Biology Final Review

Amphibian Life Cycle

"Both Ways of Life" -*Larval* organisms adapted to aquatic life •Gills, lateral line system, finned tail for swimming -*Adult* develops legs, lungs, external eardrums, and carnivore's digestive system •Lose gills, lateral line, and tail in most -Heavily rely on water for reproduction, respiration, feeding, etc. as adults •*Pulomocutaneous circulation and respiration*

*Coronoa*

"Crown" of cilia create water current for feeding

Enterobius Vermicularis Infection

"pinworm" Occurs in school-age children. -Adult worms live in intestine (cecum and appendix) and female migrates out through rectum to deposit eggs causing perianal pruritis. -When itched, the eggs can be spread to others or reinfect the host.

Predatory Fungi

*Have looped hyphae used as snares*

Phylum Basidiomycota (club fungi)

-Basidiocarp -Basidium -Basidiospores

Green Algae and Land Plant Synapomorphies

1. *Retain Eggs in parental organism.* 2. Posses *Plasmodesmata that connect cytoplasm of adjacent cells*. 3. *Phragmoplasts used during mitosis and cytokinesis.* 4. Molecular data suggests monophyly, *Charaphytes are most closely related group.*

Seedless Vascular Plant Characteristics

1. Branched, diploid sporophytes that are independent of gametophyte for nutrition; *Sporophyte is DOMINANT.*; Branching allowed for more *spore production*. 2. Evolution of true roots (Vascular Tissue) 3. Evolution of true leaves (Vascular Tissue)

Periods of the Paleozoic

1. Cambrian 2. Ordovician 3. Silurian 4. Devonian 5. Carboniferous 6. Permian

Hierarchy of classification

1. Domain 2. Kingdom 3. Phylum 4. Class 5. Order 6. Family 7. Genus 8. Species

*Operculum*

A protective flap that covers the gills of fishes

*Bark*

All tissue external to the vascular cambium. -Cork, Cork cambium, and secondary phloem.

Amoebozoans (Unikonta)

Amoebas that have lobe or tube shaped pseudopodia rather than thread like seen in Rhizarians. 3 Groups: Loboseans Slime Molds (two kinds)

*Hominins*

Ancestors to humans, date back to 6.5 Million years before present.

Positive Interactions (trophic or non-trophic)

At least one species benefits from the interaction and none are harmed. -Mutualism (+/+): symbiotic interaction where both species benefit from the interaction -Commensalism (+/0): symbiotic interaction where one participant benefits and the other is unaffected

*Apical Bud*

At the Tip of the stem. -Most growth concentrated here. -Grows more quickly because apical dominance inhibits growth of axillary buds.

*Apical Meristems* (Primary Growth)

At the tips of roots and shoots, responsible for lengthening growth also known as primary growth.

*Closed Circulation*

Blood is contained within a continuous systems of vessels and pumped by a heart

*Veins*

Bundles of vascular tissue that vary greatly in different types of leaves. -Parallel (monocots) vs. Branched (eudicots)

Cypsis

Camouflage that makes prey difficult to see. (avoiding detection)

Abiotic Factor

Chemical and physical properties of an environment. -Sunlight -Soil Type -Rainfall -Temperature

Tree of Life

Darwin thought all organisms had a common ancestor that lived in the past

Glaucophytes

Freshwater species with chloroplast that contains peptidoglycan (prokaryote) -Group that shares chloroplast but are NOT PLANTS.

*Animal Body Plans*

General structure of an animal, the arrangement of its organ systems, and the integrated functioning of its parts •Features include: 1)symmetry 2)body cavities 3)segmentation 4)presence and function of appendages

non trophic interactions

No feeding involved

*Ecdysis* (Ecdysozoans)

Process of shedding -also known as "Molting"

Wet-Nosed Primates (1/2 Extant Primates)

Strepsirrhines •Lemurs, lorises, and galagos -Restricted to Africa, Madagascar, and tropical Asia -Arboreal and nocturnal (except lemurs of Madagascar)

Gram Stain Process

Technique used to classify bacteria into two groups based on cell wall. 1. Crystal Violet Dye 2. Iodine 3. Rinsed in Alcohol 4. Red-Dye Solution (SAFRANIN) -Gram+ dyed PURPLE -Gram- dyed PINK/RED

Isopods (Crustacean Diversity) [Phylum Arthropoda]

Terrestrial, freshwater and marine-Pill bugs in moist terrestrial habitats

Saprobes

That digest dead and decaying material

*Deuterostomes* (Tripoblastic Development)

The blastopore forms the anus of the digestive tract.

*Protostomes* (Tripoblastic Development)

The blastopore forms the mouth of the digestive tract.

Fitness (biology)

The contribution of a genotype or phenotype to the genetic composition of subsequent generations

*Periderm*

The protective coat that replaces the epidermis in plants during secondary growth, formed of the cork and cork cambium.

*Mandibles* (Myriapods)

Three pairs of appendages modified as mouthparts

*Root Cap*

Tip of root is covered so that it protects delicate apical meristem from damage as it pushes through soil. -Also secretes lubrication plolysaccharide.

*Epidermis*

Top layer composed of tightly packed cells covered by a waxy cuticle

horizontal (or lateral) gene transfer

Transfer of genes from one species to another, common among Bacteria and Archaea.

*Pollination*

Transfer pollen to the part of a seed that contains the ovules.

Primary Producer

autotrophs that receive solar energy and convert it to chemical energy (photosynthetic species).

niche (in biology)

combined features of a particular animals habitat or environment -Set of physical and biological conditions a species requires to grow, reproduce, and survive

Ernst Mayr's biological species concept

does not apply to organisms that reproduce asexually.

Sapwood

in a woody stem, the layer of secondary phloem that surrounds the heartwood; usually active in fluid transport

*polyp*

is sessile, cylindrical forms that adhere to a substrate; digestive opening oriented upward

*Fruits*

mature ovary and other portions of plant surrounding seeds

*Carpel*

modified leaf of angiosperm that contains one or more ovules

Gene Flow (Microevolution)

movement of individuals Immigrating (INTO) and Emigrating(OUT) of a population; could lead to having species stay the same or could create 2 brand new species

amensalism (-/0) non-trophic

one participant is harmed and the other is unaffected. -A herd of elephants move through the savannah and crush plants (harm) while the elephants are unaffected

Predation (+/-) trophic

one species (predator) kills and eats all or part of the other (prey). 3 versions of predations: -Carnivory -Herbivory -Parasitism

Genetic Recombinant

organism that possesses DNA from two different organismal sources. -Transformation, Transduction, and Conjugation

*Parapodia*

pair of paddle- or ridge-like appendages used in locomotion

*Parthenogenetic*

population exists entirely of females that produce more females from unfertilized eggs

*Stamens*

produce microspores that develop into pollen grains containing male gametophytes

Assimilation efficiency

proportion of ingested biomass that consumers assimilate by digestion

*Filament*

stalk that supports the anther

*Flowers*

structure specialized for sexual reproduction

Ecosystem

the sum of all the organisms living in a given area and the abiotic factors with which they interact. -Abiotic Factor; chemical and physical properties of an environment -Ecosystem ecology studies interactions between living organisms and 2 main factors 1. Energy 2. Nutrients

*Blade*

thin, flattened section of a plant leaf that collects sunlight

*Root Hairs*

tiny hair-like extensions that increase the surface area of the root allowing it to absorbs more water and nurtients.

Onychophorans (Minor Relatives to Arthropods)

velvet worms; unjointed appendages, hydrostatic skeleton

Tardigrades (Minor Relatives to Arthropods)

water bears; fleshy, unjointed appendages; hydrostatic skeleton; lack circulatory and respiratory systems; can go dormant when environment gets poor

*Incomplete Metamorphosis*

young resemble adults, smaller, not proportional, and lack wings -Series of molts brings juvenile (nymph) into adulthood

Origin of Land Plants

~1BYBP when a *cyanobacterium was engulfed by* an early *eukaryote* and *became a chloroplast*. -*Primary Endosymbiosis* led to photosynthetic eukaryotes.

Tiktaalik (Tetrapod Evolution)

(Blank) Skeleton shows many early tetrapod characters: -*Lungs, bony limbs with similar skeletal pattern to tetrapods, ribs, neck, shoulder bones* •Likely couldn't walk on land but could prop itself up in water using fins

Appendages

(Blank) aid in *movement* and *further specialization*. •Ability to move is a hallmark trait among many animals and appendages allow it -Cilia, tentacles, tube feet, jointed appendages, wings •Many appendages serve other purposes beyond movement -Sensory, defense, feeding, reproduction

Dikarya (Basidiomycetes and Ascomycetes)

*In the remaining two phyla, Karyogamy occurs much longer after plasmogamy than in other fungi.* -2 different haploid nuclei coexist and independently divide within each cell of the septate hyphae. (Dikaryon or Dikaryotic) -Dikaryon eventually produces complex fruiting body (n+n) where karyogamy occurs in specialized cells.

*Megaphylls*

*Larger with highly branched vascular system.* -In *Monilophytes*

*Sporophyll*

*Leaf that has specialized to house sporangia.*

*Rhizoids*

*Long, tubular single cells used only for anchoring....no water/nutrient transport.

*Vascular Tissue System*

*Long-distance transport of materials between roots and shoots.* -Xylem -Phloem -Stele

Strobilus (VT)

*Lycophyte and Gymnosperm sporophylls modified into a cone-like structure* -Pinecones

*Leaves*

*Main photosynthetic organ for a plant.*

Pathogenic Fungi

*Mainly infect people with compromised immune systems.* -Ex. AIDS patients commonly struggle with mycoses (infection from fungi) -Ringworm & Athlete's Foot

*Hyphae*

*Microscopic or very small filaments that grow through soil.* -Form a mycelium

Phylum Marchantiophyta (Liverworts)

*Most have elevated gametophytes that resemble miniature trees (marchantia)* -Very small sporophytes -Some "Thalloid" and others "Leafy" -Some reproduce asexually via gemmae, clusters of cells that can sprout a new plant.

*Sporophyte Generation*

*Multicellular DIPLOID FORM that results from union of GAMETES; produces haploid spores by MEIOSIS that germinate into gametophytes.* -Generation of Land Plants

*Sporangia*

*Multicellular organs that contain spores walled with sporopollenin to prevent drying.* -1 of 7 traits that allowed plants to move onto land

*Gametangia*

*Multicellular organs that enclose and produce a plants gametes and keep them from drying out.* -1 of 7 traits that allowed plants to move onto land

*Gametophyte Generation*

*Multicellular, haploid generations that produces HAPLOID GAMETES by MITOSIS.* -Two haploid gametes unite (syngamy or fertilization) to generate a diploid sporophyte. -Generation of Land Plants

Mutualistic Relationship

*Mycorrhizal relationship between fungi and land plants allows for collection of water in terrestrial environments.* -Fungi give the plant water and the Plant gives the fungi nutrients. -1 of 7 traits that allowed plants to move onto land

Retention of embryo within parental tissue (land Plants)

*One autapomorphy that seperates land plants from algal relatives is their (Blank).* -Called "Embryophytes"

Homosporous (SVPS and VT)

*One type of sporangium that produces one spore; spore develops into bisexual gametophyte (early SVP condition)*

*Roots*

*Organ that anchors vascular plants in soil, absorbs minerals /water and stores carbohydrates.*

*Stems*

*Organ that raises or separates leaves, exposing them to sunlight.*

*Dermal Tissue System*

*Outer protective covering.* -1st line of defense against damage and pathogens. -Non-woody: 1 tissue called Epidermis composed of tightly packed cells covered by a waxy cuticle. -Woody: epidermis replaced by more complex periderm in old stems and roots.

*Opisthokont Protists* (Relatives of Fungi)

*Paleontological and DNA evidence both indicate that fungi evolved from an aquatic, single-celled, flagellated protist.* -Group called *NUCLEARIIDS* hypothesized as closests relatives to fungi. -In a monophyletic clade know as the (blank); Includes fungi, animals, and the protistan relatives of each.

Movement to Land

*Plants moved to land ~500MYBP and made terrestrial life possible for fungi and animals.* -290,000 Known Species -Referred to as land plants though *many have moved back to water*.

*Marsupials* (1/3 Extant Mammals)

*Pouched mammals* with short gestation where development completes in pouch. •*Nipples* that secrete milk from mammary glands •Embryo develops in uterus that attaches to parent via a *placenta* •Marsupials give birth to *underdeveloped juvenile* that crawls to pouch, latches onto nipple, and completes development

Natural Selection

*Process in which individuals that have certain inherited traits tend to survive and reproduce at higher rates than other individuals because of those traits* -Selective Pressure -Gene Variation -Fitness (biology)

*Megaspore*

*Produced in megasporangium on a megasporophyll; develops into female gametophyte.*

*Microspore*

*Produced in microsporangium on a microsphorphyll; develops into male gametophyte.*

Pigments

*Protection against mutagenic effects of ultraviolet radiation in terrestrial environments.* -1 of 7 traits that allowed plants to move onto land

*Cork Cambium*

*Replaces epidermis with thicker, tougher, wax-impregnated periderm.* -Protect stem from water loss and invasion by insects, fungi, and bacteria. -Cork cells deposit waxy hydrophobic material, suberin, that toughen and kill cork cells; becomes layer of watertight protection against damage and pathogens.

*Absorptive Heterotrophs*

*Secrete digestive enzymes outside the body to break down large organic molecules; smaller organic molecules absorbed through cell membrane.*

*Stomata*

*Small openings in leaves that OPEN and CLOSE to allow GAS EXCHANGE and WATER LOSS.* -1 of 7 traits that allowed plants to move onto land

*Protonema*

*Spores from sporophyte germinate into a one-cell thick mass of filaments.* -Gametophytes grow from protonema; Anchored by *RHIZOIDS*

*Chitin*

*Strong but flexible nitrogen-containing polysaccharide that forms the cell wall of fungus and the exoskeleton of arthropods.*

*Alternation of Generations*

*Succession of multicellular haploid and diploid phases in some sexually reproducing organisms, notably plants.* -While not unique to plants, this is a defining characteristic of all land plants. -Land Plants possess two multicellular generations: *1. Gametophyte (Haploid)* *2. Sporophyte (Diploid)*

*Lichens*

*Symbiotic relationship between photosynthetic microorganism and fungus.* -3 Types of this species: a. Crustose (encrusting) b. Foliose (leafllike) c. Fruticose (shrublike)

Secondary Mycelium

*The above ground mushroom represents the fruiting structure of the mycelium.* -Above ground (AKA Fruiting Body)

Primary mycelium

*The main (vegetative) protion of the mycelium is typically much more extensive than the fruiting structure.* -Below ground vegetative

*Ground Tissue System*

*Tissues that are neither dermal nor vascular; everything else not in the first two systems.* -Includes cells that: fill space, store material, photosynthesize, support and transport substances over short distances. -Pith -Cortex

Heterosporous (SVP)

*Two types of sporangia that produce two types of spores (later SVPs evolved heterospory).* *-Megaspore -Mircrospore*

*Microphylls*

*Very small, spine-shaped leaves.* -In *Lycophytes*

*Cuticle*

*Waxy coating on epidermis to provide watertight covering for plant's cells.* -1 of 7 traits that allowed plants to move onto land

Embryos

*Young plants contained within a protective structure in the parent's tissue.* -1 of 7 traits that allowed plants to move onto land

Phylum Platyhelminthes (flatworms)

*•Dorsoventrally flattened-A few mm long to 20m long (tapeworms)* *•Acoelomates-lack coelom*-Respiration and nitrogenous waste elimination occur across body surface-Surface area for exchange is increased via thin body shape •Materials move around body via diffusion -No circulatory system •Excretory system: Protonephridia- simple excretory structures that filter waste and maintain osmotic balance -Ciliated flame cells pull liquid through body to be filtered •Digestive system: Gastrovascular cavity branched to deliver nutrients directly to cells via diffusion -Digestive system which functions to both break down food and circulate that food around the body •One opening functions as mouth and anus -Parasitic species lack digestive system completely

Genetic Variation

- *Refers to differences in the genetic makeup of individuals in a population* - *Heritability* is Critical to variation - Variation that is not genetic does not matter and this is known as Environmental variation

Objective of Origin

- *The unity of life*: Descents from a common ancestor - *The diversity of life*: is the variety of living systems. ... It is usually meant to encompass multiple levels of biological systems. - *The match between organisms and their environments*: Individuals with certain heritable characteristics survive and reproduce at a higher rate than other individuals

Eukaryotes arrive

- 1.5 BYBP (some say 2.1 BYBP): cells with nuclear envelope, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, cytoskeleton -Endosymbiont Theory-posits that eukaryote arrival corresponded to larger prokaryotic cells engulfing smaller, free-living prokaryotes that became mitochondria and chloroplasts

sexual selection

- A form of natural selection in which individuals with certain inherited characteristics are more likely than other individuals to obtain mates. - Mate choice can be a driving factor in speciation Two males of the same species vary in color during breeding season Two females of the same species each prefer a different male color variant Male offspring will be colored like the father Female offspring will prefer the color of the father This assumes that both male color and female preference of color are under genetic control

Events of the Mesozoic Era

- A mass extinction marked the end of the Paleozoic and the beginning of the Mesozoic -Permian Extinction eliminated many phyla so there were many opportunities at the beginning of the Mesozoic •Continents broke up and drifted apart beginning global allopatric speciation -Mesozoic divided into the Triassic, Jurassic, and Cretaceous

Polyploidy

- Accident during cell division (meiosis) that results in extra sets of chromosomes - Does occur in animals but much more common in plants >80% of modern plant species were formed by a polyploid speciation Oats, cotton, potatoes tobacco, wheat - Polyploid produces gametes incompatible with original species Can self-fertilize or mate with another polyploid

adaptive radiation

- An evolutionary pattern in which many species evolve from a single ancestral species - series of evolutionary events that results in an array of related species that live in a variety of environments, differing in the characteristics each uses to exploit those environments Can be caused by founder events, extinction, innovation of new traits

Physical Events change evolution

- Biological phenomena like extinctions have been shaped by geological and other physical changes -Continental drift -Climatological shift -Volcanic eruptions -Extraterrestrial events -Oxygen concentration fluctuations

Darwin's Struggle

- Darwin struggled with explanation of speciation (the formation of new and distinct species in the course of evolution) Process by which one species splits into two or more species - Understanding speciation would explain both differences and similarities between species

Species Concept

- Defining members of a species is a fundamental idea in biology but the term is used differently by biologists - There is no single definition for "species" because of its broad usage - Instead, biologists employ one of several species concepts depending on their usage of the term - Way that biologists apply the term "species" given their needs and the characters of their study taxa

Alleles

- Different forms of a gene - A neutral allele can accumulate in populations

Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium

- Equation used to test genetic composition; determines what genetic composition would be if a population was not evolving The use of the 5 Terms P = frequency of dominant allele Q = frequency of recessive allele P^2 = frequency of homozygotes for dominant allele Q(^2) = frequency of homozygotes for recessive allele 2xPxQ = frequency of heterozygotes

Darwin's Dilemma

- Expanded ideas of "Descent with modification" by natural selection; tiny tweaks that help organisms adapt -Didn't publish findings until 1859, because fear of the repercussions from society; feared that he would meet the same fate that Lamarck faced which was being exiled from the scientific community. -A.R wallace sent him a paper which had an identical hypothesis to what he had found out in the Galapagos

Supergroup Unikonta

- Extremely diverse group composed of animals, fungi, and two monophyletic clades of protists -Amoebozoans -Opisthokonts

Applications for Phylogenies

- Forensic analyses -Test Hypothesis -Identify convergent evolution

Variation from Sexual Reproduction

- Greatest Variation - Takes advantage of already mutations and changes them - Every single kid that is reproduced is genetically unique; except for twins - The chances to reproduce two of the same kids genetically speaking would be 1 in 73 trillion -*source of genetic variation*

Prezygotic barriers block fertilization from occurring by:

- Habitat isolation: live in different habitats - Temporal Isolation: breed at different times of day, year or life - Behavioral Isolation: courtship rituals that attract one mate to another - Mechanical Isolation: morphological differences prevent mating possibility - Gametic Isolation: sperm not compatible with egg due to many different factors

Natural Processes Inferences

- Inference 1: Those *with advantages* tend to *breed more and those that have disadvantages don't get to reproduce* because they are either killed by predators or can't attract mates. - Inference 2: Unequal ability to survive and reproduce will lead to the *accumulation of favorable traits* in the population over generations

Periods of Rapid Speciation

- Introduction to new resources or absence of predators/competition can lead a lineage to generate numerous new species in a short period of time because of availability of new ecological - Adaptive Radiation - Founder Events: is the loss of genetic variation that occurs when a new population is established by a very small number of individuals from a larger population

Biological Species Concept (BSC)

- Key to new species formation is reproductive isolation; two barrier types: - Prezygotic: barriers that prevent fertilization from occurring between two different species - Postzygotic: barriers that prevent hybrid zygotes from developing/reproducing Hybrid: offspring resulting from mating between two different species

Radiometric Dating

- Method of determining the age of objects such as fossils and rocks based on the decay rates of radioactive isotopes - Predictable decay of radioisotopes allows us to determine (within error) the actual age of rock and the material in that rock

Bridging Another Group

- Microevolution- changes over time in allele frequencies in a population (MICe CHANGE ALL too FREQUENtly) - Macroevolution- broad pattern of evolution above the species level • Most people have no trouble with the former...we can see it happen, but struggle with the latter (only a matter of scale)

Fossil Record and Life's History

- Most complete picture of Earth's history -While incomplete and gaps present, demonstrates progression of life from origin 3.8 BYBP to present day •Caveat: biased toward common species that persisted for a long time, marine organisms, those in climates where decay is slow, and those that fossilized well (shells, bones, teeth, etc.)

Natural Processes

- Natural processes *lead to natural selection* - Darwin's goal is to make his reader agree with him before he even gave his opinion by having the reader believe he came up with the concept

Natural Processes Observations

- Observation 1. Members of a population *vary in inherited traits* - Observation 2. Every species is able to reproduce more babies than the environment can handle, however that would result in the offsprings chances of survival to decrease

postzygotic barriers; prevent hybrid zygotes from developing or reproducing

- Reduced Hybrid Viability: hybrid's development is incomplete or individual is frail. - Reduced Hybrid Fertility: because of chromosomal differences between parents, hybrid cannot breed with neither original nor other hybrids.

How we test if evolution is occurring?

- Requires that we track genetic composition in multiple individuals over several generations, only need to track genetic makeup of a population to observer evolutionary progress

Continental drift and Plate Tectonics

- Scientific study of the structure and movements of Earth's continental plates, which are the cause of continental drift -Movements of mantle cause slow, predictable movements of plates (Continental Drift) -Cause mountain ranges, earthquakes, volcanoes, faults, etc. where plates collide, slide past, move away from each other

Tapeworms (Class Cestoda) [Phylum Platyhelminthes]

Anterior end called a scolex has suckers/ hooks to adhere to intestinal lining of host •Lack mouth/anus and gastrovasc. cavity -Absorb nutrients from host's digested food •Posterior to scolex are proglottids, body sections composed entirely of sex organs -After sexual reproduction, gravid proglottids released in sections and leave host in feces

Sexual Selection (Microevolution)

- Sexual Selection: individuals with certain inherited characteristics are more likely than other individuals to obtain mates The reason why the change in allele is, because you have the ability to reproduce with another an example would be the color of feathers on a bird - Sexual Dimorphism (DIstinguishing features): features that distinguish between male and female - Intrasexual Selection: same sex (male vs male) have a competition to claim all the females in the territory in order to reproduce In a species of beetles, males that have large horns are better to fight off other males for access to females. (INTRAnce to a male bodybuilding competition) - Intersexual Selection: selection of a mate through the traits they possess ex. would be the more colorful the feathers are on a peacock the more likely he is to attract and find a mate (Mnemonic device: INTERNsexual you recruit the interns with the best qualities)

Types of Natural Selection

- Stabilizing Selection: environment selects against both extremes and favors intermediate phenotypes (the one in the middle) (MND: STABing BOTH oldest and youngest child and FAVORING the Middle child) - Directional Selection: environment favors one extreme of a phenotypic range Changes the characteristics of a population by favoring individuals that vary in one direction from the mean of the population. - Disruptive Selection: environment favors both extremes of a phenotypic range an Increase in the extremes and the ones on the middle decrease ex. would be the pocket mouse lab (MND: DISliking the MIDDLE child and FAVORING BOTH the oldest and youngest child)

Limitations of Natural Selection

- There is NO organism perfectly "engineered" for its environment - Evolution is most likely to be constrained by developmental processes - Evolution Limited by historical constraint every organism is bound by what its ancestors had to work with - Adaptations are often compromises an adaptation may give you a huge advantage but with that advantage comes equally as devastating drawbacks ex. Garter snakes can eat poisonous newt because they are immune to the toxin, however after eating the newt they become immobile for several hours. - Chance, Natural Selection, and Environment interact - environment changes unpredictably

Multicellularity

- Very simple until 575 MYBP when Ediacaran Fauna showed up in fossil record •Soft-bodied marine organisms up to 1m long-Limited in size/diversity by a series of severe ice ages from 1 BYBP until 580 MYBP •Glaciers covered land and oceans iced over •Life confined to equator, hotsprings, and thermal vents before 575 MYBP

Origin of Species

- Was *published* on November 24, *1859* - Was disliked at first, but *within a decade* (10 years) most of the scientific community had *accepted* - Darwin received credit despite wallace publishing it first; even wallace recognized darwin as idea's main architect

Drawbacks involved in Sexual Selection

- advantage in mating outweighs disadvantage in survival - live less but breed more > Live more but reproduce less - Fun Fact: There is no such thing as a "Female Peacock" they are instead called peahen.

Biological Species Concept

- group of populations Whose members have the potential to interbreed in nature and produce viable, fertile offspring; but do not produce viable, fertile offspring with members of other such groups. - Reproductive Isolation is key (No Gene Flow)

Conditions for H.W. Equilibrium

- if population is to exist in equilibrium meaning that there is NO evolutionary change then it should display the following: - No mutations; the alleles present in the population do not change/no new alleles are added to the gene pool - No natural selections; individuals with different genotypes have equal probabilities of survival and equal rates of reproduction Extremely Large Population size (No genetic drift) - No gene flow; no movement of individuals in or out of the population - Random Mating; meaning that everyone has the same chance of finding a partner to mates -NOT applicable to an EVOLVING population

Extraterrestrial Events

- meteorites containing isotopes of elements rarely found in abundance on earth surface - Events that originate beyond Earth -~30 meteorites between tennis and soccer ball sized hit Earth each year with minimal consequence -A few larger collisions have dramatically effected Earth •Cretaceous Extinction caused by a meteor strike

Geological Time Scale (GTS)

- the categories of time into which Earth's history is usually divided by geologists and paleontologists: eons, eras, periods, epochs - Division of earth's history into ordered, named periods of time, based on major biotic and abiotic changes.

Horsetails

-*Form Strobilis* -*Jointed growth with rings of leaves/branches emerging from each joint.* a. Stem is main site of *photosynthesis* b. *Silica deposits in stem* make it durable and rough.

Ferns

-*Megaphylls* called fronds: a. Apical growth unfurls from "Fiddlehead" -Fern *sporophyte* creates spores on underside of fonds. -*Sori*

Cretaceous Extinction

-65 million years ago -asteroid in Yucatan peninsula Mexico -debris block sun -extinction of many marine and land mammals, dinosaurs, birds spared

Homoplasy

-A similar (analogous) structure or molecular sequence that has evolved independently in two species. -Similar traits generated by convergent evolution and evolutionary reversals are

*Acoelomates* (Body Cavities)

-Absence of an enclosed, fluid-filled body cavity; space between gut and the body wall is filled with mesoderm (mesenchyme)

Fungal Body Structure

-All fungi have a *cell wall made of chitin* -Yeasts: unicellular, free-living fungi -Multicellular filaments (huge majority): Hyphae that grow through soil and form a mycelium.

Importance of Vascularization

-Allowed plants to get tall; competition for sunlight lead to general increase in plant height; Increased spore dispersal with height. -Allowed root evolution to anchor and absorb materials from soil.

Phylum Glomeromycot

-Almost all form *Arbuscular Mycorrhizae*. -90% of all plant species form symbiotic relationships with this phylum.

Parabasalids (Excavata)

-Anaerobic -Modified mitochondria: Hydrogenosomes -Many parasites: Trichomonas Vaginalis; flagellum/membrane

Importance of Phylogenies

-Basis of comparative biology -enable biologists to compare organisms and make predictions and inferences based on similarities and differences in traits

Ascomycete Reproduction

-Both Asexual and Sexual -Asexual: Budding or produce spores called conidia at the tip of specialized hypha called a conidiophore. -Sexual: fusion of 2 hyphae of different mating strains (plasmogamy) which forms dikaryotic cells with 2 haploid nuclei. (a) Asci that each have *8 Ascospores*

Evolution of Leaves

-In Lycophytes, very small, spine-shaped leaves called microphylls; Supported by a single vascular budle. -In monilophytes, Larger with highly branched vascular system (Megaphylls)

Antheridium (Male Gametangium)

-Male Gametangium -Multicellular structure that produces sperm in nonvascular palnts and fern -Haploid structure making haploid sperm via mitosis

Phylum Zygomycota

-Many decomposers (molds), parasites, and commensal symbionts with animals. -Coenocytic hyphae-septa only found where reproductive cells form. -Both sexual and asexual mating cycles: a. Asexual sporangia form and disperse haploid spores b. Sexual: hyphae from different mycelia meet and form a zygosporangium in which kayrogamy and meiosis occur.

Usefulness of Fungi

-Massive component of nutrient cycling in ecosystem. -Food and Drink production: a. Bakers yeast b. Ferment grain in beer -Defense against disease. a. Antibiotics from numerous species b. defend agricultural crops from parasitic plants -Indicators of air quality -Remediation of pollution -Aid in reforestation efforts

Reproduction in Basidiomycetes

-Most reproduce only sexual but some do have an asexual cycle. -Long-lived dikaryotic mycelium produces fruiting body; basidiocarp (mushroom) -Cytoplasm from main dikaryotic mycelium streams to tips of hyphae to form basidiocarp. a. Can be erected in a matter of hours b. Results in circle of mushrooms called "Fairy Ring"

Diplomonads (Excavata)

-Mostly Anaerobic -Modified mitochondira called mitosomes -2 equal sized nuclei -Multiple flagella -Many parasites

Seedless Vascular Plants (SVP)

-Until vascular tissue evolved, all land plants were short, ground cover plants. -Vascular tissue allowed for *efficient transport of nutrients*; plants became much larger. -2 Phyla: 1. Phylum Lycophyta 2. Phylum Monilophyta

Key Synapomorphies of Seedless vascular plants

-Vascular tissue capable of efficiently transporting materials over long distance; faster than diffusion and more directed. -Xylem -Phloem

Appendages associated with each segment

1 reason for Arthropod Success: •Jointed; come in pairs •Most specialized for locomotor, feeding, sensory, reproductive, or defense purposes •Some have specialized appendages for flight -Insects

Segmented (Usually 3 Segments)

1 reason for Arthropod Succuess: •Head, thorax, abdomen (first two often fused into cephalothorax) -Each segment has a specific duty (sensory, digestion, locomotion, reproduction, etc.) »Division of labor increased efficiency of tasks

Seed Plant Adaptations

1.Reduced,dependent gametophytes and dominant porophytes 2.Heterospory; Mega/Microsporanium 3.Ovules and eggs 4.Pollen and sperm 5.Secondary Growth: Lateral Meristems

Mullerian mimicry

2 or more dangerous species resemble each other

Current Protist Organization

4 Supergroups currently recognized: 1. Excavata 2. "SAR" clade 3. Archaeplastida 4. Unikonta

choanoflagellates

A Billion Years of Animals •Most estimates say animal ancestors diverged from fungi at least 675mybp years ago and some estimate almost a billion YBP •Most closely related organisms are (blank) *-Similarities between some cells of primitive animals (sponges) and modern individual (blank)*

Evolution

A change in allele frequency over time

*Vertebrate*

A chordate with a backbone -Backbone can be cartilage or bone

Selective Pressure

Any force that elicits change. -Ex. Include competition, predation, land clearance, and pollutants, Climate Change, etc.

Endospores

A resting structure that can survive harsh environmental conditions and reanimate when conditions improve.

*Lateral Roots*

A root that arises from the outermost layer of the pericycle of an established root. -Eudicots -Deep soil

*Diapsids*

Any of a group of amniote vertebrates that are characterized by two openings in the temporal region on each side of the skull. -2 lineages of reptiles diverged from this group: 1. Lepidosaurs 2. Archosaurs

Biogeochemical Cycles

Any of a number of chemical cycles which involve both biotic and abiotic components of ecosystems. -While energy is continually added to the system (from sun), other nutrients like carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur are cycled through the ecosystem and reused

*Ectothermic* (Except Birds)

Any so-called cold-blooded animal; that is, any animal whose regulation of body temperature depends on external sources, such as sunlight or a heated rock surface

Spirochetes (G-)

All possess axial filament, bundle of flagellae beneath the peptidoglycan layer that allow for movement; Bacteria with spiral shape -Many parasites; Syphilis and Lyme Disease

Loboseans (amoebozoans)

All unicellular; lobe or tube shaped pseudopodia Ubiquitous in soil, freshwater, and marine environmnets Prey on bacteria/Other protists or eat detritus Some make shell out of sand or secret one

Identification of Bacteria

Bacteria give very little information for identification without using molecular techniques to sequence DNA. -Shape of Individual cells and colonies -Organization of Multiple cells -Surface Features -Motility

Decomposer Roles in Cycling

Decomposers play a critical role in recycling nutrients. -Rate of decomposition controlled by temperature, water availability, and nutrient availability -Areas of high decomposition takes a few months to a few years

homologous traits (homologies)

Def. A similarity between two or more features that is due to inheritance from a common ancestor. The structures are said to be homologous, and each is a homolog of the others. -Can either be ancestral or derived

Homology

Def. Similarity between features of 2 or more taxa because those taxa share a common ancestor

Cladistics

Def: A method of systematics in which scientist determine relatedness among taxa by trying to identify a clade -We seek to identify clades that correctly represent the evolutionary history of taxa by including the common ancestor and all descendants of that ancestor in the clades -Monophyletic clades are the ideal goal

Convergent Evolution

Def: Independent evolution of similar features in different lineages to deal with the same environmental conditions -Analogous Structures

Clades (on a phylogenetic tree)

Def: Taxon that consists of all the evolutionary descendants of a single ancestor -These traits separate related organisms into (Blank)

Evolutionary Reversal

Def: The reappearance of an ancestral trait in a group that had previously acquired a derived trait. +Occurs when a taxon that possesses an apomorphic (derived) trait reverts back to the plesiomorphic (ancestral trait)

Analogous traits

Def: refers to similar structures found in two or more groups of organisms, but with separate, independent evolutionary origins. -An example is the wings of bats and the wings of birds, which evolved independently as wings from wingless ancestors.

Systematics (phylogeny)

Definition: The scientific study of the diversity and relationships among organisms -In (Blank), we study traits that unite or differentiate organisms

Phylogeny

Definition: the evolutionary history of relationships among organisms or their genes -Includes both relationships and the circumstances that led to those relationships

Radiolarians (Rhizaria)

Delicate, symmetrical internal skeletons made of silica; radial symmetry (rare elsewhere). -Pseudopodia radiate from central body and reinforced by microtubules.

apomorphic trait

Derived characters (those possessed by some taxa on the tree but not all and not the common ancestor)

*Sessile*

Describes an organism that remains attached to a surface for its entire life and does not move

Decomposer

Hetertrophs that eat detritus (non-living organic material....dead stuff)

Green Algae

Mostly chlorophyll that makes them green; broad range of cellular arrangements (uni-colonial, multicellular). -Group that shares chloroplast but are NOT PLANTS.

*Paleognaths*

Mostly large, flightless birds that *lack a keel on the sternum and lack pectoral muscles of flight* •Ostrich, rhea, emu, cassowary, and kiwi

Food Web

Representation of the trophic or energetic connecitons among members of a community -One pathway in a food web is sometimes called a food chain (more easily understood but not reality) -Levels get very complicated above the first two levels

*Pistil*

Multiple carpels can be fused into a complex structure

Nitrogen Reservoirs

Reservoirs: Atmosphere 80% Soils and Sediments of Lakes Rivers Oceans

Carbon Reservoir

Reservoirs: Fossil Fuels Soil Aquatic Sediments Plant/Animal Biomass Atmosphere

Phosphorus Reservoirs

Reservoirs: Marine Sedimentary rock Soil Oceans

Water Cycle

Reservoirs: Oceans 97% Ice Caps 2% Lakes, Rivers and Ground 1% Processes: 1. Evaporation 2. Precipitation 3. Transpiration

Secondary Growth

Seed plants are the first to possess a new form of growth tissue - lateral meristems -Either of two meristems, vascular cambium or cork cambium, that give rise to a plant's secondary growth (increases a plant's girth) •Main 2° growth results from adding new vascular tissue •Cork also added which thickens periderm (outer cover) of woody plants •While vascular tissue allowed plants to get tall, secondary growth allowed plants to get thick, bulky, and extremely tall

*Heterospory*

Seed plants have two kinds of spores -Megasporangium produces megaspores that give rise to the female gametophyte •One functional megaspore/megasporangium -Microsporangium produces microspores that give rise to the male gametophyte •Vast number of microspores/microsoprangium

*Chelicerae* (Chelicerates) [Phylum Arthropoda]

Pincers or fangs that grasp rather than chew prey

Gymnosperm Reprodcution (Pinus Example)

Pine tree is diploid sporophyte -Sporangia located on scale-like structures packed into a cone -Heterosporous-male cones and female cones •Male cones (microstrobilus) contain microspores that develop into pollen grains containing male gametophyte -Wind pollinated-must produce copious amounts of pollen to increase likelihood of pollination •Female cones (megastrobilus) contain megaspores in ovules that develop into multicellular female gametophytes

Ecological Roles Protists fill

Primary producers that supply oxygen and a food base to many communities on earth. -Diatomes alone produce 1/5 of all oxygen, all protists produce 1/3 -Every major oceanic community has photosynthetic protists at its base.

Advantage for seeds

Prior to evolution of seeds, spore was only protective coating in plant's life cycle -Allowed for dormancy and reanimation after dispersal (days or weeks) •Seeds have major advantage over spores -Larger and multicellular with protective layers -Longer lifespan (some: years of dormancy) -Supply of stored food to sustain embryo during germination

Eutrophication

Process of ecosystem change initiated by an increase in nutrients consumed by phytoplankton, cyanobacteria, and algae in aquatic systems. -Results in algae population explosions (blooms) -Algae die after bloom and decompose results in oxygen deficiency (hypoxia) that leads to a cascade of organismal death from hypoxia -"Dead zone"

Nitrogen Processes

Processes: 1. Nitrogen Fixation (inorganic to organic) 2. Industry Input (fertilizers) 3. Legume Crops 4. Industrial production of Reactive Nitrogen

Phosphorus Processes

Processes: 1. Weathering of Rock 2. Eaten by consumers 3. Returned to soil via decomposition or defecation

Carbon Cycle Process

Processes: Photosynthesis Cellular Respiration Consumption Burning Fossil Fuels Outgassing Dissolution

Pathogenic Bacteria

Produce disease mainly by releasing toxins. -Exotoxins -Endotoxins

*Megasporangium*

Produces megaspores that give rise to the female gametophyte. -One functional megaspore/megasporangium

*Microsporangium*

Produces microspores that give rise to the male gametophyte. -Vast number of microspores/microsprangium

Chlamydias

Small bacteria that are obligate parasites; unique among prokaryotes because they have a complex life cycle that have 2 forms of cells; reticulate bodies and elementary bodies. -Infection in eyes, Lungs, and as STD's

lineage species concept

The definition of a species as a branch on the tree of life, which has a history that starts at a speciation event and ends either at extinction or at another speciation event.

Zone of Differentiation

The region of root tip where cells undergo specialization

*Archosaurs*

The reptilian group that includes crocodiles, alligators, dinosaurs, and birds.

*Lepidosaurs*

The reptilian group that includes lizards, snakes, and two species of New Zealand animals called tuataras. *-Three-chambered heart* partially separates oxygenated and deoxygenated blood •High blood pressure and metabolism

Symbiotic Bacteria

They receive nutrients from us and produce nutrients or unlock vitamins/nutrients we can't digest/make. -produce many common products and services

*Integument*

Thin layer of sporophyte tissue that surrounds megasporangium for protection

Domains Relationship

While both domains share a cellular format (prokaryotes), they are actually not closely related.

*Chordate*

animal that has for at least one stage of its life: a dorsal, hollow nerve cord, a notochord, a tail that extends beyond the anus; and pharyngeal pouches

*Scolex* (Head of Tapeworm)

anterior end of a tapeworm also referred to as a "head"

Lokiarchaeota

are genetically determined to be the closest known living relatives of eukaryotes.

Endotoxins

are lipopolysaccharides release when certain bacteria grow or die

*Conidiospores* (conidia)

asexual spores that form by mitosis that form naked(not in the sac) at end of hypha

*Petals*

brightly colored structure just inside the sepals; attracts insects and other pollinators to a flower

plasmodial slime molds

brightly colored, form a mass called plasmodium (not unicellular- single mass of cytoplasm that is undivided by plasma membranes and have many nuclei) Moves through soil via pseudopodia and engulfs nutrients via phagocytosis When environment is bad, plasmodium stops growing and creates fruiting bodies -Sexual reproduction

*Chaetae*

bristle-like chitinous projections in each parapodium

*Pentaradial Symmetry*

circular body plan that can be divided into 5 equal parts

*Lophophore* (Lophotrochozoans)

circular or U-shaped ring of ciliated, hollow tentacles around mouth

Pulmocutaneous Circulation (Amphibians)

circulatory system in amphibians; the flow of blood to the lungs and the moist skin for gas exchange

*Visceral Mass* (The Mollusk Body)

containing most internal organs•Heart, digestive, excretory, and reproductive organs

*Taproots*

deep roots that have tiny hairs to absorb water and nutrients -Eudicots -Well adapted to deep soil

taxonomic affinity

e.g. all bird species in a community

2(degree), 3(degree), and higher consumers

eat other heterotrophs (carnivores)

trophic interactions

feeding relationships between organisms

Cellular slime molds

feeding stage consists of solitary cells that function individually, but if food is depleted, they form an aggregate in which individuals keep their membranes, forms an asexual fruiting body

Angiosperm Life Cycle

•Very similar to gymnosperm life cycle with a few exceptions •Pollen grain has several cells with specific functions -Generative cell- divides into two sperm cells -Tube cell- produces pollen tube in ovary •Mechanisms to ensure cross-pollination in monoecious plants (both sexes on one plant) -Transfer of pollen from anther of a flower on one plant to the stigma of a flower on a different plant •Pollen tube terminates at micropyle-pore in integument of ovule -Two sperm cells discharged •One fertilizes egg to form zygote •Other fuses with diploid cell of female gametophyte to make triploid cell -Double fertilization...unique to angiosperms •Zygote develops into sporophyte embryo with two seed leaves called cotyledons •Triploid cell develops into endosperm that will nourish sporophyte embryo

Trematodes (Class Trematoda) [Phylum Platyhelminthes]

•Wide range of hosts and complex lifestyles involving two hosts -Primary host-species in which adult resides -Intermediate host-species in which larval stage matures •One genus (Schistosoma), the blood flukes, infects 200 million+ humans annually *-Schistosomiasis (Pain, anemia, and diarrhea)*

Kingdom Animalia

•~1.5 million extant spp. •Multicellularity - *not unique* to animals but ALL animals are muliticellular •Nutritional mode - *Heterotrophs* that digest food internally

sister taxa (sister group)

groups that are more closely related to each other than either of them is to any other group

single circulation system

heart pumps blood to gills then continues on to body for oxygen drop off before returning to heart.

Primary (1*) consumers

heterotrophs that consume autotrophs (herbivores)

Heartwood

in a woody stem, the older xylem near the center of the stem that no longer conducts water

Opisthokonts

include animals, fungi, and several groups of protists Choanoflagellates are more closely related to animals than to other protist

Phylum Monilophyta

includes ferns, horsetails, and whisk ferns and their relatives

*Sequential Hermaphrodites*

individuals that possess male or female reproductive function and then switch to the other

Phylogenetic Tree

is a branching diagram or "tree" showing the inferred evolutionary relationships among various biological species —Their phylogeny is based upon SIMILARITIES and DIFFERENCES in their PHYSICAL or GENETIC characteristics.

*Water Vascular System*

is a network of hydraulic canals that branch into tube feet. -Also serves as gas exchange system as well.

*Medusa*

is free-swimming (motile) with opening to digestive tract oriented downward

Mutation

is random change in DNA sequence, that can change function, and shape of a protein The more beneficial the protein is the more natural selection will increase its frequency in future gens. -*source of genetic variation*

*Ascocarp*

is the fruiting body (sporocarp) of an ascomycete phylum fungus. It consists of very tightly interwoven hyphae and may contain millions of asci, each of which typically contains four to eight ascospores.

*Trochophore* (Lophotrochozoans)

larval form that moves by beating cilia

Stromatolites

layered rocks that form when certain prokaryotes bind thin films of sediment together

half-life

length of time required for half of the radioactive atoms in a sample to decay

Halophiles

live in extremely salty environments. -Often pinkish because of CARETENOIDS -Other species die in the same salty places because of osmotic "Drying".... Loss of water to hypertonic solutions

*Brachiating*

locomotion accomplished by swinging by the arms from one hold to another. -Swinging from limb to limb

Extremophiles (Archaea)

lovers of extreme conditions

*Fibrous Roots*

part of a root system in which roots branch to such an extent that no single root grows larger than the rest. -Monocots -Shallow Soils; good for preventing erosion

Morphological Species Concept

relating to the branch of biology that deals with the form of living organisms, and with relationships between their structures

*Ctenes*

rows of comb-like cilia used for movement

absorptive heterotrophs

secrete enzymes that digest large food molecules into smaller molecules they can absorb

Ecosystem Engineers

species that create, modify, or maintain physical habitat for themselves and other species, and can be keystone or foundation species as well. -Beavers cut down trees to build a dam and create ponds and wetlands that provide habitat for species that would otherwise not be able to live in that area

Interaction Strength

strength of effect one species has on other species in the interaction. -often asymmetrical....1 species experience strong effect while other is unaffected or nearly so Many species exert a stronger than expected effect on their community than other members of the same community -Keystone species and foundations species, and Ecosystem engineering species

*Ovary*

structure at base of the carpel that produces ovules •will develop into seeds if fertilized

*Pollen Grain

structure that contains the entire male gametophyte in seed plants

*Photosynthates*

sugars and other carbohydrates produced during photosynthesis

Mutualism (+/+)

symbiotic interaction where both species benefit from the interaction. -Often allows species to access limiting resources otherwise too difficult to obtain -Crocodile gets teeth cleaned, and bird gets food to eat.

Relative Fitness (mnemonic device: CONTRIBUTING to euGENE's FITNESS POOL)

the contribution an individual makes to the gene pool of the next generation relative to the contribution of other individuals

*Blastocoel*

the fluid-filled cavity inside a blastula

*Nodes*

the points at which leaves are attached

competitive coexistence

two species coexist despite sharing limited resources; AVOIDS COMPETITION

Facultative anaerobes

use O2 when present but can also carry out anaerobic pathways to produce energy when O2 absent. -Metabolic Adaptation

Class Cephalopoda (Phylum Mollusca)

•*Active marine predators* that use tentacles to grasp prey -Bite with beak-like jaw and immobilize with poisonous saliva •*Foot modified* into muscular excurrent siphon, arms, and tentacles (suckers @ end) -Jet water out of siphon to move quickly •*Shell is reduced and internal or absent* except in nautilus (external and chambered) •*Closed circulatory system*-blood remains separate from other body fluids -Increases efficiency of transport; rapid movement and response to environment •Fossil cephalopods called *ammonites* were dominant marine invertebrate predators for hundreds of millions of years

Birds adaptations for Flight

•*Archosaurs* like crocodilians -Almost every aspect of anatomy/physiology adapted for flight •*Weight-reducing adaptations*: -No bladder -Only one ovary, gonads of both sexes small -Lack teeth -Bone wall reduced in thickness with buttresses for support -Reduced/ lost and fused bones •*Feathers (modified scales) and wings* -Extremely large pectoral muscles

Class Actinopterygii (ray-finned fishes)

•*Bony rays* support fins •Flattened scales cover body •Important *sources of protein* to humanity •*"Single Circulation"* - heart pumps blood to gills then continues on to body for oxygen drop off before returning to heart

Turtles (307 species)

•*Boxlike shell* with upper and lower shields fused to vertebrae, clavicles, and ribs -*Pectoral girdle (shoulder)* inside their rib cage •Most have hard shell but one group has soft, flexible shell

*Dorsal, Hollow Nerve Cord*

•*Develops from ectoderm and rolls into a tube dorsal to notochord* -Placement and development *unique to chordates* •Other clades have lateral or ventral nerve cords •*Gives rise to central nervous system-Brain and spinal cord*

Class Ophiuroidea (Brittle Stars) [P. Echinodermata]

•*Distinct central disk* and long, thin arms •*Lack* flattened surface of *tube feet* •Move by thrashing arms in coordinated motion •Some species suspension feeders, others predators or scavengers

Class Turbellaria (Phylum Platyhelminthes)

•*Dugesia*, commonly called planarians, common in clean ponds -Glide along ventral surface on cilia and mucus and swim via undulating motion -Light-sensitive eyespots and chemical-detecting lobes at anterior end represent cephalization •Can learn to modify stimulus-response •Can reproduce asexually through fission •Most sexual; hermaphrodites cross-fertilize each other (penis fencing)

Arthropod Anatomy

•*Exoskeleton* of chitin and protein layers -Protection and muscle attachment -Allows some to live on land because water-tight •*Well developed senses* centralized anteriorly -Some exceptions (butterflies taste with feet) •*Open circulatory system*-fluid (hemolymph) is propelled by short arteries into sinuses surrounding organs to bathe tissues in fluid •Coelomates •Many have *specialized breathing* that reflects ecology -Gills in aquatic, tracheal system that penetrates exoskeleton in terrestrial, book lung in spiders

Primates Traits

•*Hands and feet adapted for grasping* -Flattened nails rather than claws -Ridges on fingers (fingerprints) •*Flattened face* (large brain and short jaw) •*Opposable thumb* •*Binocular vision*; Depth perception •*Pectoral girdle* loose and flexible for brachiating -Swinging from limb to limb

Subphylum Cephalochordata (Lancelets) [P. Chordata]

•*Larvae* possess all 4 chordate characters -*Adults* retain characters •Adult buries backward into ocean floor and *filter feeds* by drawing water/particles into pharyngeal basket •*Gill slits and pharynx* aid in respiration but most done over external body surface

Subphylum Urochordata (Tunicates) [P. Chordata]

•*Larval stage* exhibits chordate characters •Larva swims to suitable substrate, settles, and undergoes radical metamorphosis -Once settled, notochord, tail, and nervous system resorbed, organs rotate 90⁰, and it assumes adult lifestyle •*Sessile filter feeder* that circulates water via siphons through pharyngeal slits •Lost 4 of 13 Hox genes present in other chordates •*Hox genes control many developmental processes*

*Notochord*

•*Longitudinal, flexible rod located between digestive tube and nerve cord* -Made of large, fluid-filled cells surrounded by stiff fibrous tissue -*Provides skeletal support for length of body* -*Provides firm structure against which muscles can work; Swimming motion* •*In vertebrates, jointed skeleton (spinal column) develops around notochord** -Retain remnants as disks between vertebrae

Class Mammalia (Traits)

•*Mammary glands*-modified apocrine glands that create milk to feed offspring •*Hair and subcutaneous fat* insulation •*Sweat glands* - evaporative cooling process •*Endothermic, 4 chambered heart* •*Large brain*, learning, play •*Differentiated teeth* •*3 middle ear* ossicles (1 in reptiles)

Class Petromyzontida (Lampreys) [SubPhylum Vertebrata]

•*Most parasites* that clamp round, jawless mouth on host and dig hole with *rasping tongue* to ingest blood •*Skeleton is cartilage* •Vertebrae are only cartilaginous projections that partially enclose nerve cord*(Simple Vertebrae)*

Class Echinoida (Sea Urchins & Sand $) [P. Echinodermata]

•*No arms*; five rows of tube feet for movement •*Long spines* pivot with muscle contraction •*Mouth on ventral surface* ringed by *complex jaws* for eating seaweed •Urchins spherical but sand dollars flattened

Clade Sarcopterygii (lobe-Fins)

•*Rod-shaped bones* surrounded by muscle in pectoral/pelvic fins, jointed to body by 1 bone •*Lung-like sacs* in several early lineages allowed *oxygen exchange* with the environment •*3 lineages:* -Class Actinistia-coelocanths -Class Dipnoi-lungfishes -Tetrapods

Amniotes (Tetrapods w/Terrestrially Adapted Eggs)

•*Separation into reptiles (including birds), and mammals* •Amniote Egg-*contains 4 membranes*; amnion, chorion, yolk sac, and allantois •*Rib cage* used to ventilate larger lungs

Arachnids (Chelicerates)

•*Six pairs of appendages*: chelicerae, pedipalps used for sensing, feeding, or reproduction, and four pairs of walking legs -Most have poison glands associated with fanged chelicerae •*Book lungs*: platelike stack of respiratory tissue contained within exoskeleton •Many produce *silk in abdominal glands* -Webs, escape, egg covering, gift wrap in courtship, ballooning

Class Chondrichthyes (Sharks, Rays & Relatives)

•*Skeleton cartilaginous* with some calcium hardening portions -*Skin covered in modified teeth* - dermal denticles (placoid scales) •Most carnivorous but largest suspension feeders -Lack ears; vibrations through body sent to inner ear

Class Myxini (hagfish) [Subphylum Vertebrata]

•*Skull of cartilage*, *lack jaws and vertebrae* •*Small brain, eyes, ears, and nasal openings* -Use sensory tentacles around mouth •*Weak circulatory system("hearts")* with 3 small accessory hearts •*Generate "slime"* to fend off scavengers

Homo Sapiens

•*Upright and bipedal* (frees forelimbs, gives height, and is more efficient) •*Larger brain*, language, symbolic thought, artistic expression, and manufacture and use of complex tools, culture, domestication of animals and crops, sedentary life, specialization of roles in community settings •*Small jawbone, jaw musculature, digestive tract* -Carnivorous rather than herbivorous •Ancestors to humans, *hominins*

Subphylum Vertebrata (Skull & Backbone) [P. Chordata]

•*Vertebrate* •*Anterior skull* of cartilage or bone encasing brain •Several shared derived characters: -Internal organs suspended in a *true coelom* -*Hox* and other developmental gene duplications •Complex nervous system and skeletal system -*2 chambered heart*, *hemoglobin*, and *kidneys* -Later vertebrates have *paired fins* used for swimming and other locomotion

*Coelomates* (Body Cavities)

•A "true" coelom forms from the mesoderm tissue layer that lines the ectoderm and endoderm and connects through the coelom to suspend internal organs

Monocots

•About 70,000 spp. •One Cotyledon •Parallel leaf venation •Floral parts in multiples of three •Vascular bundles scattered •Fibrous root system •Grasses and many agricultural crops -Wheat, corn, rice, maize, etc

Class Bivalvia (Phylum Mollusca)

•All aquatic, have *shell with two halves* hinged together and shut by muscles •*No head, radula lost* •Some have eyes and sensory tentacles along edge of mantle •Suspension feeders that circulate water over mantle cavity with siphons •Most sedentary but some move with foot or flapping of shells

Ecdysozoans (Nematodes, Arthropods)

•All members secrete tough exterior *(cuticle)* -Protection, support, muscle attachment -Metabolically inert - doesn't grow once hardened •Must be shed and regrown as organism enlarges -Process of shedding is called *ecdysis or molting* •Because of rigidity of cuticle, many ecdysozoans have *jointed appendages and specialized breathing structures(cuticle gas-proof)* -Also prevents dehydration in terrestrial organisms

Traits of Deuterostomes

•All possess deuterostomic pathway for embryonic development -*Radial cleavage* -*Blastopore* becomes *anus* -Coelom develops from *mesodermal* pockets that bud off of the endodermal cavity of the gastrula

Bilaterally Symmetrical Organisms

•All remaining organisms are members of a clade called Bilateria *-All bilateral triploblastic organisms* •Possess mesodermal tissue as well as ecto-/endoderm •Divided into three smaller clades -Lophotrochozoans (Protostomes) -Ecdysozoans (Protostomes) -Deuterostomes (Deuterostomes)

Phylum Chordata Traits

•All share *4 derived characteristics* -Some only possess them during embryonic development *1.Notochord 2.Dorsal, hollow nerve cord 3.Pharyngeal gill slits or clefts 4.Muscular post-anal tail*

Reproduction in Kingdom Animalia

•Almost all animals can reproduce sexually -Diploid stage is dominant -Haploid sperm and eggs produced via meiosis •Most often, small flagellated sperm fertilizes a larger, immobile egg to form diploid zygote -Sexual-increases genetic variability •Good for changing environments to increase likelihood of adaptive combinations of genes -Asexual-all offspring are clones of parent •Good for stable environments that an individual is well adapted to - clones will be well adapted also!!

Class Plychaeta

•Almost all are marine and mobile -Swim among plankton, crawl, or burrow on sea floor -Some immobile tube-dwellers •Many predators, some grazers and browsers •Many have pair of paddle- or ridge-like appendages called parapodia used in locomotion -Each parapodium has chaetae, bristle-like chitinous projections •Sensory Structures: 1 or more pairs of eyes and tentacles

Class Holothuroidea (Sea Cucumbers) [P. Echinodermata]

•Appearance *different from other echinoderms:* -Lack spiny skin, endoskeleton reduced -Elongate rather than flattened dorsoventrally •Have five rows of tube feet like all other echinoderms •*Eject parts of gut out anus to confuse predators*-Regrows lost intestine

Effects of Oxygen Revolution

•Before increase in atmospheric O2 all organisms were anaerobic-Initial extinction of many prokaryotes •Some survived in remaining anaerobic habitats -Those avoiding oxygen or capable of surviving aerobic environment flourished•New metabolic pathways evolved -Cellular Respiration •Led to lineages that gave rise to all modern aerobic life •Continued elevation of O2 levels led to adaptive radiations of numerous aerobic lineages

Traits of Osteichthyes

•Breathe via gills and have a *bony operculum* covering gills •Control buoyancy with *swim bladder* by adding/reducing air in bladder. -Swim bladder developed from lungs in early Osteichthyans •Body covered with *scales and mucus* •Lateral line system

Class Asteroidea (Sea Stars & Sea Daisies) [Phylum Echinodermata]

•Central disk with arms radiating outward -*Tube feet* on ventral side *to adhere or creep* •*Commonly feed on bivalves* by grasping, everting stomach into mantle cavity, and secreting digestive juices. •*Regenerate lost appendages* •*Sea daisies* are armless -Disk-shaped, five sided, small spine fringe disc -Live on submerged wood and absorb nutrients

Chelicerates (Phylum Arthropoda)

•Claw-like feeding appendages, *chelicerae* -Pincers or fangs that grasp rather than chew prey •*2 body segments*: Anterior cephalothorax and posterior abdomen; lack antennae; have simple eyes (only one lens)

Basal Angiosperms

•Contain characters that link them to other angiosperms but lack others •3 lineages (100 spp.) considered to be very early offshoots of angiosperm ancestral lineage 1.Amborella trichopoda- lacks some of xylem cells of other angiosperms; egg development more similar to gymnosperm pattern 2.Water lillies 3.Star anise and relatives

Cenozoic Era (Age of Mammals)

•Continents roughly in their current positions (India an island and Atlantic narrow) •Mammals radiate into ecological roles that extinct dinosaurs once occupied •Major evolutionary advance of flowering plant symbiosis with nitrogen fixation permanently altered nitrogen cycle and allowed first "green revolution" of plant diversity •Cenozoic divided into Tertiary and Quaternary Periods

Phylum Nematoda (Roundworms)

•Covered by tough, multilayered *cuticle* that is shed with growth •Respiration: across cuticle and gut wall •*Circulatory system*: None; fluid in body conducts nutrients through pseudocoelom •*25,000 known spp but maybe 40X that actually exist* -Decomposers, bottom of ocean, soil organisms -Numerous almost everywhere •Many parasites -*pinworms and hookworms*

Development Stages in Animals

•Developmental patterns and stages common to all animals -After fertilization, zygote undergoes cleavage, a series of mitotic divisions without cell growth •Zygote does not enlarge but undergoes cell division •During cleavage, most animal zygotes form into a ball of cells with a hollow center called a blastula (hollow center=blastocoel) •Blastula undergoes gastrulation where one end of blastula infolds to form many of the layers that will become organs and appendages -Referred to as gastrula at this point

Class Gastropoda (Snails & Slugs) [Phylum Mollusca]

•Developmental process called *torsion* •Stalked eyes •Most use *radula* for grazing plants but some predatory and bore holes in bivalve shells with radula •*Cone snails* have venom in teeth of radula-ejected to subdue prey

Phylum Cnidaria (Hydras, Corals, and Jellies)

•Diploblastic, Radial symmetry •Nerve net without central processing center -Simple contractile fibers induce movement •Two growth forms: medusa and polyp -Medusa is free-swimming (motile) with opening to digestive tract oriented downward -Polyp is sessile, cylindrical forms that adhere to a substrate; digestive opening oriented upward

Triploblastic Development

•During gastrulation, the hole that forms when the layers infold is called the blastopore -The infolding forms the archenteron, the lumen of the digestive tract...blastopore forms either the mouth or the anus of the digestive tract •In Protostomes, the blastopore forms the mouth of the digestive tract •In Deuterostomes, the blastopore forms the anus of the digestive tract

Climatological Shifts

•Earth's climate has shifted numerous times from much warmer to much colder -Glacial and interglacial periods change temperatures, habitat availability, sea levels, etc. •Largely change in response to Earth's orbit and planet's tilt •Causes adaptation, extinction, speciation

Non-Bilateral Traits

•Either asymmetrical (sponges and Placozoan adults) or radially symmetrical (Ctenophores and Cnidarians) •No nervous system (sponges and Placozoans) or simple nerve nets (Ctenophores and Cnidarians) •Monoblastic (sponges) or diploblastic (Ctenophores, Placozoans, and Cnidarians)

Bird Origins

•Evolved from bipedal dinosaurs called *therapods* *Synapomorphies*: -Thin-walled bones -Furcula (wishbone) -Long metatarsals and three-fingered feet -3 fingered forelimbs -Retroverted pelvis

Tetrapods Origin

•Evolved in *coastal wetlands of Devonian* -Lobe-fins used fleshy, bony fins to support themselves on muddy bottom where swimming was difficult •Perhaps helped hold head above water for lung-breathing

*Protonephridia* (Phylum Platyhelminthes)

•Excretory system: simple excretory structures that filter waste and maintain osmotic balance -Ciliated flame cells pull liquid through body to be filtered

Cretaceous Meteor Impact

•Explosion size of ~100 million megatons of high explosives -Tsunamis ravaged coastlines -Plume of debris blown into atmosphere and spread around Earth •Heated debris falling back to Earth started fires •Blocked sun and halted photosynthesis

Archaeopteryx Traits

•Feathered wings and tail like birds •Retained ancestral characters of teeth, clawed digits on wings, long bony tail, and lack of keel on sternum •Could not take off from standing position like modern birds •Ancestral characters gradually lost in fossil record

Fruit Development

•Fertilization triggers hormonal changes that stimulate ovary transformation into fruit -If unfertilized, flower withers and falls off •During development, ovary wall becomes pericarp, thickened wall of fruit -As ovary grows, other floral parts wither and fall •Some remain evident on fruit (sepals on strawberry and apple)

Progression from Fins to Limbs (Tetrapods)

•Fossil lobe-fins show a clear progression from fins used for aquatic locomotion toward jointed limbs used for terrestrial locomotion -Ray bones of fin gradually became digits •Started with ~8 digits •Our 5 are a derived trait

Cretaceous Period (Mesozoic Era)

•Gondwana and Laurasia break apart roughly into current continents (except India) •Sea levels high and Earth warm and wet •Marine invertebrates proliferate •Reptiles continue to diversify (first snakes) •Flowering plants diversify •Mammals starting to diversify •Meteor strike caused mass extinction and ushered in Cenozoic Era

Gnathostomes (Jawed Vertebrates)

•Had *jaws*, hinged structures that, with the aid of teeth and other similar structures, enabled gnathostomes *to grip food firmly and slice it into pieces* •*Paired fins* enhanced locomotion -*Lateral line* system for vibration sensing

Crustaceans (Phylum Arthropoda) [Crabs, Lobsters, Barnacles, Shrimps]

•Highly specialized appendages -Lobsters and crayfish-19 pairs of appendages •2 Antennae, 3 mouthparts, many walking, sexual, and swimming •Cuticle hardened into carapace that covers head and thorax •Sexual; separate sexes-Female often carries fertilized eggs under abdominal segments (tail)

Avian Flight

•Huge expenditure of energy supported by *high metabolism* -*Endothermic* •Air sacs off of lungs improve air flow and allow faster muscle function •*Four-chambered heart* for more efficient circulation •*Extremely acute* vision, hearing, fine motor control, and brain function

Lophotrochozoans (Extreme body form variation)

•Identified by molecular evidence -Name comes from two structures possessed by a few members (lophophore and trochophore larvae... Some members have neither feature) *•Lophophore - circular or U-shaped ring of ciliated, hollow tentacles around mouth •Trochophore - larval form that moves by beating cilia* •18 phyla in Lophotrochozoa-Flatworms, rotifers, molluscs, and annelids are most well known

Importance of Insects

•Important predators, parasites, decomposers •Major link in almost every food web in the world •Primary pollinators of agricultural crops •Eaten by humans in many parts of world •Disease vectors (Trypanosoma, Plasmodium) •Competition for crops

Tertiary Period (Cenozoic Era)

•India collides with Asia and Himalayas begin to form 35 MYBP •Climate hot and humid leading to plant range shifts-Middle Tertiary climate shifted to a cooler and drier climate and caused new innovations •Herbaceous plants proliferate, grasslands spread •Extensive radiations of frogs, snakes, lizards, birds, and mammals-Mammal dispersals from Asia to North America across land bridges (rodents, marsupials, primates, hoofed mammals)

Oligochaetes (Subclass Oligochaeta)

•Lack parapodia, fewer chaetae •Eat soil and extract nutrients from soil -Castings defecated improve soil texture -Aerate and till soil for agricultural use •Hermaphrodites that cross-fertilize -Two individuals align in opposite directions, exchange sperm, and separate -Some asexual via fragmentation and regeneration

Phylum Coniferophyta (Conifers/Gymnosperms)

•Largest gymnosperm phylum with ~700 spp. -Advantage in short growing seasons at high elevations and high latitudes -Many adaptations for cold, short growing seasons •Thick cuticle for water retention •Needle or scale-like leaves for less damage from extreme cold •Some of largest (sequoia), tallest (California redwood) and oldest (bristlecone) organisms on Earth

Origin of Wings (In Insects)

•Likely evolved as "solar panels" to warm up -Other hypotheses: gliding from plant to plant, gills in aquatic insects, swimming •Many modern variations on wings -Two sets of wings operate separately, two sets function as unit, one set modified as a protective covering, etc. -Wings likely evolved from respiratory appendage in ancestor

Class Crinodea (Sea Lilies & Feather Stars) [P. Echinodermata]

•Lilies sessile but Feather Stars crawl around with flexible arms •*Suspension feeders* -Arms surround dorsal mouth •*Little change in 500 million years*

Magnoliids

•Magnolias, laurels, black pepper, cinnamon, and avocados •Share many characteristics with basal angiosperms but considered more closely related to monocots and eudicots

Body Segmentation

•Many animals have bodies divided into segments -Allows specialization of body regions •Independent movement, increased efficiency, etc.

Feathers in Dinosaurs

•Many closely related dinosaurs had feathers -Feathers evolved before powered flight in birds •*Used for insulation, camouflage, courtship displays*

Phylum Annelida (segmented worms)

•Marine, freshwater, and damp soil •Coelomates •Highly segmented body reveals divisions in the coelom-Segments controlled independently by nerve centers in each segment •Exchange gases across their skin (must stay moist)

Fruits

•Mature ovary that develops from carpel of flower -Can include other parts of flower or plant in some fruit types •Mature fruits can either be fleshy or dry -Tomatoes, plums, cucumbers -Beans, nuts, grains •Fruits can aid in dispersal in many ways

Class Scyphozoa (Phylum Cnidaria)

•Medusa form dominates •Classic "Jellyfish" •Coastal species go through small polyp stage but open water species lack polyp stage

volcanic activity

•Most eruptions only produce local and short-term effects but some have had global and long-lasting effects-Krakatau (1883) reduced global temperatures ~1.2°C and changed weather patterns for 5 years •Major events can produce much stronger effects -Continents colliding and tearing apart •Permian Extinction

Class Clitellata

•Most have far fewer bristles on each segment than polychaetes •Less mobile than polychaetes -Slow burrowers, tube-dwellers •Two major clades within Clitellata -Oligochaetes -Leeches

Protostome traits

•Most numerous by species and individual count -Considered the most successful format of bilateral organisms *•Blastopore of gastrula becomes mouth of the digestive tract* •Anterior brain that surrounds the entrance to the digestive tract *•Ventral nervous system with paired or fused longitudinal cords*

Apes Characteristics

•Nonhuman apes only in old world tropics •Large primates •Long arms, short legs, and no external tail •Highly social •Large brains and extremely plastic (flexible) behavior

Myriapods (Phylum Arthropoda)

•Numerous body segments with distinct head •Head has pair of antennae and three pairs of appendages modified as mouthparts -Mandibles •Millipedes have 2 pairs of legs/segment -Eat decaying plant matter •Centipedes have 1 pair of legs/segment -Carnivorous; poison claws on first body segment to paralyze prey and defend

*Mesohyl*

a gelatinous region between the two layers of cells of a sponge

Plasmids (Binary Fission)

a genetic structure in a cell that can replicate independently of the chromosomes, typically a small circular DNA strand in the cytoplasm of a bacterium or protozoan. Plasmids are much used in the laboratory manipulation of genes.

*Style*

a long, slender stalk that connects the stigma and the ovary

Hexapoda (Insecta)

•Oldest fossils ~416 MYBP -Evolution of flight caused diversity explosion -Also increased diversity when seed plants and fruited plants evolved (insects filled the seed -eating and fruit-eating niche) •*3 body segments (head, thorax, abdomen)* -3 pairs of legs on thorax; none on abdomen -2 pairs of wings also on thorax in most

Phylum Porifera (sponges)

•Only phylum to lack true tissues (monoblastic) •Sessile-adult attached to substrate; not free-living •Most marine, some freshwater •Suspension feeders-capture food suspended in water passing through body •Sequential hermaphrodites-individuals able to make both sex gametes; not at same time -Sperm released and fertilize different sponge -Zygotes flagellated, free-swimming larvae

Class Amphibia

•Order *Urodela-salamanders* -Aquatic or terrestrial, neoteny common where adult retains larval traits (gills in aquatic spp.) •Order *Anura-frogs and toads* -Specialized for land with "hopping" hind legs, tongue modified for projection from mouth, skin glands secrete distasteful or toxic compounds •Order *Apoda-caecilians* -Legless, nearly blind, burrow in moist soil or live in freshwater

*Triploblastic*

•Organisms have 3 germ layers -Endoderm, ectoderm, and mesoderm -Derived synapomorphy that unites all who possess it into a monophyletic clade

Clade Osteichthyes (Bony Fish)

•Ossified (bony) endoskeleton hardened with calcium phosphate -Clade now includes tetrapods though the name refers only to fishes

Class Polyplacophora (Chitons) [Phylum Mollusca]

•Oval shaped body with *8 dorsal plates* surrounded by an extension of the mantle -Girdle •*Suction cup* foot clings to rocks •Radula used to scrape algae from rocks

Eudicots

•Over 170,000 spp. •Two cotyledons •Branching venation •Floral parts in multiples of four or five •Vascular bundles arranged in a ring •Taproot system most common •Most commonly known plants

Jurassic Period (Mesozoic Era)

•Pangaea fully divided into Gondwana (southern) and Laurasion (northern) •Ray-finned fishes diversify in oceans •Lizards and flying reptiles (pterosaurs) appear •Dinosaurs are dominant terrestrial group •Mammals appear but are rare •Flowering plants appear but are rare

Triassic Period (Mesozoic Era)

•Pangea still connected but dividing •Invertebrates proliferating in oceans •Conifers and seed ferns were dominant trees •First frogs and turtles •Rapid reptile diversification including crocodilians, dinosaurs (and birds) •Mass extinction ends Triassic and ushers in Jurassic

Eumetazoans

•Possess some form of body symmetry, a gut, a nervous system, and tissues organized into distinct organs

*Proglottids* (Tapeworm)

a segment of a tapeworm containing both male and female reproductive organs

*Pharyngeal Gill Slits (Or Clefts)*

•Pouches that *develop from pharynx posterior to mouth* -*Most* develop into slits that open to the outside to *become gill slits* •Allow water flow into mouth without water continuing through rest of digestive tract •Aid in suspension feeding and aquatic respiration -*In tetrapods*, do not become slits instead they are *involved in inner ear bone formation and other structures of head and neck*

Angiosperms (flowering plants)

•Produce reproductive structures called flowers and fruits ("angio-"=enclosed) •250,000 spp; ~85% of all land plants •Single Phylum: Anthophyta -Two key adaptations •Flowers- structure specialized for sexual reproduction •Fruits- mature ovary and other portions of plant surrounding seeds

Phylum Rotifera (rotifers)

•Pseudocoelomates with a hydrostatic skeleton to maintain pressure for movement •Corona - "Crown" of cilia create water current for feeding •Some are parthenogenetic: population exists entirely of females that produce more females from unfertilized eggs

Class Anthozoa (Phylum Cnidaria)

•Sea anemones and corals •Polyps only, solitary or colonial -Many secrete hard, calcium carbonate skeleton that builds on layers from previous generations •Corals •Reefs offer habitat to numerous other species -Second in diversity only to tropical rainforests

Leeches (subclass Hirudinea)

•Segments not internally divided •Anterior/posterior suckers •Many predators but some parasites -Parasites use blade -like jaw to slit skin or secrete enzymes that eat hole in skin •Host oblivious because of anesthetic in saliva •Another secretion, hirudin, prevents coagulation •Medicinal Leeches

Phylum Ctenophora (comb jellies)

•Sister Clade to all other animals -Hox genes and other genes present in other animals absent in comb jellies •Diploblastic, radially symmetrical •Complete gut with two openings (mouth and anus) •Lack muscular tissue - move via cilia-8 rows of cilia-bearing plates called ctenes •Tentacles possess sticky material to capture prey •Sexual reproduction happens outside the body using gametes ejected out the mouth/anus

Phylum Mollusca [Mollusks]

•Snails, slugs, oysters and clams, and octopuses and squids •All soft-bodied and most secrete hard, protective shell of calcium carbonate -Slugs, squids, and octopuses have reduced or absent internal shell •Digestive System: Alimentary Canal •Nervous System: simple but highly complex in Cephalopods •Circulatory System: Open Circulation in all but Cephalopods (closed); Coelomates

Human Dependence on Seed plants

•Soil formation and retention; protect against wind and water forces; climate moderation •80% of all calories consumed by humans come from 12 seed plant crops -Maize (corn), rice, wheat, potatoes, cassava, sweet potatoes, coconut, sugarcane, sugar beet, soybean, common bean, and banana •Over half of humans derive most calories from rice alone •Livestock feed, tea, coffee, chocolate, spices •Wood for construction and paper •Numerous medicine

Tracheal System of Insects (Insect Respiration)

•Spiracles along side of body allow air to enter system -Air diffuses thru tracheae and surrounds body tissues -Diffuses into tissues around tracheae

Parasitic Platyhelminthes

•Suckers to attach to substrates •Reproductive structures take up most of interior of species -Reproductive machines that increase likelihood of continued life cycle with more offspring •Two major groups: trematodes and tapeworms

*Muscular Post-Anal Tail*

•Tail that extends posteriorly to anus -Greatly reduced in many species during embryonic development -Skeletal and muscular elements aid in locomotion •Most nonchordates have a digestive tract that extends entire length of body

Tetrapod Traits

•Tetrapods have *4 limbs* with feet modified for supporting weight and locomotion •Head separated from body by *neck* -*2nd cervical vertebra* for side-to-side motion •*Pelvic girdle* fused to spine and thickened •*Lack of gills* (with exceptions) -Pharyngeal clefts give rise to inner ear bones, some glands

The Mollusk Body

•Three common structures but wide variation: -Muscular *foot* used for movement -*Visceral mass* containing most internal organs •Heart, digestive, excretory, and reproductive organs -*Mantle* •May form fluid-filled chamber, mantle cavity, that houses gills, anus, excretory pores •Many have straplike organ, *radula*

*Coelom*

•Triploblastic animals have a body cavity, or (Blank) between the digestive tract and the outer body wall.

Class Reptilia

•Tuataras, Lizards, Snakes, Turtles, Crocodilians, & Birds. •Broad diversity but several shared characters -*Keratinaceous scales (skin is water-tight)* •Respiration through *large lungs* because skin is unavailable -*Lay shelled eggs* on land, internal fert. -Most *ectothermic (except birds)*

Movement System (Kingdom Animalia)

•Two Cell types only found in animals *-Muscle cells -Nerve cells* •Ability to move and conduct nerve impulses give animals many of their unique characteristics and differentiates them from plants and fungi

Crocodilians (Alligators & Crocodiles)

•Very old lineage beginning in the late Triassic -Early crocodilians were small, terrestrial, and walked on long thin legs •Recent members *more adapted to aquatic habitat* with spraddled legs and upturned nostrils •*Provide parental care to offspring* •*4 chambered heart* - complete double circulation

Fossorial

adapted for digging

birds respiratory system

air enters the body into the posterior air sacs for "storage"--bird exhales and that air enters the lungs--second breath pushes air from lungs into anterior air sacs--second exhalation pushes air out of body as another breath enters the lungs (gets fresh air from inhalation and exhalation); exchange referred to as crosscurrent

Primary Production

amount of light converted to chemical energy by autotrophs during a given time period. -sets the "energy budget" for an area -Higher production means more energy available and more life that can be supported by the system

*Swim Bladder

an air-filled sac near the spinal column in many fishes that helps maintain buoyancy. -Developed from *lungs in early osteichthyans*

*Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi*

*Extend branching hyphae through root cell wall into invaginations of root cell plasma membrane.*

*Leaves*

*Flattened protions of a plant that increase surface area and perform photosynthetic functions for plants.*

*Ectomycorrhizal Fungi*

*From sheaths of hyphae over the surface of a root and typically grow into extracellular spaces of root cortex.*

*Plasmogamy*

*If mycelia are different mating types (+/-), hyphae fuse.* -Haploid nuclei form mycelium pair up but do not fuse, results in a secondary mycelium.

*Mycelium*

*Fungal mat formed by haphae evolved to increase surface area.* -more hyphae touching soil means more space to absorb nutrients from surrounding area. -Excellent at absorbing nutrients and water

Characteristics of Bryophytes

*Haploid gametophytes are DOMINANT stage of life cycle (ONLY plant group like this).* -Larger and Longer-lived -Diploid sporophyte present short period of time; nutritionally dependent on gametophyte (no photosynthesis)

*Gametangium*

*Haploid structure that goes through mitosis to produce numerous haploid gametes.* -Gametes fuse to form an embryo which grows into the sporophyte generation. -In the Gametophyte Generation

*Septate*

*Hyphae have cross walls(septa) that section off portions of hyphae.* -Have pores large enough for most organelles (not nucleus) and cellular nutrients to pass through.

*Coenocytic*

*Hyphae lack septa so they are one mass of cytoplasm which contains hundreds or thousands of nuclei.* -Results from mitosis but no cytokinesis

*Monotremes* (1/3 Extant Mammals)

*Egg laying* mammals. •Platypus and four echidnas •Have hair and create milk -*Lack nipples*, milk drips onto tufts of hair for young to lap up

*Seed*

*Embryo and its food supply surrounded by a protective coat.* -Can survive long periods of time away from parent because of food supply and protective coat

Mycorrhizea Fungi

*Entered into symbiotic relationships with plants to exchange nutrients.* -*Haustoria* -2 Types: 1. *Ectomycorrhizal Fungi* 2. *Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi*

*Dikaryon*

*A cell of a fungal hypha or mycelium containing two haploid nuclei of different strains.* -Eventually produces complex fruiting body (n+n) where karyogamy occurs in specialized cells.

*Cleavage*

*A series of mitotic divisions without cell growth* •Zygote does not enlarge but undergoes cell division •During this most animal zygotes form into a *blastula*

*Vascular Cambium*

*Adds layers of vascular tissue called secondary xylem(wood) and secondary phloem.* -Increases vascular flow as tree ages. -Adds one layer of secondary xylem ea. year to form concentric rings of secondary xylem. a. # of rings = Age of tree -Heartwood & Sapwood

Seven Traits that allowed life on land (Movement away from water came with a price)

*Ancestors of Land Plants were all aquatic and had little pressure to retain water. Movement onto land (NO competition and NO herbivory) required adaptations:* 1. Cuticle 2. Embryos 3. Gametangia 4. Mutualistic Relationships 5. Pigments 6. Sporangia 7. Stomata

Sori (VT)

*Are clusters of sporangia that each produce numerous spores on each frond.*

*Haustoria*

*Branching projections that push through cell walls into living plant cells to extract nutrients from those cells.* -Also used in mutualistic fungi that help plants.

*Phloem*

*Cells specialized to move sugars, amino acids, and other organic products.*

*Xylem*

*Cells specialized to move water and minerals.* -Main cells tracheids that are hardened by a polymer called *lignin (Strength and Support)*

*Strobili*

*Clusters of spore-bearing microphylls at the tip of a stem.*

*Phragmoplast*

*Complex of microtubules formed between daughter nuclei during mitosis; starting point of cell plate formation during cytokineses.* -Used during mitosis and cytokinesis

*Peat*

*Dense mats that decompose in water to form decomposed masses of plant matter.* -Flammable and used as fuel by many humans -If continually compressed, it becomes coal.

*Sporangium*

*Diploid structure that goes through meiosis to produce numerous haploid, unicellular spores.* -Spores grow via mitosis to produce haploid gametophyte generation. -In the Sporophyte Gen.

Seedless Vascular Plants in the Carboniferous

*Diversity and density of SVPs caused dramatic DROPS in atmospheric CARBON MONOXIDE (CO2)* -Global cooling and glacier formation; *Ice Ages resulted* -Fern and Lycophyte forests mainly grew in Carboniferous swamps and never completely decayed; *Coal formations almost all from Carboniferous forests*

*Pseudocoelomates*

-Coelom formed from mesoderm and endoderm that is disconnected from the digestive cavity.

Nonvascular Plants (bryophytes)

-Collectively referred to as "Bryophytes" -Herbaceous, small, ground-covering plants -Require water for reproduction -Lack Leaves, stems, and roots: Water and minerals move through dense mats of nonvascular via capillary action and diffusion. -3 Phyla: 1. Phylum Marchantiophyta (liverworts) 2. Phylum Bryophyta (mosses) 3. Phylum Anthocerophyta (hornworts)

Phylum Anthocerophyta (Hornworts)

-Common name refers to horn-like long tapered shape of sporangium (sporophyte) -Cells contain single, large plate-like chloroplast -Good colonizers of open, moist soils; Symbiotic relationship with nitrogen fixing bacteria.

Phylum Lycophyta (Club mosses, spike mosses, and quillworts)

-Current species are all small; Ground cover or epiphytes that grow on other plants. -Most form strobili that house sporophylls. a. Strobili b. Microphylls c. Sporophyll

Phylum Chytridiomycota

-Decomposers or parasites of protists, other fungi, plants, and animals. -Early divergence from fungal ancestors, shares fungal characteristics: (a) Chitin Cell Wall (b) Enzymes and Metabolic Pathways (c) Some form hyphae in colonies -*Only fungi to possess flagellated zoo-spores gametes.*

Ecological Roles of Fungi

-Decomposers that break down dead organic tissue; nature's recycler. -Parasites that feed mainly on plants and insects. a. Athlete's Foot *Trichophyton* b. Many produce specialized hyphae called *Haustoria*

Green Algae (Archaeplastida)

-Divided into charaphytes and chlorophytes. -Chlorophytes are extremely variable: Unicellular, colonial, multicellular Freshwater, marine, terrestrial

Bilateral Symmetry Terms

-Dorsal: top side -Ventral: bottom side -Anterior: front end -Posterior: back end -*Cephalization*

Phylum Echinodermata

-Epidermis covers *endoskeleton* of calcareous plates •Epidermis covers internal skeleton and has spines or bumps on it -Water Vascular System: a. serves as gas exchange system as well b. Tube feet for locomotion -They have *Pentaradial Symmetry* -Sea Stars, Urchins, Sea Daisies

Archegonium (Female Gametangium)

-Female Gametangium -Multicellular structure that produces eggs in nonvascular land plants, ferns, gymnosperms. -Haploid structure making haploid eggs via mitosis.

Major Biological Events

-First Single-celled organism - Eukaryotes - Multicellularity - Cambrian Explosion - Colonization of Land

Microsporidia

-Unicellular parasites among smallest eukaryotes known. -Lack true mitochondria -Cell is chitin -Obligate parasites with *polar tube* used to *inject spore contents into host*.

Plant Growth

-Plants exhibit indeterminate growth because they have meristems. -Apical meristems at the tips of roots and shoots, also known as Primary Growth. -Lateral meristems are only present in woody plants also known as secondary Growth.

Ingroup

-Presumed to share a common ancestor and be more closely related to each other than any one is related to the Outgroup species -Species group we are studying

Phylum Ascomycota

-Produce spores (ascospores) in saclike asci during sexual reproduction. -Develop fruiting bodies (*ascocarps*); contain spore forming asci. -Some unicellular but others elaborate multicellular structures.

Predator Strategies

-Pursuit -Venom -Mechanical advantages; Fangs, speed, wide jaws -Intelligence

Red Algae (Archaeplastida)

-Reddish color from photosynthetic pigment, absorbs light wavelengths that penetrate deeper in ocean, found at 260m depth. -Multicellular; nori used in sushi -Diverse life cycles with no flagellated stage.

Phylum Arthropoda (Arthropods)

-Regarded as most successful of all animal phyla •*First appeared in Cambrian* (535MYBP) but were very simple and all body segments were almost identical -Segments have now fused, been reduced in number, and become specialized for certain purposes

Prey Strategies

-Speed to flee -Flight -Mechanical Defenses; tough skin or shell, spines, hair -Avoiding detection -chemical defenses

Phylum Bryophyta (Mosses)

-Sporophyte grows up from female gametophyte to gain elevation for spore dispersal. -Possess stomata for gas exchange -Simple transport tissue not homologous to vascular tissue of later plants. -Genus *Sphagnum* forms *peat*

Factor affecting rate of decomposition

-Temperature: decomposition occurs more rapidly in WARM, MOIST locations -Water availability -Nutrient availability

Diversity of Fungi

-Traditional methods of distinguishing among fungi involves looking at *Sexual Structures*.

Steps of Eukaryotic Origin

1. Flexible Cell Surface; loss of cell wall to allow flexibility. Lack of wall allows increased surface area to maintain surface area to volume ratio. 2. Cell Structure/Function Changes: protein based cytoskeleton, internal membrane with ribosomes, formation of nucleus, flagellum formation, digestive vacuoles. 3. Endosymbiosis: origin of mitochondrion and chloroplast.

*Simple Fruit*

A fruit derived from a single carpel or several fused carpels.

Phylum Chordata Subphyla

3 Subphyla: •Subphylum Cephalochordata (invertebrates) •Subphylum Urochordata (invertebrates) •Subphylum Vertebrata (vertebrates)

*Multiple Fruit*

A fruit derived from an inflorescence, a group of flowers tightly clustered together.

*Aggregate Fruit*

A fruit such as a blackberry that develops from a single flower that has several carpels.

Mircroevolution

5 possible causes of Mircroevolution: 1. Mutation 2. Natural Selection 3. Genetic Drift: a force of allele frequency change that is random and does not have a goal 4. Gene Flow 5. Sexual Selection: individuals with certain inherited characteristics are more likely than other individuals to obtain mates

*Accessory Fruit*

A fruit, or assemblage of fruits, in which the fleshy parts are derived largely or entirely from tissues other than the ovary.

Cambrian Explosion

A burst of evolutionary origins when most of the major body plans of animals appeared in a relatively brief time in geologic history; recorded in the fossil record about 545 to 525 million years ago. -Echinoderms -Chordates -Brachiopods -Annelids -Arthropods

*Nematocysts* (Phylum Cnidaria)

A capsule within specialized cells in the tentacles of cnidarians, such as jellyfish and corals, containing a barbed, threadlike tube that delivers a toxic sting to predators and prey.

Pseudopodia

A cellular extension of amoeboid cells used in moving and feeding.

*Alimentary Canal*

A digestive tract consisting of a tube running between a mouth and an anus; also called a complete digestive tract.

Genetic Drift (Microevolution)

A force of allele frequency change that is random it does not have a goal - The smaller the population the more vulnerable - In relatively large populations, the frequencies of the alleles remain relatively constant. As the population size gets smaller, the chance of an allele becoming fixed or lost is more likely - Harmful alleles may increase in frequency and rare advantages alleles may be lost - Founder Events: the new population (always small) proportion of alleles is likely to be unbalanced and create rapid evolution - Bottleneck Effect: You have a big population and most of them get wiped out and the remaining population survive by a "bottleneck" ex. African Cheetah

Binary fission

A form of asexual reproduction in single-celled organisms by which one cell divides into two cells of the same size

*Double Fertilization*

A mechanism of fertilization in angiosperms, in which two sperm cells unite with two cells in the embryo sac to form the zygote and endosperm.

Tentacles (Phylum Cnidaria)

A narrow, flexible, unjointed part extending from the body of certain animals, such as an octopus, jellyfish, or sea anemone. -Used for feeling, grasping, or moving.

*Micropyle*

A pore in the integuments of an ovule

*Placenta*

A structure that allows an embryo to be nourished with the mother's blood supply.

Trophic Levels

A subdivision of a food web that includes species that have similar ways of interacting and obtaining energy. -Primary producers, Primary consumers, Secondary consumers, tertiary and higher consumers, detritivores/decomposers

Diatoms (Stramenopiles)

A unicellular photosynthetic alga with a unique glassy cell wall containing silica. -Major componenet of phytoplankton o2 production

*Cuticle*

A waxy covering on the surface of stems and leaves that acts as an adaptation to prevent desiccation in terrestrial plants.

*Karyogamy*

After plasmogamy, nuclei from two parent mycelia fuse to produce a true diploid cell. -Then immediately undergo meiosis to produce haploid spores

*Dikaryotic*

After plasmogamy, some species' nuclei pair off two to a cell -Only found in Ascomycota and Basidiomycota

Apicomplexans (Alveolates)

All animal parasites, some cause severe human diseases. Nutrition: parasite Locomotive: one end of cell (apex) contains a complex of organelles specialized for penetrating host cells. Unique Trait: Complex life cycles with both sexual and asexual phases

nutritional mode of animals

All are heterotrophic and must ingest food to digest it inside a gut (continuous with outside!)...some notable exceptions -Fungi all heterotrophic but exhibit external digestion and absorption

*Cuticle* (Ecdysozoans)

All members secrete tough exterior -Protection, support, muscle attachment -Metabolically inert - doesn't grow once hardened •Must be shed and regrown as organism enlarges

Prokaryotic Cell (two Domains)

All of life today or oin the past can be traced back to the prokaryote. -Unicellular organism that do not have a nucleus or other membrane bound organelles -2 Domains: Bacteria and Archaea

*Suspension Feeders*

An aquatic animal, such as a clam or a baleen whale, that sifts small food particles from the water

*Gastrula*

An embryonic stage in animal development encompassing the formation of three layers: ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm.

Limiting Factors

An environmental variable that limits or slows the growth/activity of organisms in a given area. ex. Water, Sunlight, Nest site locations, food, competition, etc

Cercozoans (Rhizarians)

Amoeboid and flagellated protists that feed with threadlike pseudopodia. Are Heterotrophs: Parasites or Predators Some members possess a plastid that originated from secondary endosymbiosis. -Plastid retains trace amounts of the engulfed algae's nucleus

Synapomorphies

Among apomorphies, some are shared apomorphies that two or more taxa have in common

Traits that divide groups

Among embryophytes, several traits divide groups: *-Presence of Stomata -Sporophyte Appearance -Vascular Tissue -Leaf Type -Existence of Seeds -Existence of Flowers*

*Endotherms* (Birds)

An animal that is dependent on or capable of the internal generation of heat; a warm-blooded animal. -Maintains body heat metabolically

Methanogens

Anaerobes generate methane when they reduces CO2 in energy production. -Create 80-90% of all methane in the atmostphere, many live in gut of mammals and produce flatus

plesiomorphic trait

Ancestral characters (those possessed by the common ancestor and all taxa on the tree)

Protist

Are an informal group of very small, mostly unicellular, mostly aquatic eukaryotes that were formerly lumped into kingdom protista. -Was polyphyletic -"Protist" still used but refers only to eukaryotes that are not plants, animals, or fungi.

*Lateral Meristems* (Secondary Growth)

Are only present in woody plants and allow growth in circumference also known as secondary growth.

Autapomorphies

Are present in ONLY ONE taxon and make that taxon UNIQUE from the others

Exotoxins

Are soluble proteins released by living, multiplying bacteria.

Transduction

Bacteriophages transfer prokaryotic genes from one host to the other. -Usually an accident in viral replication

Gene Duplication

By itself it only does gene duplication; but does not affect variation, it does however *create a possibility for mutation to happen* if it messes up and duplicates something multiple times -*Source of genetic variation*

*Opposable Thumb*

Can touch ventral side of each finger with thumb of same hand...dexterity -Only in monkeys and apes

paraphyletic clade

Clades include 1 common ancestor and some, but NOT ALL, descendants of the ancestor

Polyphyletic clade

Clades include multiple distantly related taxa that do not share one common ancestor in the clade

*Basidium*

Club shaped cell in which meiosis occurs to generate haploid basidiospores. -*4 per Basidium*

Diplo

Common organizational Arrangements

Staphylo

Common organizational Arrangements

Strepto

Common organizational Arrangements

Extracellular Matrix (Traits all Animals have in common)

Common set of (blank) molecules (Collagen and Proteoglycans) replace the cell wall (absent in animals)

Competition (biology)

Competition occurs when resources are LIMITED. -All species require certain resources -Multiple species often occupy similar niches and need the same limited resources, results in the niche of each species changing

trophic structure

Compilation of the feeding relationships that exist among members of a community. -Uses trophic Levels; a subdivision of a food web that includes species that have a similar ways of interacting and obtaining energy -Food Web; representation of the trophic or energetic connections among members of a community

*Apical Dominance*

Concentration of growth at the tip of a plant shoot, where a terminal bud partially inhibits axillary bud growth.

*Radial Symmetry*

Condition in which any two halves of a body are mirror images of each other, providing the cut passes through the center.

*Bilateral Symmetry*

Condition in which only the right and left sides of an organism, divided by a single plane through the midline, are mirror images of each other.

*Asymmetry*

Condition in which the body lacks a plane through which body can be divided into mirror images.

*Phloem*

Conducts photosynthates downward from leaves to areas of need (roots, apical and axillary meristems, fruit).

*Xylem*

Conducts water and dissolved minerals upward from roots into the shoots.

3 Chambered Heart Diagram

Congenital abnormality in which there may be a single atrium with two ventricles or a single ventricle with two atria. -Deoxygenated blood returning from the body empties into the right atrium.

Cell Wall (bacterial cell)

Contain PEPTIDOGLYCAN instead of cellulose or chitin. -Polymer composed of modified sugars cross linked by short polypeptides -Can be Gram+ or Gram-

*Amniote Egg*

Contains 4 membranes; amnion, chorion, yolk sac, and allantois. -Function in gas exchange, waterproofing, waste storage, and nutrient storage -Shell (calcified) surrounds amniote eggs or egg is lost entirely and embryo retained in mother

Slime Molds (Amoebozoans) (Unikonta)

Convergent with fungi because they produce fruiting bodies that aid in spore dispersal. 2 unique forms distinguished by life cycles: 1. Plasmodial slime molds 2. Cellular slime molds

*Carapace*

Cuticle hardened, that covers head and thorax

Molecular Data (systematics)

DEF: Comparison of DNA, RNA, or proteins among organisms can reveal evolutionary relatedness -More similar taxa have more similar DNA sequences or protein structure

Monophyletic Clade

DEF: Group includes the common ancestor and ALL descendants of that ancestor -The IDEAL clade

Paleontology (systematics)

DEF: Helps distinguish ancestral and derived traits; reveals when lineages diverged; studying extinct species can help reveal evolutionary history of extant species -A way we measure for relatedness

Outgroup

DEF: Species or group of species from an evolutionary lineage known to have diverged before the lineage of the species we are studying -Should be the most closely related species to the Ingroup (share a common ancestor but does not belong to the same clade as those being studied)

principle of parsimony

DEF: The preferred explanation (tree) of observed data is the simplest explanation -If we are comparing two trees, the one that requires the fewest evolutionary changes is most likely the tree that best reflects evolutionary relatedness

Behavioral (systematics)

DEF: if a behavior is genetically controlled, that common behavior can indicate evolutionary relatedness among organisms possessing it -Only matters in systematics if it is GENETICALLY CONTROLLED and NOT LEARNED. -Way of determining RELATEDNESS

Development (systematics)

DEF: some traits are present as an embryo develops but are lost as an adult -Ex. Sea squirt larva and Frog Larva (tadpole) -1 way we measure for relatedness

Conjugation

DNA transfer from one prokaryote to another through a sex pilus which temporarily joins two members of the same species.

*Torsion* (Snails & Slugs)

Developmental process where visceral mass rotates 180⁰ causing anus and mantle cavity to rest above head

Gene Variation

Differences in the genetic makeup of individuals in a population.

*Gastrovascular Cavity*

Digestive chamber with a single opening, in which cnidarians, flatworms, and echinoderms digest food

*Gastrovascular Cavity* (Phylum Platyhelminthes)

Digestive system: Branched to deliver nutrients directly to cells via diffusion -Digestive system which functions to both break down food and circulate that food around the body •One opening functions as mouth and anus -Parasitic species lack digestive system completely

oxygen fluctuations

Early aquatic prokaryotes were the first to evolve the ability to photosynthesize -Process generated free oxygen (O2) dissolved in ocean water •Reacted with dissolved iron to form iron oxide which sedimented out (dated layer) -Once reacted with all dissolved iron, O2 began to "gas out" into the atmosphere •Reacted with iron-rich terrestrial rock to form rust •Oldest iron rust formations date this process to ~2.7 BYBP (at least 2.4BYBP)

Quaternary Period (Cenozoic Era)

Early drastic cooling and climate fluctuations via 4 major and 20 minor ice ages -Glaciers changed geology, forced animals and plants to move to the equator, and altered water patterns •Divergence of primates led to hominoid lineages -Gave rise to Homo sapiens •Our range expansion led to extinctions of numerous species in Australia and North America

*Basidiocarp*

Elaborate fruiting body of a dikaryotic mycelium of a club fungus. -The mushroom

Limiting Nutrient

Element that must be added for production to increase. -In aquatic systems, most often phosphorus or nitrogen -Supplies rapidly taken up by plankton and sources of new elements (dead stuff) sinks to bottom

*Spiral Cleavage*

Embryonic development in which the planes of cell division are at oblique angeles to the animal-vegetal axis of the embryo

*Radial Cleavage*

Embryonic development in which the planes of cell division are parallel and perpendicular to the animal-vegetal axis of the embryo

Movement of Energy through a system

Energy flows and chemicals cycle through the ecosystem. -Ecosystems can only use energy that is received and absorbed by photosynthetic primary producers -Energy is not a closed cycle because some it is constantly lost (heat) and added (sun) -10% moves to the next level, other 90% lost as heat

Red Tide

Episodes of explosive population growth in dinoflagellates that makes water appear red or pink due to carotenoids in plastids

Nitrogen Fixation

Eukaryotes can use very few forms of nitrogen (such as ammonia) but some prokaryotes can convert atmospheric nitrogen (n2) to ammonia (NH3) for use in metabolism. -Some species entered into symbiotic relationships with plants and other organisms to provide use able forms of nitrogen to the plant and gain water from the plant

Nutritional Adaptations

Every possible mehtod found in prokaryotes. -Because of their evolutionary "head start", prokaryotes are the most ecologically diverse organisms in the world. -2 of 4 nutritional categories, photoheterotroph and chemoautotroph, are only occupied by prokaryotes

character displacement

Evolutionary phenomenon in which species that compete for the same limiting resources diverge in morphology or behavior. -Coexistence achieved through specialization

Reduced Gametophytes

Evolutionary trend away from prevalence of gametophyte during plant evolution •Gametophytes of seed plants are microscopic -Tiny gametophyte can develop from spores retained within sporangia of parental sporophyte •Protects gametophyte from environmental stress, UV radiation, dessication •Allows gametophyte to gain nutrition from sporophyte

*Cephalization* (Bilateral Symmetry Terms)

Evolutionary trend toward increasing concentration of brain and sensory organs at the anterior end of the animal

*Tube Feet*

Extensions of an echinoderm's water vascular system that stick out from the body and function in movement and obtaining food.

*Suberin*

Fatty material found in the cell walls of cork tissue and in the Casparian strip of the endodermis

Hypoxic Zone in the Gulf of Mexico

Fertilizer runoff into Mississippi River leads to eutrophication of Gulf of Mexico -"Dead Zone" with little marine life because of hypoxic zones

Copepods (Crustacean Diversity) [Phylum Arthropoda]

Marine and freshwater members of plankton and krill community -Some herbivorous, some predators

*Open Circulation*

Hemolymph leaves vessels of system, percolates between cells and tissues, then flows back into system to be pumped out again by a heart.

*Choanocytes* (Porifera Anatomy)

Flagellated cells that create microcurrent to suck food particles into fingerlike projections forming a collar around the cell; engulf food via phagocytosis.

Oomycetes (Stramenopiles)

Filamentous and Stationary -Absorptive Hetertrophs; vomit on their food so it breaks it into smaller pieces for it to be able to absorb it -Cellulose Cell Wall

*Leaf Primordia*

Fingerlike projections along the flanks of a shoot apical meristem, from which leaves arise.

Cyanobacteria

First photosynthesizers in the World; AKA blue green bacteria; use chlorophyll A as photosynthetic pigment and release O2 as waste.

*Mantle Cavity* (The Mollusk Body)

Fluid-filled chamber, that houses gills, anus, excretory pores

*Mantle* (The Mollusk Body)

Fold of tissue that drapes over visceral mass and secretes calcium carbonate shell •May form fluid-filled chamber, mantle cavity, that houses gills, anus, excretory pores

*Axillary Buds*

Form in the upper angle where leaves attach to a stem. -Form lateral shoots we call branches.

*Ammonites*

Fossil cephalopods were dominant marine invertebrate predators for hundreds of millions of years -Extinct in Cretaceous with dinosaurs -Got huge-2m in diameter (really big then)

Earth changed over 4.5 billion year history

Fossils from Antarctica reveal: •Warm, tropical oceans ~250 MYBP •Covered in hardwood forests for several hundred million years •3m tall predatory "terror birds" and 7m long Cryolophosaurus present on the continent

Transformation

Genotype/Phenotype of prokaryotes altered by uptake of foreign DNA from surroundings. -Many cells have cell-surface proteins that recognize DNA from closely related species and transport them into the cell for incorporation.

Subgroup Rhizaria

Great Morphological diversity -all unicellular and most aquatic Amoebas in group have threadlike pseudopodia (locomotive) that help them move around. 3 Subgroups: 1. Radiolarians 2. Forams 3. Cercozoans

*Sepal*

Green petal-like parts at the base of the flower for protection.

*Mesophyll* (Leaf Structure)

Ground Tissue in leaf is made by this. -Packed with chlorophyll; main site of photosynthesis. -2 layers in eudicots (palisade and spongy mesophyll)

*Pith*

Ground tissue inside the vascular bundles.

*Cortex*

Ground tissue outside the vascular bundles.

Biological Communities

Group of species living together at the same place and time with the possibility to interact. Because there can be thousands or hundreds of thousands of species in a community, biologist use a subset of species to define a community -Subsets can be based on taxonomy (all amphibians), guild (Group that uses similar resources), or functional group (group that performs a similar task) We most commonly study a community's trophic structure before doing anything else

Functional group subset

Group that performs a similar tasks in the community

Guild Subset

Group that uses similar resources

Forensic Analysis

HIV strain identified in a victim as the same strain in a physician's patient...... physician injected HIV+ patient's blood into former girlfriend to kill her

Dry-Nosed Primates (1/2 Extant Primates)

Haplorhines •Tarsiers, New World Monkeys, Old World Monkeys, and Apes -Mostly originated in Africa and Asia but radiated elsewere »New Worlds have prehensile tail for grasping

Batesian mimicry

Harmless species looks like a dangerous species.

Keystone Species

Have strong community wide effects, not because of their size or abundance but because of the important role they play in communities. -Mostly create trophic cascades that effect community many levels away from the keystone level

*Dioecious*

Having male and female reproductive organs in separate plants or animals

resource partitioning (competitive Coexistence)

If two species share a resource, the most common mechanism is called (blank). -Sharing of limited resources by using them in different ways, thereby allowing them to coexist -Coexistence achieved through specialization: +Character displacement

Competition (-/-) non trophic

Individuals compete for a resource that limits their growth and survival. -Weeds in a garden compete with garden plants for water, soil nutrients -Grasshoppers and bison compete for grass -Competition can be over food, water, space, nest sites, and sunlight

basal taxon

In a specified group of organisms, a taxon whose evolutionary lineage diverged early in the history of the group.

*Endosperm*

In angiosperms, a nutrient-rich tissue formed by the union of a sperm with two polar nuclei during double fertilization. Provides nourishment to the developing embryo in angiosperm seeds.

*Zygosporangium*

In zygomycete fungi, a sturdy multinucleate structure in which karyogamy and meiosis occur.

Gene Sequences (Traits all Animals have in common)

Indicate monophyly through a common ancestor

*Endoderm*

Innermost of germ layers delineated during gastrulation; gives rise to digestive and respiratory tracts and structures associated with them

interspecific interactions

Interactions between individuals of different species. -Predation -Competition -Positive Interactions -Amensalisms

Describing Interactions

Interactions involve 2 species that BOTH experience effects of the interaction: -BOTH can be benefited (+/+) -Both can experience detrimental effects (-/-) -One benefits and one suffers (+/-) -One benefits and one is unaffected (+/0)

*Stomata* (Leaf Structure)

Interrupt the epidermis of leaves. -Pores that allow exchange of O2 and CO2 between leaf and atmosphere. -Each stomata flanked by two guard cells.

*Heterokaryon*

Is a multinucleate cell that contains genetically different nuclei.

*Cnidocytes* (Phylum Cnidaria)

Is an explosive cell containing one giant secretory organelle or cnida. Cnidae are used for prey capture and defense from predators.

Aquatic Production

Is controlled by nutrient availability and light penetration

Terrestrial Production

Is controlled by rainfall and temperature

fundemental niche

Is the range of all resources it is able to use. -If 2 species have the same/similar fundamental niche, they will COMPETE (-/-) for resources within that niche (2 results are possible): 1. Competitive Exclusion 2. Competitive CoExistence

Sporophylls (In Seedless Vascular Plants)

Leaves modified to bear sporangia. a. Fern sporophylls look like normal leaves but have *sori* that generate spores on underside. b. Lycophyte and Gymnosperm sporophylls modified into a cone-like structure called a *strobilus* (Pinecones)

Supergroup SAR

Large & Extremely Diverse Monoplyletic Clade 3 Subgroups: 1. Stramenopiles 2. Alveolates 3. Rhizarians

Phylum Cydadophyta (gymnosperm)

Large cones and palm-like leaves -Dramatic differences in male/female cones -Flagellated sperm (rare after SVPs) -Many have tissues toxic to humans if eaten

Proteobacteria

Largest and Most diverse prokaryotic clade; mostly G(-) bacteria that use light energy to metabolize sulfur; Nitrogen fixers. -E. Coli -Yserinia Pestis (bubonic plague) -Vibrio Cholerae (Cholera) -Salmonella Typhimurium (Food poisoning)

Brown Algae (stramenopiles)

Largest and most complex, ALL multicellular, most marine temperate species. -Analogous Structures to plants

*Complete Metamorphosis*

Larval stages specialized for eating and growing but possess few of adult characteristics (morphology, food, habitat all different) -Undergoes pupal stage to reach adulthood

Limitations of Ecosystem (aquatic system)

Light drives primary production but doesn't appear to severely affect aquatic systems even though light penetration into water is low. -Must be another limiting factor to primary production -Limiting Factor; an environmental variable that limits or slows the growth/activity of organisms in a given area. ex. Sunlight, Water, Nest site locations, food.

Hyperthermophilic Bacteria

Live in volcanic vents and hotsprings; some live in underground oil reserves.

*Amoebocytes* (Porifera Anatomy)

Majority of cellular structure; use pseudopodia to move throughout mesohyl (gelatinous matrix layered into sponge "body") -digest food, carry nutrients to other cells, make skeletal fibers (spicules) to build sponge structure, can become other types of sponge cells to meet demands of environment

Hypothesis Testing (sword-tails ex)

Male swordtails have tail extension of unkown origin -Used for sexual selection by females Hypothesis stated that females preferred long tails before tails even existed -Phylogeny disproved this hypothesis

*Eutherians* (1/3 Extant Mammals)

Mammals with long gestation where development occurs in uterus. *"True" Mammals* •*Placenta is much more complex* and long-lived than in marsupials -Embryonic *development completed* in *uterus* -*Extensive convergence* between marsupials and placentals •Live in similar habitats and arrive on similar solutions for similar problems •Phylogeny strongly influenced by *breakup of Pangea*

Fungal Reproduction

Many can breed sexually or asexually. -spend most time as *asexual haploid* organisms -Periodically, two mating types (+/-) merge to sexually reproduce; different strains undergo two unique processes.

Modified Roots

Many different uses for roots: -Support -Oxygen -Storage

Archaea

Many extremophiles that live in habitats not habitable by other species. -All archaeans lack PEPTIDOGLYCAN and possess distinct lipids unique to this domain.

*Radula* (The Mollusk Body)

Many have straplike organ, to rasp and scrape up food particles (others filter feed(gills))

Chemical Defense

Many species that are small, weak, or sessile have evolved toxins or other chemicals that deter predators. -Bombardier beetles produce noxious spray from the abdomen that can be fatal to attacking insects -Skunk musk is a deterrent to almost all predators

Ovule and Egg production

Megasporangium is retained within sporophyte -Thin layer of sporophyte tissue called integument surrounds megasporangium for protection -Whole structure, including megasporangium, megaspore, and integument, is collectively referred to as an ovule •Inside each ovule, female gametophyte develops from megaspore and produces one or more eggs

Supergroup Excavata

Members have unique Cytoskeletal Feature -Many lack mitochondria or possess highly modified mitochondria -Some have excavated feeding groove -3 Monophyletic groups: 1. Diplomonads 2. Parabasalids 3. Euglenozoans

Sequence Alignment

Method of identifying homologous positions in DNA/protein sequences by identifying deletions and insertions occurring in different lineages since they diverged from a common ancestor 1. Deletion 2. Insertion

Pollen and Sperm Production

Microspore develops into pollen grain that consists of male gametophyte enclosed within a pollen wall -Pollen is protected while being transported to ovule •Pollination- transfer of pollen to the part of a seed plant that contains the ovules -Once pollen germinates on ovule, generates pollen tube that discharges sperm into female gametophyte

*Mesoderm*

Middle of germ layers delineated during gastrulation; only develops in some animals described as "triploblastic" -gives rise to skeleton, circulatory system, muscles, excretory system, and most of reproductive system

Phylum Ginkgophyta(Ginkos/Gymnosperms)

Monotypic Phylum-represented by one species -Deciduous leaves (most other gymnosperms are evergreen) -Popular urban ornamental-tolerates pollution •Large fleshy seeds that smell like rotting flesh when they decay -Sexes on different trees •Dioecious-sexes on separate trees •Determined by X and Y chromosomes like us

*Mammary Glands*

Modified apocrine glands that create milk to feed offspring

Class Hydrozoa (Phylum Cnidaria)

Most alternate between medusa and polyp stage of life cycle -Polyp conspicuous -Some polyp-only (Hydra) •Most sexual -Dormant zygotes to withstand difficult environmental conditions

Firmicutes (Gram+ Bacteria)

Most are G+ -Some produce endospores -Staphylococcus aureus is a common skin flora, can infect wounds, respiratory, and intestinal system (staph infections)

Decapods (Crustacean Diversity) [Phylum Arthropoda]

Most marine -Lobsters, crayfish, crabs, and shrimp-Hardened cuticle called a carapace

*Hydrostatic Skeleton*

Movement of organisms influenced by coelom: -Fluid-filled body cavity that transfers forces from one part of body to another when acted on by surrounding muscles •Pseudocoelomates or acoelomates

Obligate Aerobes

Must use o2 for cellular respiration. -Metabolic Adaptation

Insertion

Mutation that adds 1 or more nucleotide into a DNA sequence

Deletion

Mutation that removes one or more nucleotides from the DNA sequence

Vegetative Portions (non-sexual)

Non sexual portions of a plant are made up of three organs: -Roots -Stems -Leaves

How Relatedness is Determined

Numerous Methods for assessing relatedness: 1. Behaviors 2. Molecular Sequences 3. Morphology 4. Paleontology 5. Development

General Model

Nutrients flow among reservoirs, get locked in pools for periods of time, and get freed to reenter cycle. -Exact process different for each nutrient

Ciliates (Alveolates)

Nutrition: Heterotrophic Locomotive: Cilia, short hairlike structures on the cell surface that are identical in for to flagella. -Undergo DNA exchange via CONJUGATION -All have 2 types of nuclei: 1. Tiny Micronuclei 2. Large Macronucleus

Subgroup Stramenopiles

Nutrition: Photosnthesizers Locomotive: Flagellum with fine, hairlike projections Unique Trait: 3 Clades which are Diatoms, Brown Algae, and Oomcetes

Dinoflagellates (alveolata)

Nutrition: Photosynthetic Locomotive: Flagella Unique Trait: Huge component of phytoplankton

Subgroup Alveolata

Nutrition: Photosynthetic Locomotive: Flagella Unique Trait: members have membrane bound sacs (aveoli) under plasma membrane 3 Subgroups: 1. Dinoflagellates 2. Apicomplexans 3. Ciliates

Secondary Production

Once primary productivity introduces chemical energy to an ecosystem, movement of energy through the trophic structure. -Secondary Production broken into: 1. Assimilation Efficiency 2. Production Efficiency

Primary Endosymbiosis

One of the last steps in the transition to eukaryotic cells was incorporation of a prokaryote into the eukaryote's "machinery". -Proteobacterium became mitochondrion -Cyanobacterium became Chloroplast

Competitive Exclusion

One species prevents other from using resource; inferior species extirpated.

Heterocysts

Only carry out nitrogen fixation. -Products of photosynthesis inhibit nitrogen fixation -Products of each cell transported among cells for mutual use

*Diploblastic*

Organisms have 2 germ layers -Endoderm and ectoderm -Ancestral condition, organisms possessing it do not constitute a monophyletic clade

Artificial Selection

Organisms with the desired traits, such as size or taste, are artificially mated or cross-pollinated with organisms with similar desired traits Ex. would be *domesticated animals*

*Ectoderm*

Outermost of the germ layers delineated during gastrulation; gives rise to skin, sense organs, and nervous system

Parasitism

Parasites have evolved ability to evade immune systems, hang on hosts, have abilities to move from host to host, and maintain low enough virulence to infect host but not kill it. -Host evolve stronger immune systems, ability to tolerate parasites, and systems to decrease the parasite load on individuals

*Mastax*

Particles sucked into mouth where they are pulverized by hardened plates used for grinding

Actinobacteria

Pathogenic and Antibiotic producing G+ bacteria. -Develops highly branched filaments -Mycobacterium Tuberculosis -Most antibiotics derived from this

Red Algae

Phycoerythrin reflects red light to give a red color; some produce Calcium Carbonate (CaCO3) and build coral reefs. -Group that shares chloroplast but are NOT PLANTS.

*Meristems*

Plant tissue that remains embryonic as long as the plant lives, allowing for indeterminate growth.

Carnivory predation

Predator and prey are both animals and the prey loses its life

Herbivory predation

Predator is an animal and the prey is a plant or alga

Euglenozoans (Excavata)

Pocket at one end with 1 or 2 flagella. -Mixtrophs that can photosynthesize or consume nutrients from the environment when the sun is absent

Obligate Anaerobes

Poisoned by o2 and must exist in oxygen free environments. -Fermentation (alcohol or lactic acid) or anaerobic respiration (something other than o2 as final electron acceptor in electron transport chain) -Metabolic Adaption

Groups that also have chloroplast

Several groups share Chloroplast but are NOT PLANTS; Endosymbiosis that produced chloroplast is a synapomorphy among the following groups: -Glaucophytes: -Red Algae -Green Algae

Forams (Rhizaria)

Porous shells called tests. -Single piece of organic material hardened with calcium carbonate; accumulated to produce much of world's limestone deposits. -Heterotrophs but often have symbiotic photosynthetic algae that live in test.

Production Efficiency

Proportion of assimilated biomass used to produce new consumer biomass

Realized Niche

Range of all resources a species actually does use when sharing other species. -If two species coexist, each uses different parts of the fundamental niche

Diversity in Prokaryotes

Rapid evolution of genomes for 3.5 BY has allowed prokaryotes to fill almost every niche available on Earth. -Evident in nutritional adaptations, metabolic adaptations, and cooperation among species

Asexual Reproduction in Fungi

Some fungi can only reproduce asexually in one of several ways. -*Production of haploid spores in SPORANGIA* -Production of haploid spores (conida) at the tips of specialized hyphae (conidiaphores) -Single-celled yeasts reproduce by budding new daughter cells from a larger parent cell. -Fragmentation of the mycelium.

Supergroup Archaeplastida

Red Algae, Green Algae, and Land plants. -Common ancestor absorbed a photosynthetic cyanobacterium that became chloroplasts.

Problems with Convergence

Researchers can be fooled when similarity is due to convergent evolution: -Assume relationships that don't exist -Consider the two moles: 1. Both Fossorial adaptations 2. Similarities from convergence called homoplasies 3. Can normally be eliminated by examining DNA sequences

Decomposition in Canada

Researchers placed identical samples of organic matter in 21 locations. -Returned to collect everything left 3 years later -More mass remained at COLD, DRY locations; which lead to finding that decomposition occurs more rapidly in WARM, MOIST locations

Relationship between Roots and Shoots

Roots and Shoots (Stems, leaves, and flowers) rely on each other for survival. a. Roots supply water and soil nutrients to shoots; anchor plant; stores photosynthates; extreme branching increases surface area for absorption b. Shoots supply photosynthates to the roots

Trophic Cascade

Series of trophic interactions in a food web in which events at 1 trophic level in alterations to abundance or composition at another level.

Barnacles (Crustacean Diversity) [Phylum Arthropoda]

Sessile, cuticle hardened into shell-Feed by filtering water surrounding them

Shoot Growth

Shoot apical meristem is dome-shaped mass of cells at shoot tip. -Leaves arise from leaf primordia on either side of apical meristem. -Branching Occurs via a shoot apical meristem in an axillary bud. a. Growth in this meristem inhibited by terminal bud via apical dominance.

Secondary and Tertiary endosymbiosis

Some lineages of protists underwent another even where a eukaryote that already possessed a chloroplast was engulfed and incorporated by another eukaryote (euglenids). -Some did it once more for tertiary endosymbiosis (dinoflagellates)

Interactions are Subjective

Sometimes interactions are difficult to classify. -Sea anemone and anemonefish; Anemones sting and eat small fish but the anemonefish is immune to the sting and scavenges the food left anemones take prey. -Benefits are protection and food for the fish -Anemone gets territorial protection from the fish and nutrients from fish's feces -However, the fish does occasionally steal the anemone's meal

Energy Movement in ecosystems

Source of energy for organisms and ecosystem that is derived from the consumption of organic compounds produced by other organisms. -Secondary Produciton -Secondary production broken into: Assimilation and Production Efficiency

*Mesenchyme*

Space between gut and the body wall is filled with mesoderm -The jellylike substance that separates the epidermis from the inner cells in a sponge

Herbivory

Specialized form of predation where an animal eats some of a plant but the plant remains alive. -Specialized adaptations here too: +Spines, Thorns, Toxins, Bad taste +Grinding teeth, tough mouth, Tolerance of toxins

*Basidiospores*

Spores produced in the basidia of basidiomycetes during sexual reproduction

Biofilms

Surface coating colonies of several species of bacteria. -Signaling secretions, sticky polysaccharides, and channels for waste/nutrient flow.

Parasitism predation

Symbiotic interaction in which predator is a parasite and the prey is a host. -Parasite lives on or in host and consumes only certain tissues from the host....the host survives (normally)

Commensalism (+/0)

Symbiotic interaction where one participant benefits and the other is unaffected. -Relation between sucker fish and shark

Common traits of fungi

The following are all (blank) (blank) of (blank): -All *Absorptive Heterotrophs* a. Can use living tissues (parasites, predators, or mutualists) b. Most use dead tissues (saprobes) -All Contain *Chitin* in their cell walls.

allopatric speciation

The formation of new species in populations that are geographically isolated from one another. 1. Physical separations of populations 2. Different mutations arise in subpopulation 3. Natural selection, genetic drift, or sexual selection cause genetic differentiation between populations 4. Reconnection of populations to allow possible interbreeding 5. Subpopulations can no longer breed (due to reproductive isolation) Sister species: species who are each other's closest relatives

sympatric speciation

The formation of new species in populations that live in the same geographic area Something occurs to prevent interbreeding 3 different possibilities: Polyploidy Habitat differentiation via Disruptive Selection Sexual selection

*Blastula*

The hollow ball of cells marking the end stage of cleavage during early embryonic development. *•Hollow Center = Blastocoel*

4 Chambered Heart Diagram

The hollow, muscular organ that pumps blood through the body of a vertebrate animal by contracting and relaxing. In humans and other mammals, it has four chambers, consisting of two atria and two ventricles. The right side of the heart collects blood with low oxygen levels from the veins and pumps it to the lungs.

*Archenteron* (Tripoblastic Development)

The lumen of the digestive tract...blastopore forms either the mouth or the anus of the digestive tract.

Leaves

The main photosynthetic organs of vascular plants; Also functions as Climbing/Support; Protection; Water Storage; Asexual Reproduction; Attract Pollinators. -Blade -Petiole -Veins

Node (phylogeny)

The point on an evolutionary tree at which species diverge from a common ancestor

*Conidia*

The production of haploid spores (not enclosed in sporangia) at the tips of hyphae; in sac fungi, such spores

*Periderm*

The protective coat that replaces the epidermis in plants during secondary growth, formed of the cork and cork cambium. -Bark -Rigid periderm cracks as trunk widens

*Petiole*

The stalk of a leaf, which joins the leaf to a node of the stem.

*Internodes*

The stem segments between nodes. -Leaves attach at nodes and the inter-nodes are segments between nodes.

*Stigma*

The sticky part of a flower's carpel, which receives pollen grain.

Alternation of Generations

The succession of multicellular haploid and diploid phases in some sexually reproducing organisms, notably plants.

*Anther*

The terminal pollen sac of a stamen, inside which pollen grains with male gametes form in the flower of an angiosperm.

*Pericarp*

The thickened wall of a fruit.

*Guard Cells* (Leaf Structure)

The two cells that flank the stomatal pore and regulate the opening and closing of the pore.

Diversity

The variety of different species in a community (made of two components). -Species Richness; # of different species in a community -Relative abundance; proportion each species represents of all individuals in community -Communities with both high species richness and even relative abundance are considered most diverse

*Stele*

The vascular tissue of a stem or root.

Zone of Cell Division

The zone of primary growth in roots consisting of the root apical meristem and its derivatives. New root cells are produced in this region.

Zone of Elongation

The zone of primary growth in roots where new cells elongate, sometimes up to ten times their original length.

Hadobacteria

Thermophiles that can withstand extremely high temperatures approaching water's boiling point; some can withstand radiation and can degrade nuclear waste.

Monoblastic

These organisms have *1 generic germ layer*

Phylum Gnetophyta

Three genera that live in dramatically different climates -Tropical spp. and desert spp. -~90 spp; some medicinally useful (Ephedra)

*Cross-Pollination* (In Monoecious plants)

Transfer of pollen from anther of a flower on one plant to the stigma of a flower on a different plant.

Hyphae

Two common Hyphal growth forms: 1. Septate: a. Have pores large enough for most organelles (not nucleus) and cellular nutrients to pass through. 2. Coenocytic: b. Results from *mitosis* but *NO cytokinesis*.

How Species Arise

Two main processes depending on how gene flow is interrupted 1. Allopatric Speciation: population is divided into geographically isolated subpopulations Lake level drops, river changes course, colonization of a remote location, fire divides habitat patch 2. Sympatric Speciation: speciation occurs in populations that live in the same geographic area (ranges of population overlap) Chromosomal alteration, habitat differentiation, sexual selection

Secondary Growth

Two types of tissue allow secondary growth in woody plants. -Vascular Cambium -Cork Cambium

binomial nomenclature

Two word latin name assigned, uniquely to each species -Genus Panthera -Specific Epithet: Pardus -Species: Panthera Pardus

*Yeasts*

Unicellular, free-living fungi

Cellular Junctions (Traits all Animals have in common)

Unique junctions between cells (tight junctions, desmosomes, and gap junctions)

*Neognaths*

Volant birds *with a keeled sternum for attachments of pectoral flight muscles.* •Coracoideus and supracoracoideus •Numerous birds including penguins, hummingbirds, flamingos, sparrows, ducks, turkeys, parrots, etc

Aposematic Color (chemical defense)

Warning colors that animals with chemical defenses demonstrate. -Avoided by predators -Leads to 2 types of mimicry

*Pheromones*

When hyphae from 2 different mycelia meet, release sexual signaling molecules.

Sexual Reproduction in Fungi

When hyphae from two different mycelia meet, release sexual signaling molecules called *Pheromones.* 1. Plasmogamy 2. Karyogamy 3. Meiosis

Indirect Interactions

When interactions are indirect, often, natural phenomena can be traced back to a trophic level several levels away from the level where the phenomenon is seen. -Trophic cascade; trophic interactions in a food web in which events at 1 trophic level result in alterations to abundance or composition at another level

Interactions among species

When organisms live in close proximity, interactions are inevitable: Interactions among species can: -Be BENEFICIAL (+) -DETRIMENTAL (-) - HAVE NO EFFECT (0)

*Gastrulation*

Where one end of blastula infolds to form many of the layers that will become organs and appendages. -Referred to as gastrula at this point -Creates two layers of tissue; *Endoderm & Ectoderm*

*Ovule*

Whole structure, including megasporangium, megaspore, and integument.

Evolution in Action

Would be comparing the current population with their offspring and we would see the the difference through time if there is one. - The population is the *smallest unit of a species* that can evolve - Requires *changes to* occur to the *gene pool* (collection of different genes within an interbreeding population) of population

*Cotyledons*

first leaf or first pair of leaves produced by the embryo of a seed plant

Gymnosperms (naked seeds)

have "naked" seeds grown on a modified leaf called a sporophyll in a cone-shaped strobilus

Foundation Species

have a large effect on communities as a consequence of their large size or great abundance. -Fig tree provides habitat for thousands of insects, reptiles, birds, and rodents -The trees physical and nutritional resources support most of the community throughout the year

*Monotypic*

having only one type or representative, especially (of a genus) containing only one species.