Biology Final Exam Study Guide
50%
achondroplasia is a form of dwarfism caused by a dominant allele. The homozygous dominant genotype causes death, so individuals who have this condition are all heterozygotes. If a person with achondroplasia mates with a person who does not have achondroplasia, what percentage of their children would be expected to have achondroplasia?
Hydrogenation
adds hydrogen,- converts unsaturated fats to saturated fats,- makes liquid fats solid at room temperature
uncontrolled growth
all evolving populations have the potential to produce more offspring than can be supported by the environment. Cancer cells, with their _____________________, clearly demonstrate such overproduction.
isotonic
an ___________ solution has an equal concentration of solute.
Science
an approach to understanding the natural world that is based on inquiry—a search for information, evidence, explanations, and answers to specific questions.
methanogens
A third group of Archaea are ________________, which live in anaerobic (oxygen-free) environments and give off methane as a waste product.
facilitated diffusion
Substances that do not cross membranes spontaneously, or otherwise cross very slowly, can be transported via proteins that act as corridors for specific molecules.
thylakoids
Suspended in the stroma are interconnected membranous sacs called ________
ABO blood groups
The ___________________________ in humans involve three alleles of a single gene.
alleles
The alternative versions of genes are called
two cells, each with the same amount of genetic material and the same genetic information
The cells that result from the mitotic cell cycle can be described as
bacteria
restriction enzymes are obtained from
bacilli
rod-shaped shape of prokaryote
experiments
scientific tests
recombinant DNA
DNA that includes nucleotides from two different sources
Uracil
Instead of the base thymine, RNA has a similar but distinct base called
education
A third defense against bacterial disease is
cohesion
this tendency of molecules of the same kind to stick together is called
codons
The instructions for the amino acid sequence of a polypeptide chain are written in DNA and RNA as a series of three-base words called
the DNA of host chromosomes
Viruses that cause cancer can become permanent residents in host cells by inserting their nucleic acid into
gel electrophoresis
cutting DNA with a particular restriction enzyme produces DNA fragments that can be separated by
solute
A _________ is a substance that is dissolved in a liquid solvent, such as the salt in salt water, and the resulting mixture is called a solution.
have two nuclei
A cell that completed the cell cycle without undergoing cytokinesis would
acid
A chemical compound that releases H+ to a solution is an
less dense
A chunk of ice floats because it is _____________ than the liquid water in which it is floating.
base
A compound that accepts H+ and removes them from solution is a
two sister chromatids
A duplicated chromosome consists of _______________________
oncogene
A gene that causes cancer is called an
proto-oncogene
A normal gene with the potential to become an oncogene is called a
The yellow allele is dominant to the green allele
A purebred plant that produces yellow seeds is crossed with a purebred plant that produces green seeds. The seeds of all of the offspring are yellow. Why?
law of segregation
A sperm or egg carries only one allele for each inherited character because the two alleles for a character segregate (separate) from each other during the production of gametes.
each new DNA double helix consists of one old DNA strand and one new DNA strand
After replication, ___________________
atomic number
All atoms of a particular element have the same unique number of protons. This number is the element's
heterozygous
An organism that has two different alleles for a gene is said to be ____________ for that gene.
homozygous
An organism that has two identical alleles for a gene is said to be ___________ for that gene.
extreme halophiles
Another group is the ______________________________ ("salt lovers"), Archaea that thrive in salty environments.
pathogens
Bacteria and other organisms that cause disease are called
Peptide bonds and polypeptides
Cells link amino acids together by dehydration reactions,- forming ___________and- creating long chains of amino acids called ________________.
ATP
Cells use molecules of ___ as the direct energy source for most of their work.
gene regulation
Cells with the same genetic information can develop into different types of cells through _________________, mechanisms that turn on certain genes while other genes remain turned off.
binding to an enzyme and disrupting its function.
Certain molecules inhibit a metabolic reaction by
tumor suppresor genes
Changes in genes whose products inhibit cell division are also involved in cancer. - These genes are called ___________________ genes because the proteins they encode normally help prevent uncontrolled cell growth.
ionic compounds
Compounds, such as table salt, that are held together by ionic bonds are called
origins of replication and replication "bubbles."
DNA replication begins on a double helix at specific sites, called _____________ and then proceeds in both directions, creating what are called ____________
substrate
Each enzyme recognizes a ___________, a certain reactant molecule.
a five-carbon sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogen-containing base.
Each nucleotide has three parts:
zygote
Every cell in your body was produced through successive rounds of mitosis starting from the ________, the original cell that formed after fusion of sperm and egg.
triplet code
Experiments have verified that the flow of information from gene to protein is based on a
a mutation must occur in the cell's DNA.
For a proto-oncogene to become an oncogene,
carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids
Four categories of large biological molecules are found in all living creatures:
dominant allele
If an organism has two different alleles for a gene, one allele determines the organism's appearance and is called the
40%
If guanine makes up 60% of the bases in a DNA double helix, what percent of the bases is adnenine?
saturated
If it has the maximum number of hydrogens, it is
unsaturated
If the carbon skeleton of a fatty acid has fewer than the maximum number of hydrogens at the double bond, it is
absorb and digest this sugar.
If you drink a milk shake, there will be a sudden rush of the sugar lactose. In response, E. coli will express three genes for enzymes that enable the bacterium to
incomplete dominance,
In ____________________________ F1 hybrids have an appearance between the parent phenotypes.
biofilm
In many natural environments, prokaryotes attach to surfaces in a highly organized colony called a _________. form on almost any type of surface, such as rocks, organic material (including living tissue), metal, and plastic.
concentration gradient
In passive transport, a substance diffuses down its ___________________ from where the substance is more concentrated to where it is less concentrated.
binary fission
Many prokaryotes can reproduce by dividing in half by _______________ and at very high rates if conditions are favorable. But few prokaryotic populations can sustain exponential growth.
carcinogens
Most cancers arise from mutations that are caused by ____________, cancer-causing agents found in the environment, including ultraviolet (UV) radiation and tobacco products.
enzymes
Most metabolic reactions require the assistance of _________, proteins that speed up chemical reactions without being consumed by the reaction.
frameshift mutations
Mutations involving the deletion or insertion of one or more nucleotides in a gene, called
needed by the cell
Natural selection has favored bacteria that express only the genes whose products are
nucleotides
Nucleic acids are polymers made from monomers called ___________.
61 and 3
Of the 64 triplets, ___ code for amino acids and _ are stop codons
prokaryotic decomposers
One example of bioremediation is the use of ________________________ to treat our sewage
extreme thermophiles
One group of Archaea, the ____________________ ("heat lovers"), live in very hot water
autotrophs
Organisms that generate their own organic matter from inorganic ingredients are called
the chemical energy of sugar and other organic molecules.
Photosynthesis is the conversion of light energy from the sun to
photoautotrophs
Plants and other organisms that do this by photosynthesis—_______________—are the producers for most ecosystems.
organic wastes and dead organisms
Prokaryotes also promote the breakdown of
convert proto-oncogenes to oncogenes and knock out tumor suppressor genes.
The development of a malignant tumor is accompanied by a gradual accumulation of mutations that
osmosis
The diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane is
polypeptide
The function of a DNA gene is to dictate the production of a
stroma
The inner membrane encloses a compartment filled with _______, a thick fluid.
gene expression
The overall process by which genetic information flows from genes to proteins is called
hydrogen bonds
The polarity of water results in weak electrical attractions, called _____________, between neighboring water molecules.
grana
The thylakoids are concentrated in stacks called
production of sperm and eggs
The type of cell division that produces two genetically identical daughter cells is important for all of the following functions EXCEPT ________.
induced fit
This interaction is called ___________, because the entry of the substrate induces the enzyme to change shape slightly, making the fit between the substrate and active site snugger.
pH scale
To describe the acidity of a solution, chemists use the ____________, a measure of the hydrogen ion (H+) concentration in a solution
The heterozygote expresses the phenotype of both homozygotes
What is the key to the recognition of codominance?
The phenotype of the heterozygote falls between the phenotypes of the homozygotes
What is the key to the recognition of incomplete dominance?
phenotype
What name is given to the collection of traits exhibited by an organism
RNA molecule
When a segment of DNA is transcribed, the result is an
DNA ligase
Which enzyme is used to bind DNA fragments together?
telophase
______ is a stage of mitosis
hydrogen
________ bond joins the bases of complimentary DNA strands
pine tree
a ______ is an autotroph
hypertonic
a ____________ solution has a higher concentration of solute,
hypotonic
a ______________ solution has a lower concentration of solute
theory
a comprehensive and well-substantiated explanation, much broader in scope than a hypothesis.
photon
a discrete packet of light
sex-linked gene
a gene located on a sex chromosome is called a
surface tension
a measure of how difficult it is to stretch or break the surface of a liquid
chlorophyll
a pigment (light-absorbing molecule) in the chloroplasts that plays a central role in converting solar energy to chemical energy.
trans fats
a type of unsaturated fat that is particularly bad for your health.
archaea
are abundant in many habitats, including places where few other organisms can survive
Ions
are atoms or molecules that are electrically charged as a result of gaining or losing electrons.
Endotoxins
are chemical components of the outer membrane of certain bacteria. Induce the same general symptoms: fever, aches, and sometimes a dangerous drop in blood pressure (septic shock).
Polysaccharides
are complex carbohydrates and are made of long chains of sugars-polymers of monosaccharides.
mitochondria
are descendants of smaller prokaryotes, as are the chloroplasts of plants and algae.
ionic bonds
are formed between oppositely charged ions.
Mitochondria
are found in almost all eukaryotic cells, - are the organelles in which cellular respiration takes place, and- produce ATP from the energy of food molecules.
nucleic acids
are macromolecules that - store information and- provide the instructions for building proteins.
proteins
are polymers of amino acid monomers,- account for more than 50% of the dry weight of most cells, and- are instrumental in almost everything cells do.
exotoxins
are proteins that bacterial cells secrete into their environment.
stomata
are tiny pores in leaves where carbon dioxide enters and oxygen exits.
Nonsense mutations
change an amino acid codon into a stop codon.
enzyme inhibitors
disrupts the function of an enzyme by altering its shape.
eukaryotes
especially multicellular ones, have more sophisticated mechanisms than bacteria for regulating the expression of their genes.
variables
factors that change in an experiment.
covalent bond
forms when two atoms share one or more pairs of electrons. Strongest of the various bonds
genotype
genetic makeup of an organism
active site
has a shape and chemistry that fits the substrate molecule.
experimental group
has or receives the specific factor being tested.
antibiotics
have been discovered that can cure most bacterial diseases. However, resistance to widely used ___________ has evolved in many of these pathogens.
isotopes
have the same number of protons and behave identically in chemical reactions, but they have different numbers of neutrons.
single RNA strand with the sequence CUGAAU
if a strand of DNA has the sequence of GACTTA, transcription will result in
water
in what liquid is cohesion the strongest
Carbohydrates
include sugars and polymers of sugar.
disrupting our microbial communities may
increase our susceptibility to infectious diseases, - predispose us to certain cancers, and - contribute to conditions such as asthma and other allergies, irritable bowel syndrome, Crohn's disease, and autism.
Missense mutations
involve a single nucleotide and change the amino acid coding.
symbiosis
is a close association between organisms of two or more species
Starch
is a familiar example of a polysaccharide,- consists of long strings of glucose monomers, and- is used by plant cells to store energy.
lysosome
is a membrane-enclosed sac of digestive enzymes found in animal cells.
hypothesis
is a proposed explanation for a set of observations. Must be testable and falsifiable
neutron
is electrically neutral.
Sanitation
is generally the most effective way to prevent bacterial disease
electron
is negatively charged.
radioactive isotope
is one in which the nucleus decays spontaneously.
controlled experiment
is one that compares two or more groups that differ only in one variable that the experiment is designed to test.
proton
is positively charged.
passive transport
is the diffusion of a substance across a membrane without the input of energy.
Activation energy
is the energy that must be invested to start a reaction, by- activating the reactants and- triggering a chemical reaction
Cellulose
is the most abundant organic compound on Earth,- forms cable-like fibrils in the tough walls that enclose plant cells, and- cannot be broken by any enzyme produced by animals.
diffusion
is the movement of molecules to spread out evenly into the available space.
dependent variable
is the response, output, or effect under investigation that is used to judge the outcome of the experiment
cancer
is the second leading cause of death (after heart disease) in most industrialized countries.
genetic code
is the set of rules that convert a nucleotide sequence in RNA to an amino acid sequence.
Metabolism
is the total of all chemical reactions in an organism.
Bioremediation
is the use of organisms to remove pollutants from water, air, or soil.
glycogen
is used by animal cells to store energy and- is broken down to release glucose when you need energy.
independent variable
is what is being manipulated by the researchers as a potential cause—in this case, the object under investigation
prokaryotic cells
lack a membrane-enclosed nucleus,- lack other membrane-enclosed organelles,- typically have cell walls exterior to their plasma membranes, and- display a remarkable range of diversity.
control group
lacks or does not receive the specific factor being tested.
smooth ER
lacks surface ribosomes,- produces lipids, including steroids, and- helps liver cells detoxify circulating drugs.
Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya
life is organized into three domains
prokaryotes
lived and evolved all alone on Earth for about 2 billion years,- are found wherever there is life have a collective biomass that is at least ten times that of all eukaryotes,- thrive in habitats too cold, too hot, too salty, too acidic, or too alkaline for any eukaryote, and- cause about half of all human diseases.
buffers
minimize changes in pH.
polar
molecule with an uneven distribution of charge
frameshift mutation
mutations involving the deletion or insertion of one or more nucleotides in a gene results in a
human gene therapy
normal versions of human genes are transferred to patients who carry a mutated allele
Cancer
occurs when cells escape from the control mechanisms that normally limit their growth and division.
group of genes operating together
operon
Microorganisms
primarily live in your skin, mouth, and nasal passages, and digestive and urogenital tracts and- weigh between 2 and 5 pounds.
cocci
spherical shape of prokaryote
polymerase chain reaction (PCR)
technique by which a specific segment of DNA can be amplified by targeting and copying it quickly and precisely
mutations
that enhance survival of malignant cancer cells are passed on to that cell's descendants. In short, a tumor evolves.
metabolism
the chemical reactions that transform energy and matter within all cells
microbiota
the community of microorganisms that live in and on our bodies, which help to- supply essential vitamins,- allow us to extract nutrition from food molecules that we cannot otherwise digest,- decompose dead skin cells, and- guard against disease-causing intruders.
prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase
the correct sequence of stages of mitosis is
DNA polymerases
the enzymes that make the covalent bonds between the nucleotides of a new DNA strand and help repair DNA that is damaged by toxic chemicals or high-energy radiation.
thylakoid membrane
the light reactions of photosynthesis take place in the ________________________
transcription
the manufacture of a strand of RNA complementary to a strand of DNA
recessive allele
the other allele has no noticeable effect on the organism's appearance and is called the
nitrogen fixation
the process of converting atmospheric nitrogen (N2) into a form usable by plants.
gene cloning
the process of making multiple copies of a gene by inserting it into a host genome and culturing the host is an example of
atom
the smallest unit of matter that still retains the properties of an element.
mass number
the sum of the number of protons and neutrons in its nucleus.
transcription
the transfer of genetic information from DNA into an RNA molecule
translation
the transfer of information from RNA into a polypeptide
endospores
thick-coated, protective cells produced within the prokaryotic cell that can survive trauma and extreme temperatures.
Bacteria and Archaea.
two major branches of prokaryotic evolution
Chloroplasts
unique to the photosynthetic cells of plants and algae and- the organelles that perform photosynthesis.
calvin cycle
uses the products of the light reactions to power the production of sugar from carbon dioxide.
6 CO2 + 6 H2O --> C6H12O6 + 6 O2
what is the equation of photosynthesis?
isolation of a plasmid from a bacterium
what is the first step in the production of a recombinant plasmid
gas exchange
what is the function of the stomata
02
which molecule is produced during the light reactions of photosynthesis
Golgi apparatus
works in partnership with the ER and- receives, refines, stores, and distributes chemical products of the cell.
