Biology Final
What is "Darwinian fitness"?
"Darwinian fitness" refers to surviving to reproductive age.
Outline the typical life-cycle of a mushroom, using proper terminology like basidia, spores, sporangia, mycelium, zygote, hyphae, and fruiting body.
*Nuclei within the BASIDIA fuse to form diploid zygotes *The ZYGOTES undergo meiosis to form haploid spores *The SPORES drop from the gills and are carried away by wind or contact from animals *If the spores land in a favorable environment, they grow and form haploid HYPHAE (SPORANGIA may grow, which are spore-forming structures at the tips of the hyphae) *Some cells of the haploid MYCELIUM may fuse with the cells of another haploid mycelium, producing a diploid mycelium underground *An environmental cue, such as rain or a change in temperature, can trigger the formation of aboveground FRUITING BODIES such as mushrooms
What were two advantages and two challenges faced by the first terrestrial plants?
*the sunlight was brighter because it was not filtered by water or plankton, so photosynthesis could be carried out more efficiently *the terrestrial atmosphere had more carbon dioxide than the water environment. Disadvantages: *the lack of water lead to the danger of the plants drying out (relied on droplets of water that brought sperm to eggs to produce the next generation of plants) *without the support of the water, there was a need for structural support against gravity.
List two possible benefits from genetic engineering.
Two possible benefits to genetic engineering include the hypothetical synthesis of individualized medication and xenotransplantation, or the transplant of organs from members of one species to members of another. Xenotransplantation could hypothetically be used to transfer the liver of a pig to a human in need of a liver transplant.
Are viruses living entities? Support your answer with a clear argument.
Viruses act as agents of disease, disrupting the normal cell functioning and sometimes even killing the cell. They may also act as agents of heredity, causing permanent inheritable damages. However, viruses are NOT LIVING ENTITIES. This is because they cannot reproduce themselves, and instead can only reproduce copies of themselves inside a living organism. Also, they do not have a metabolism of their own and they do not have cell organelles.
Is Woese's designation of Archaea as a kingdom separate from Monera more like a phonetic classification, or a clasdistic classification? Support your answer with reasons.
Woese's design of Archaea as a kingdom separate from Monera is like a cladistics classification because it focuses on the species ancestry
How does the inheritance of X-linked traits differ from that of other traits?
X-linked traits are located on the sex chromosomes (X or Y), and can only be expressed if a particular chromosome is inherited (i.e. a gene on the Y chromosome cannot be expressed if the organism is female and does not have a Y chromosome).
What is binomial nomenclature, and what function does it serve?
-Binomial nomenclature: naming system in which each species is given a two- part scientific name (genus and species) *written in italics or underlined *first letter [of first word] capital, second letter [of second word] lowercase -Scientific names are helpful in a number of ways: 1. Genera such as Quercus contain hundreds of species. Many of these species have very similar common names. 2. Allow scientists to talk about particular species without confusion (biology is studied around the world -- one species may have different common names)
Compare and contrast the following three methods of classifying organisms: orthodox classification, phenetics, and cladistics. Which is the preferred method among taxonomists today? Why?
-Cladistics: classification based on common ancestry *cladograms represent derived characters of species -all species above a hashmark share the derived character it represents in the cladogram -node is a place where a branch splits off (represents the most common ancestor shared by a clade) *Snip Rule: whenever you snip a branch under a node, a clade falls off -each clade is rested within the clade that forms just before it -phylogentics: the study of evolutionary relatedness among various groups of organisms -orthodox classification: classification based on organisms' appearances but not on their DNA sequences -pheneics: classification based on phenotypic information
Define the term homologies and explain why they are important in classification.
-Homologies: state of similarity in structure and anatomical position but not necessarily in function between different organisms indicating a common ancestry or evolutionary origin *Homologous structures indicate common ancestry (through shared structure) in organisms and are therefore important in classifying organisms
Summarize the pressure-flow hypothesis. Be sure to include its purpose and the tissue type with which it is associated.
-explains how food, or sap, moves through a plant -states that phloem sap can move in any direction depending on the plant's need -associated with vascular tissue -moves phloem sap from sugar source (any place in a plant that has a high concentration of sugars) to a sugar sink (place where sugar is being used or stored) *these locations change as the plant grows and as the seasons change, thus providing a need for the pressure-flow hypothesis
Summarize the cohesion-tension hypothesis. Be sure to include its purpose and the tissue type with which it is associated.
-proposes that the physical properties of water allow the rise of water through a plant -based on the strong attraction of water molecules to one another and to other surfaces -moves water through the the xylem, a type of vascular tissue, in plants without using any metabolic energy -associated with vascular tissue
A human being is composed of five levels of organization. Name each of the levels of organization and give an example of each one.
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Compare the structure of the arteries, veins, and capillaries.
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Embryonic stem cells have the potential to become any type of cell in the body. What happens to there cells during the process of determination?
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How are a target cell's activities changed if a gland produces too much of a particular hormone?
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How does the structure of a neuron make it effective in carrying out the functions of the nervous system?
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Name two differences between the way in which the nervous and endocrine systems communicate.
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Outline the process by which blood clots around a wound.
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Trace the path of blood through the heart. Include the important structures and chambers of the heart, and describe the oxygen content of the blood along the pathway.
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What are three similarities between neurotransmitters, sued in the nervous system, and hormones, which are used in the endocrine system?
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What type of receptor do each of your five senses have?
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What types of information do the occipital lobe and the temporal lobe process?
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When glucose levels in the blood rise above a set point, hormones are released that cause the glucose levels to decline. Is this process an example of positive or negative feedback loop? Explain your answer.
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Your body has many feedback loops to help maintain homeostasis. Explain the difference between a negative feedback loop and a positive feedback loop.
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Determine the age of a fossilized artifact found in a 1 kg sample of rock containing 125 g of carbon-14. Assume the entire kilogram sample was originally carbon-14. Carbon-14's half life is 5730 years.
1 kg = _____g 1 kg = 1,000 g 125 g = 0.125 = 12.5% carbon-14 1,000 g
Using a Punnett square, work out the probable ratios for the phenotypes of offspring from a cross between a homozygous (TT) tall pea plant and a heterozygous (Tt) tall pea plant. (Tall is the dominant condition.)
t t T TT TT t Tt Tt 100% chance of a tall pea plant offspring
Describe the process of DNA replication. Include the roles of the following: DNA polymerase, replication origins, primer, leading strand, lagging strand. Also, describe how replication errors are corrected.
1) Enzymes and other proteins binds to DNA at specific regions (replication origins) 2) Unwinding of double helix a. On the leading strand, DNA polymerase III then catalyzes, or starts, the formation of new DNA strands by adding nucleotides to the RNA primer, beginning the continuous replication of DNA along the leading strand b. On the lagging stand, the DNA is synthesized in short, discontinuous segments (Okazaki fragments) in a 3" to 5" pattern; ligase joins these fragments together 3) Synthesis of a new matching strand for each existing strand -Replication errors are corrected.... 1) DNA polymerase checks DNA, as it replicates, to make sure the resulting base pairs are correct (note that bacterial DNA is "methylated", or a methyl group is added, before replication in order to enable repair enzymes to distinguish the original chain from the possibly incorrect new strand) 2) Excision repair: a. repair endonuclease recognizes mismatch and binds to DNA b. enzyme breaks sugar-phosphate bonds of mismatched section and removes mutant DNA c. DNA polymerase fills deleted DNA sequence d. DNA ligase reconnects replacement piece to neighboring section of original DNA model
Describe the structure of a virus and its means of infecting cells.
A bacterial virus infects the cell by attaching fibers of its protein tail to a specific receptor site on the bacterial cell wall and then injecting the nucleic acid into the host, leaving the empty capsid outside.
What is the difference between a homologous structure and an analogous structure?
A homologous structure refers to organisms with a similar structure, but different functions. An analogous structure refers to a dissimilar structure but similar functions.
What is the composition and role of the mitotic spindle?
A mitotic spindle is made up of spindle microtubules that originate at centrosomes. Centrosomes organize that mitotic spindle throughout cell division, splitting into two during interphase, and moving to opposite poles in the pro-metaphase portion of mitosis.
What is the difference between a polygenic trait and a multifactorial trait?
A multifactorial trait is influenced by both genes and the environment. In contrast, a polygenic trait is influenced by multiple genes, but NOT by the environment.
What are the phagocytes? How do they fight infection?
A phagocyte is a cell that destroys pathogens by surrounding and engulfing them. Phagocytes fight infection by surrounding or engulfing the pathogen. Examples of phagocytes are neutrophils and macrophages.
For what purpose is a restriction enzyme used?
A restriction enzyme is used to cut DNA at precise locations, or restriction sites, based on the nucleotide sequence.
Invertebrates
An animal of a large group distinguished by the possession of a backbone or spinal column, including mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, and fishes.
Vertebrates
An animal of a large group distinguished by the possession of a backbone or spinal column, including mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, and fishes. (phylum Chordate)
Amniotes
An animal whose embryo develops in an amnion and chorion and has an allantois; a mammal, bird, or reptile.
Arthropods
An invertebrate animal, such as an insect, spider, or crustacean.(phylum Arthropoda)
List three evolutionary advances that make angiosperms the most successful plant group.
Angiosperms are the most successful plant group because of their evolutionary advances. These flowering plants 1) do not require a great amount of water for fertilization, 2) their embryo is protected because it grows for only a short time and then becomes dormant (enclosed in protective seed), and 3) the sperm is carried in the pollen which makes it greater adapted to terrestrial existence.
What is the difference between an antigen and an antibody? How are they related?
Antigens are protein markers on the surfaces of cells and viruses that help the immune system identify a foreign cell or virus. Antibodies are proteins (made by B cells) that destroy pathogens by making the pathogen ineffective (by binding to the pathogen's membrane proteins), causing pathogens to clump to make them easier for phagocytes to engulf and destroy, or activating complement proteins that weaken the pathogen's cell membrane. Antigens and antibodies are related in that antibodies recognize pathogens, or foreign invaders, by their antigens. Thus, antigens allow antibodies to recognize the incoming pathogens and provide a defense.
Anaphase
Chromatids separate to opposite sides of the cell. Cytokinesis usually begins in late anaphase or telophase.
Prophase
DNA and proteins condense into tightly coiled chromosomes. The nuclear envelope breaks down, centrioles begin to move to opposite poles, and spindle fibers form.
Summarize Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection in three or four statements.
Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection states that organisms, gradually throughout time, gain or lose characteristics based on usage. Characteristics that allow an organism to successfully survive and reproduce will eventually become more common in a population of that species, thus exercising the theory of natural selection. Darwin hypothesized that evolution, or gradual change in a species, occurred through natural selection.
Mitosis
Divides a cell's nucleus into two nuclei, each with an identical set of DNA
Cytokinesis
Divides cytoplasm between two daughter cells, each with a genetically identical nucleus. The cells enter interphase and begin the cell cycle again.
Discuss the sources and roles of the following hormones in the reproductive cycle of the human female: E
Estrogen (E): produced in the ovaries by the corpus luteum,acts on FSH & LH stimulation beginning of menstrual cycle, it controls the development of female sex characteristics, causing thickening of uterine lining, prevent period during pregnancy
Trace the path of a mouthful of pasta (a carbohydrate) through the digestive tract, identifying in order the various portions of the digestive system it will pass through and what part of the digestive process each will carry out.
First the pasta enters the mouth. Mechanical digestion begins the moment you bite into the sandwich and start chewing. Chemical digestion also occurs when the salivary glands release saliva that moistens the food and contains an enzyme called amylase. Amylase begins the breakdown of complex sugar molecules into sugars. As you swallow the food, the food moves into the esophagus. The food is pushed down the esophagus by peristalsis, which is the rhythmic contractions of the smooth muscles. The pasta next enters the stomach, a muscular sac. Proteins are digested in the stomach. The contractions of the stomach break the food down even more and mixes the food with the stomach's digestive juice. The stomach lining secretes gastric juice containing hydrochloric acid and the digestive enzyme pepsin. The juice kills the bacteria on the food. Pepsin breaks down some chemical bonds between the amino acids in proteins The pasta has now become chyme. Next the pasta moves to the small intestine. The remaining carbohydrates, proteins and fats are digested into the duodenum, the section of small intestine closest to the stomach. The small intestine is a long, narrow tube where most of the digestion takes place. Chemical digestions further breaks down the complex food molecules. Then you will POOP the food out! The pancreas and the liver also help out in the digestive process
Discuss the sources and roles of the following hormones in the reproductive cycle of the human female: FSH
Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH): produced by the pituitary gland, it acts on GnRH stimulation, and it causes egg to resume maturing inside follicle in ovary
How does gel electrophoresis separate DNA fragments from one another?
Gel electrophoresis separates DNA fragments from one another using a electrical current. The current propels the negatively charged DNA molecules to move towards the positive pole. Upon analysis, the largest fragments of DNA were closest to the negatively charged pole, having moved the least. The smallest fragments moved the furthest towards the positively charged pole.
Name the two processes through which genetic drift can occur.
Genetic drift can occur through the bottleneck effect and the founder effect. The bottleneck effect occurs after some event greatly alters a population and the founder effect occurs after a small number of individuals colonize a new area.
Discuss the sources and roles of the following hormones in the reproductive cycle of the human female: GnRH
Gonadotropin (GnRH): produced by the hypothalamus, acts on low levels of E + P, and it stimulates pituitary gland to release FSH & LH
Discuss the sources and roles of the following hormones in the reproductive cycle of the human female: HCG
Human Chorionic Gonadotropin: it is produced by the placenta, it acts on the formation of placental connection, and it stimulates liberal releases of E & P
Describe the roles of DNA, mRNA, tRNA, ribosomes, introns, exons, and amino acids in the process of gene expression. To what do the terms transcription and translation refer?
In eukaryotic cells, there are 3 steps in gene expression: replication, transcription, and translation. These occur at different times. Replication and transcription both occur in the nucleus, whereas translation occurs outside the nucleus. In prokaryotic cells, gene expression has the same three steps but they occur simultaneously in the cytoplasm. DNA replication has three main steps... 1) Enzymes and other proteins binds to DNA at specific regions 2) Unwinding of double helix 3) Synthesis of a new matching strand for each existing strand This process generate more copies of DNA. In transcription in eukaryotic cells, ribosomes are formed in the nucleolus when two ribosomal subunits join together and bind to rRNA. There are three main steps... 1) Initiation: RNA polymerase binds to the promoter region of DNA, or the region located just ahead of the DNA coding segment; protein initiation factors/transcription factors must be present 2) Elongation: RNA polymerase unwinds the DNA double helix to expose the coding section as it moves down the DNA molecule; also an enzyme builds a complementary single-stranded RNA molecule (primary transcript) 3) Termination: RNA polymerase reaches termination region (end of DNA to be transcribed) and the enzyme and newly formed primary transcript are released Transcription in prokaryotes is characterized by promoters (segments that allow the gene to be transcribed), operators (DNA segments that can turn a gene "on" or "off"), and operons (regions of DNA that include a promoter, an operator, and one of more structural genes that code for proteins) NOTE: In RNA processing (the addition, modification, and removal of nucleotides while RNA is in the nucleus), introns (noncoding sections of DNA) are spliced out and exons (coding segments of DNA) will be expressed. These modified molecules bind to proteins to form ribosomal subunits which, in turn form ribosomes. The third step in gene expression is translation which has three stages... 1) Initiation: ribosome attaches to the start codon of mRNA (this requires energy in the form of GTP, or guanosine triphosphate) 2) Elongation: charged tRNA enters the A site, positioning its amino acid so that it may bond to the previous amino acid on the P site, adding to its polypeptide chain; ribosome moves ahead to position next tRNA molecule in A site 3) Termination: stop codon enters the A site and a "release factor" binds the stop codon, triggering tRNA to release the polypeptide chain Transcription refers to the "transcribing" of DNA to the primary transcript (RNA) Translation refers to the "translation" of tRNA to a polypeptide chain
What is the difference between co-dominance and incomplete dominance?
In incomplete dominance, both alleles at a gene locus are partially expressed, often producing an intermediate phenotype. In co-dominance, both alleles are completely and equally expressed.
What are the three main stages of the cell cycle?
Interphase, mitosis, and cytokinesis.
Of what two organisms is a lichen composed? What role does each of those carry out?
Lichen is composed of two organisms: a fungus and an algae (or a cyanobacterium). The fungus provides the structural framework with its hyphae, while the algae provides the photosynthetic food.
Discuss the sources and roles of the following hormones in the reproductive cycle of the human female: LH
Lutenizing Hormone (LH): produced in pituitary gland, it acts on GnRH stimulation, and it causes rupturing of follicle, releasing egg into fallopian tube
Describe lytic and lysogenic infection by viruses.
Lytic infection: an infection pathway in which the host cell bursts, releasing the new viral offspring into the host's system, where each then infects another cell. * When the viral DNA enters the host cell, it takes over control of the host's DNA, turning on the genes necessary to copy the viral genes * With direction of the viral genes, the host's DNA undergoes transcription and translation to help in the copying of the virus' DNA * Using energy from the host cell, the caspids and viral DNA assemble into new virions. Viral enzymes dissolve the host cell membrane, releasing the virus particles into the host's bloodstream or tissues, while destroying the host cell in the process. Lysogenic infection: a phage combines its DNA into the host cell's DNA * Upon entering the host cell, the viral DNA combines with the host's DNA, forming a new set of genes called a prophage. (Prophage: the phage DNA inserted into the host's cell's DNA) * Prophage is copied and passed to daughter cells, with the host's own DNA, when the host undergoes mitosis. This process doesn't destroy the cell, but changes some of its traits. * After the cell has been copied, the prophage faces two paths: 1. A trigger (such as stress) activates the prophage which then uses the cell to produce new viruses (basically the prophage enters the lytic infection cycle) or 2. The prophage remains as a permanent gene. NOTE: both lytic and lysogenic have infections have the same first 2 steps: 1) the bacteriophage attaches and injects its DNA into the host bacterium and 2) the viral DNA forms a circle (after this point, the virus may either enter into the lysogenic cycle or stay in the lytic cycle)
Describe the experiment carried out by Stanley Miller and Harold Urey. You may have to draw a picture of their apparatus. What did their experiment demonstrate?
Miller and Urey worked together to model the conditions that they believed existed on early Earth. Their experiment demonstrated that organic molecules can be made from inorganic molecules. First, a boiling chamber was used to heat the "ocean" water to produce water vapor. The vapor travelled through a tube to the "atmosphere". Next, an electric spark in a mixture of gases stimulated lightning. Then, simple organic molecules such as amino acids were produced.
What is the difference between evolution and natural selection?
Natural selection is a mechanism of evolution whereby numbers of a population with the most successful adaptations to the environments are most likely to survive and reproduce. Evolution is the idea of gradual change throughout time.
Why do nonvascular plants exist only in damp environments?
Nonvascular plants exist only in damp environments. This is because, while vascular plants are able to absorb and hold water (with the help of their roots, vascular tissue, and thick cuticle), non-vascular plants cannot. They have very little resistance to drying, and cannot carry the water harvested from the ground to their aerial parts. As a result, nonvascular plants (such as mosses) grow on surfaces where they can absorb water and nutrients directly. They rely on free-standing water to allow their sperm to swim and fertilize eggs.
Telophase
Nuclear membranes start to form, chromosomes begin to uncoil, and the spindle fivers fall apart.
What is the purpose of polymerase chain reaction (PCR)?
PCR is a vital step in any form of genetic engineering. It rapidly creates billions of copies of the original molecule of DNA to allow for a larger sample size during experimentation.
Name and describe one example each of a) a plant-like protist, b) an animal-like protist, and c) a fungus-like protist.
Plant-like protist: Algae is a photosynthetic plantlike protist. Plantlike protists look like plants but do not have roots, stems, leaves, specialized tissues, or the same reproductive structures that plants have. They can be multi-cellular or single-cellular, while plants can only be multi-cellular. Animal-like protist: represent largest number of species in kingdom Protista, they can move around, consume other organisms, and their cells lack chloroplasts. Unlike animals, all are unicellular, while animals are multicellular. Protozoa is an animal-like protist. Fungus-like protists: they recycle nutrients such as carbon and nitrogen back into the soil, and have similar reproductive structures and cycles to fungi but can move during part of their life cycle, while fungi cannot.
Distinguish between pollination and fertilization in plants.
Pollination is simply the transfer of pollen from one plant to another. Fertilization, in contrast, is the joining of the male reproductive organ with the female reproductive organ to produce offspring. Insects and the wind perform the transfer of pollen. Fertilization is what happens AFTER pollination, which results in offspring such as fruit.
Discuss the sources and roles of the following hormones in the reproductive cycle of the human female: P
Progesterone (P): produced in the ovaries by the corpus luteum, acts on the beginning of the menstrual cycle, and it prevents menstrual cycle during pregnancy
What are the four phases of mitosis?
Prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.
Describe how sex-linked genes are expressed differently in males and females.
Sex-linked genes are expressed differently in males and in females. The sex-linked traits are located on either the X or Y chromosome, so they can only be expressed if that particular chromosome is present in the organism. For example, if the gene for color-blindness is located on the Y chromosome, the organism will not be color-blind unless it is male.
Metaphase
Spindle fibers attach to each chromosome. They align the chromosomes along the cell equator.
How are tendons and ligaments similar? How are they different?
Tendons and ligaments are similar in that they are both connective tissue, they allow flexibility, and they physically connect bones allowing movement. They differ because ligaments usually connect bones to one another, while tendons connect bones to muscle tissue.
Describe the formation and function of the plant embryo, endosperm, seed, and fruit.
The PLANT EMBRYO is formed once the sperm fertilizes the egg. This serves as the basis of the plant. The ENDOSPERM is formed from one of the two cells in the pollen grain. One of these cells divides through mitosis, producing two sperm. One of the sperm fertilizes the egg. The other sperm combines with the polar nuclei in the embryo sac. This cell now has a triploid (3n) nucleus. It will become the endosperm. The endosperm serves as a food supply for the developing plant embryo. The ovule becomes a SEED, which contains an embryo and a nutritious endosperm enclosed by a protective seed coat. A few seeds will fall into the soil, and thus create more plants and restart the cycle. While the seed develops, the surrounding ovary grows into a FRUIT. A fruit is the mature ovary of a flowering plant.
What are the differences between the axial skeleton and the appendicular skeleton?
The appendicular skeleton is the part of your skeleton that is adapted to allow the body to move. It includes the bones in the limbs that extend from the trunk of your body (your legs, arms, feet, and hands). In contrast, the axial skeleton is made up of the bones found in the trunk and head of the body. The bones of the axial skeleton support the weight of the body and protect the internal tissues. These include the 27 bones in the skull, the 33 bones that form the spine, the 12 pairs of ribs, and the breast bone.
What impact can the bottleneck effect have on populations that have rebounded after near extinction?
The bottleneck effect can greatly alter the allele frequencies in populations that have rebounded after near extinction. It may wipe out one trait all together, and a trait that was uncommon before may become the most common trait in the population, depending on what traits the survivors have.
Interphase
The cell copies its DNA and grows in preparation for division. The DNA is loosely organized during interphase.
What are the five conditions necessary for populations to remain in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium?
The five conditions necessary for population to remain in Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium.... 1) No mutations 2) No migration 3) No genetic drift 4) No artificial/natural selection 5) No nonrandom mating/sexual selection
What is the functional unit of the human excretory system? What are the 3 major functions of this structure?
The kidneys are organs that eliminate wastes by filtering and cleaning the blood to produce urine. -kidneys have three basic functions in maintaining homeostasis 1. They remove waste products from the blood, such as those produced from digestion and cell respiration. 2. They help maintain electrolyte, pH, and fluid balances in the body. 3. They release hormones that help to keep bones healthy, to produce red blood cells and to regulate blood pressure.
How do the actin and myosin filaments work together to cause muscle contractions?
The nervous system stimulates myosin filaments to grab the actin by sending an impulse down a motor neuron into a muscle. The place where the motor neuron attaches is called the neuromascular junction. It is here that the neuron releases neurotransmitters that bind to the receptors on the muscle fiber. The neurotransmitters stimulate calcium ion channels to open, which in turn stimulate the myosin filaments. The myosin filaments have arm-like extensions that grab onto and pull the actin filaments. The myosin filaments continue to pull the actin, until the actin filaments have moved as far to the center as possible. At this point, the sarcomere (a section of a myofibril that contains all of the filaments necessary to make that section of the muscle contract) is shortened due to the actin filaments dragging its end. Once the sarcomere is shortened, the muscle is contracted.
What type of gametes are produced by the following plants: GGRr (green pods and round seeds) and TtYy (tall plants with yellow embryos)?
The plants produce GR (green, round), Gr (green, wrinkled), TY (tall, yellow), Ty (tall, green), tY (short, yellow), and ty (short, green) gametes.