that cause disease are called

Peptide bonds and polypeptides

Cells link amino acids together by dehydration reactions,- forming ___________and- creating long chains of amino acids called ________________.

ATP

Cells use molecules of ___ as the direct energy source for most of their work.

gene regulation

Cells with the same genetic information can develop into different types of cells through _________________, mechanisms that turn on certain genes while other genes remain turned off.

binding to an enzyme and disrupting its function.

Certain molecules inhibit a metabolic reaction by

tumor suppresor genes

Changes in genes whose products inhibit cell division are also involved in cancer. - These genes are called ___________________ genes because the proteins they encode normally help prevent uncontrolled cell growth.

ionic compounds

Compounds, such as table salt, that are held together by ionic bonds are called

origins of replication and replication "bubbles."

DNA replication begins on a double helix at specific sites, called _____________ and then proceeds in both directions, creating what are called ____________

substrate

Each enzyme recognizes a ___________, a certain reactant molecule.

a five-carbon sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogen-containing base.

Each nucleotide has three parts:

zygote

Every cell in your body was produced through successive rounds of mitosis starting from the ________, the original cell that formed after fusion of sperm and egg.

triplet code

Experiments have verified that the flow of information from gene to protein is based on a

a mutation must occur in the cell's DNA.

For a proto-oncogene to become an oncogene,

carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids

Four categories of large biological molecules are found in all living creatures:

dominant allele

If an organism has two different alleles for a gene, one allele determines the organism's appearance and is called the

40%

If guanine makes up 60% of the bases in a DNA double helix, what percent of the bases is adnenine?

saturated

If it has the maximum number of hydrogens, it is

unsaturated

If the carbon skeleton of a fatty acid has fewer than the maximum number of hydrogens at the double bond, it is

absorb and digest this sugar.

If you drink a milk shake, there will be a sudden rush of the sugar lactose. In response, E. coli will express three genes for enzymes that enable the bacterium to

incomplete dominance,

In ____________________________ F1 hybrids have an appearance between the parent phenotypes.

biofilm

In many natural environments, prokaryotes attach to surfaces in a highly organized colony called a _________. form on almost any type of surface, such as rocks, organic material (including living tissue), metal, and plastic.

concentration gradient

In passive transport, a substance diffuses down its ___________________ from where the substance is more concentrated to where it is less concentrated.

binary fission

Many prokaryotes can reproduce by dividing in half by _______________ and at very high rates if conditions are favorable. But few prokaryotic populations can sustain exponential growth.

carcinogens

Most cancers arise from mutations that are caused by ____________, cancer-causing agents found in the environment, including ultraviolet (UV) radiation and tobacco products.

enzymes

Most metabolic reactions require the assistance of _________, proteins that speed up chemical reactions without being consumed by the reaction.

frameshift mutations

Mutations involving the deletion or insertion of one or more nucleotides in a gene, called

needed by the cell

Natural selection has favored bacteria that express only the genes whose products are

nucleotides

Nucleic acids are polymers made from monomers called ___________.

61 and 3

Of the 64 triplets, ___ code for amino acids and _ are stop codons

prokaryotic decomposers

One example of bioremediation is the use of ________________________ to treat our sewage

extreme thermophiles

One group of Archaea, the ____________________ ("heat lovers"), live in very hot water

autotrophs

Organisms that generate their own organic matter from inorganic ingredients are called

the chemical energy of sugar and other organic molecules.

Photosynthesis is the conversion of light energy from the sun to

photoautotrophs

Plants and other organisms that do this by photosynthesis—_______________—are the producers for most ecosystems.

organic wastes and dead organisms

Prokaryotes also promote the breakdown of

convert proto-oncogenes to oncogenes and knock out tumor suppressor genes.

The development of a malignant tumor is accompanied by a gradual accumulation of mutations that

osmosis

The diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane is

polypeptide

The function of a DNA gene is to dictate the production of a

stroma

The inner membrane encloses a compartment filled with _______, a thick fluid.

gene expression

The overall process by which genetic information flows from genes to proteins is called

hydrogen bonds

The polarity of water results in weak electrical attractions, called _____________, between neighboring water molecules.

grana

The thylakoids are concentrated in stacks called

production of sperm and eggs

The type of cell division that produces two genetically identical daughter cells is important for all of the following functions EXCEPT ________.

induced fit

This interaction is called ___________, because the entry of the substrate induces the enzyme to change shape slightly, making the fit between the substrate and active site snugger.

pH scale

To describe the acidity of a solution, chemists use the ____________, a measure of the hydrogen ion (H+) concentration in a solution

The heterozygote expresses the phenotype of both homozygotes

What is the key to the recognition of codominance?

The phenotype of the heterozygote falls between the phenotypes of the homozygotes

What is the key to the recognition of incomplete dominance?

phenotype

What name is given to the collection of traits exhibited by an organism

RNA molecule

When a segment of DNA is transcribed, the result is an

DNA ligase

Which enzyme is used to bind DNA fragments together?

telophase

______ is a stage of mitosis

hydrogen

________ bond joins the bases of complimentary DNA strands

pine tree

a ______ is an autotroph

hypertonic

a ____________ solution has a higher concentration of solute,

hypotonic

a ______________ solution has a lower concentration of solute

theory

a comprehensive and well-substantiated explanation, much broader in scope than a hypothesis.

photon

a discrete packet of light

sex-linked gene

a gene located on a sex chromosome is called a

surface tension

a measure of how difficult it is to stretch or break the surface of a liquid

chlorophyll

a pigment (light-absorbing molecule) in the chloroplasts that plays a central role in converting solar energy to chemical energy.

trans fats

a type of unsaturated fat that is particularly bad for your health.

archaea

are abundant in many habitats, including places where few other organisms can survive

Ions

are atoms or molecules that are electrically charged as a result of gaining or losing electrons.

Endotoxins

are chemical components of the outer membrane of certain bacteria. Induce the same general symptoms: fever, aches, and sometimes a dangerous drop in blood pressure (septic shock).

Polysaccharides

are complex carbohydrates and are made of long chains of sugars-polymers of monosaccharides.

mitochondria

are descendants of smaller prokaryotes, as are the chloroplasts of plants and algae.

ionic bonds

are formed between oppositely charged ions.

Mitochondria

are found in almost all eukaryotic cells, - are the organelles in which cellular respiration takes place, and- produce ATP from the energy of food molecules.

nucleic acids

are macromolecules that - store information and- provide the instructions for building proteins.

proteins

are polymers of amino acid monomers,- account for more than 50% of the dry weight of most cells, and- are instrumental in almost everything cells do.

exotoxins

are proteins that bacterial cells secrete into their environment.

stomata

are tiny pores in leaves where carbon dioxide enters and oxygen exits.

Nonsense mutations

change an amino acid codon into a stop codon.

enzyme inhibitors

disrupts the function of an enzyme by altering its shape.

eukaryotes

especially multicellular ones, have more sophisticated mechanisms than bacteria for regulating the expression of their genes.

variables

factors that change in an experiment.

covalent bond

forms when two atoms share one or more pairs of electrons. Strongest of the various bonds

genotype

genetic makeup of an organism

active site

has a shape and chemistry that fits the substrate molecule.

experimental group

has or receives the specific factor being tested.

antibiotics

have been discovered that can cure most bacterial diseases. However, resistance to widely used ___________ has evolved in many of these pathogens.

isotopes

have the same number of protons and behave identically in chemical reactions, but they have different numbers of neutrons.

single RNA strand with the sequence CUGAAU

if a strand of DNA has the sequence of GACTTA, transcription will result in

water

in what liquid is cohesion the strongest

Carbohydrates

include sugars and polymers of sugar.

disrupting our microbial communities may

increase our susceptibility to infectious diseases, - predispose us to certain cancers, and - contribute to conditions such as asthma and other allergies, irritable bowel syndrome, Crohn's disease, and autism.

Missense mutations

involve a single nucleotide and change the amino acid coding.

symbiosis

is a close association between organisms of two or more species

Starch

is a familiar example of a polysaccharide,- consists of long strings of glucose monomers, and- is used by plant cells to store energy.

lysosome

is a membrane-enclosed sac of digestive enzymes found in animal cells.

hypothesis

is a proposed explanation for a set of observations. Must be testable and falsifiable

neutron

is electrically neutral.

Sanitation

is generally the most effective way to prevent bacterial disease

electron

is negatively charged.

radioactive isotope

is one in which the nucleus decays spontaneously.

controlled experiment

is one that compares two or more groups that differ only in one variable that the experiment is designed to test.

proton

is positively charged.

passive transport

is the diffusion of a substance across a membrane without the input of energy.

Activation energy

is the energy that must be invested to start a reaction, by- activating the reactants and- triggering a chemical reaction

Cellulose

is the most abundant organic compound on Earth,- forms cable-like fibrils in the tough walls that enclose plant cells, and- cannot be broken by any enzyme produced by animals.

diffusion

is the movement of molecules to spread out evenly into the available space.

dependent variable

is the response, output, or effect under investigation that is used to judge the outcome of the experiment

cancer

is the second leading cause of death (after heart disease) in most industrialized countries.

genetic code

is the set of rules that convert a nucleotide sequence in RNA to an amino acid sequence.

Metabolism

is the total of all chemical reactions in an organism.

Bioremediation

is the use of organisms to remove pollutants from water, air, or soil.

glycogen

is used by animal cells to store energy and- is broken down to release glucose when you need energy.

independent variable

is what is being manipulated by the researchers as a potential cause—in this case, the object under investigation

prokaryotic cells

lack a membrane-enclosed nucleus,- lack other membrane-enclosed organelles,- typically have cell walls exterior to their plasma membranes, and- display a remarkable range of diversity.

control group

lacks or does not receive the specific factor being tested.

smooth ER

lacks surface ribosomes,- produces lipids, including steroids, and- helps liver cells detoxify circulating drugs.

Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya

life is organized into three domains

prokaryotes

lived and evolved all alone on Earth for about 2 billion years,- are found wherever there is life have a collective biomass that is at least ten times that of all eukaryotes,- thrive in habitats too cold, too hot, too salty, too acidic, or too alkaline for any eukaryote, and- cause about half of all human diseases.

buffers

minimize changes in pH.

polar

molecule with an uneven distribution of charge

frameshift mutation

mutations involving the deletion or insertion of one or more nucleotides in a gene results in a

human gene therapy

normal versions of human genes are transferred to patients who carry a mutated allele

Cancer

occurs when cells escape from the control mechanisms that normally limit their growth and division.

group of genes operating together

operon

Microorganisms

primarily live in your skin, mouth, and nasal passages, and digestive and urogenital tracts and- weigh between 2 and 5 pounds.

cocci

spherical shape of prokaryote

polymerase chain reaction (PCR)

technique by which a specific segment of DNA can be amplified by targeting and copying it quickly and precisely

mutations

that enhance survival of malignant cancer cells are passed on to that cell's descendants. In short, a tumor evolves.

metabolism

the chemical reactions that transform energy and matter within all cells

microbiota

the community of microorganisms that live in and on our bodies, which help to- supply essential vitamins,- allow us to extract nutrition from food molecules that we cannot otherwise digest,- decompose dead skin cells, and- guard against disease-causing intruders.

prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase

the correct sequence of stages of mitosis is

DNA polymerases

the enzymes that make the covalent bonds between the nucleotides of a new DNA strand and help repair DNA that is damaged by toxic chemicals or high-energy radiation.

thylakoid membrane

the light reactions of photosynthesis take place in the ________________________

transcription

the manufacture of a strand of RNA complementary to a strand of DNA

recessive allele

the other allele has no noticeable effect on the organism's appearance and is called the

nitrogen fixation

the process of converting atmospheric nitrogen (N2) into a form usable by plants.

gene cloning

the process of making multiple copies of a gene by inserting it into a host genome and culturing the host is an example of

atom

the smallest unit of matter that still retains the properties of an element.

mass number

the sum of the number of protons and neutrons in its nucleus.

transcription

the transfer of genetic information from DNA into an RNA molecule

translation

the transfer of information from RNA into a polypeptide

endospores

thick-coated, protective cells produced within the prokaryotic cell that can survive trauma and extreme temperatures.

Bacteria and Archaea.

two major branches of prokaryotic evolution

Chloroplasts

unique to the photosynthetic cells of plants and algae and- the organelles that perform photosynthesis.

calvin cycle

uses the products of the light reactions to power the production of sugar from carbon dioxide.

6 CO2 + 6 H2O --> C6H12O6 + 6 O2

what is the equation of photosynthesis?

isolation of a plasmid from a bacterium

what is the first step in the production of a recombinant plasmid

gas exchange

what is the function of the stomata

02

which molecule is produced during the light reactions of photosynthesis

Golgi apparatus

works in partnership with the ER and- receives, refines, stores, and distributes chemical products of the cell.