Biopsychology as a Neuroscience

between-subjects design

A research design in which different groups of participants are randomly assigned to experimental conditions or to control conditions.

gene

A segment of DNA on a chromosome that codes for a specific trait

What do biopsychologists do?

Biopsychologists draw together knowledge from the other neuroscientific disciplines and apply it to the study of behavior.

comparative psychology

Branch of psychology that studies the behavior of different animal species to understand genetics and adaptation -features laboratory and ethological (natural environment) studies -includes evolutionary psychology and behavioral genetics

Cognitive neuroscientists

Cognitive neuroscientists have used brain-imaging technology to observe the changes that occur in various parts of the brain while human volunteers perform memory tasks.

Comparative psychologists

Comparative psychologists have shown that species of birds that cache their seeds tend to have big hippocampi, confirming that the hippocampus is involved in memory for location.

Recent research on evolution of the human brain

Compares different brain regions & there evolution

All behavior is the product of interactions among three factors

(1) The organism's genetic endowment, which is a product of its evolution (2) Its experience (3) Its perception of the current situation. Please examine the model carefully, and consider its implications.

(1) physical matter

(1) physical matter, which behaves according to the laws of nature and is thus a suitable object of scientific investigation—the human body, including the brain, was assumed to be entirely physical, and so were non-human animals

(2) the human mind

(soul, self, or spirit), which lacks physical substance, controls human behavior, obeys no natural laws, and is thus the appropriate purview of the Church.

Problems with Thinking about the Biology of Behavior in Terms of Traditional Dichotomies

- Many factors incl. genetics (nature) or learning (nurture) impact behavior - "Nurture" encompasses learning and environment - Genetic and experiential factors interact

3 important points about the evolution of the human brain

- The brain has increased in size during evolution. - Most of the increase in size has occurred in the cerebrum. - An increase in the number of convolutions folds on the cerebral surface has greatly increased the surface area of the cerebral cortex, the outermost layer of cerebral tissue

Generalizability

-the extent to which we can claim our findings inform us about a group larger than the one we studied -because humans differ from one another in both brain function and behavior, it is important to be skeptical of any biopsychological theory based entirely on a few case studies.

zeitgeist

-the general spirit of the time -the general intellectual climate of our culture

There are two lines of evidence against physiological or psychological thinking

1. Demonstrations that even the most complex psychological changes (e.g., changes in self-awareness, memory, or emotion) can be produced by damage to, or stimulation of, parts of the brain. 2. Some nonhuman species, particularly primate (various mammals) species, possess some abilities that were once assumed to be purely psychological and thus purely human

Early research on evolution of the human brain

Early research on the evolution of the human brain focused on size. This research was stimulated by the assumption that brain size and intellectual capacity are closely related

Evolutionary psychology

Evolutionary psychology (a subfield that focuses on understanding behavior by considering its likely evolutionary origins)

The case of Jimmy G. The man frozen in time

He forgot everything that was said or shown to him within a few seconds. Basically, Jimmie could not remember anything that had happened to him since his early 20s, and he was not going to remember anything that happened to him for the rest of his life.

What are the origins of biopsychology?

Hebbs theory: The Organization of Behavior in 1949 by D. O. Hebb played a key role in its emergence (see Brown & Milner, 2003; Cooper, 2005; Milner, 1993). In his book, Hebb developed the first comprehensive theory of how complex psychological phenomena, such as perceptions, emotions, thoughts, and memories, might be produced by brain activity. -Hebb based his theory on experiments involving both humans and laboratory animals, on clinical case studies, and on logical arguments developed from his own insightful observations of daily life. This eclectic approach has become a hallmark of biopsychological inquiry.

Physiological psychologists

Physiological psychologists have studied the contributions of the hippocampus to memory by surgically removing the hippocampus in rats and assessing their ability to perform various memory tasks.

convergent evolution

Process by which unrelated organisms independently evolve similarities when adapting to similar environments The similarities between analogous structures result from convergent evolution, the evolution in unrelated species of similar solutions to the same environmental demands

Psychopharmacologists

Psychopharmacologists have tried to improve the memory of Alzheimer's patients by administering drugs that increase the levels of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine.

Psychophysiologists

Psychophysiologists have shown that familiar faces elicit the usual changes in autonomic nervous system activity even when patients with brain damage report that they do not recognize a face.

homologous

Structures that are similar because they have a common evolutionary origin are termed homologous ex: the arm of a human, the wing of a bird or a bat, the leg of a dog and the flipper of a dolphin or whale are homologous structures

Brain Stem Function

The brain stem regulates reflex activities that are critical for survival (e.g., heart rate, respiration, and blood glucose level)

Cerebrum Cortex Function

The cerebrum is involved in more complex adaptive processes such as learning, perception, and motivation.

translation research

The efforts to take the newest info from research & get it into clinical practice. Triad trial showed the value of nurses role in pt. outcomes.

Experiment

The experiment is the method used by scientists to study causation, that is, to find out what causes what. -between subjects design -IV & DV -Confounding variable

korsakoff's syndrome

The primary symptom of Korsakoff's syndrome is severe memory loss, which is made all the more heartbreaking—as you have seen in Jimmie G.'s case by the fact that its sufferers are often otherwise quite capable. - common among alcoholics - brain damage associated with thiamine (vitamin B1) deficiency.

Ethology

The scientific study of how animals behave, particularly in natural environments.

Ethological Research

The study of animal behavior in its natural environment. -used in comparative psychology

neuropsychology

The study of functions and behaviors associated with specific regions of the brain. Neuropsychology is the most applied of the biopsychological subdisciplines; the neuropsychological assessment of human patients, even when part of a program of pure research, is always done with an eye toward benefiting them in some way. -focuses on behavioral effects of brain damage/ injury -uses case studies and quasi-experimental designs -applied research/clinical applications

behavioral genetics

The study of genetic influences on behavior

3. Neuroendocrinology

The study of interactions between the nervous system and the endocrine system (see Chapters 13 and 17).

4. Neuropathology

The study of nervous system disorders (see Chapters 10 and 18).

2. Neurochemistry

The study of the chemical bases of neural activity (see Chapter 4).

5. Neuropharmacology

The study of the effects of drugs on neural activity (see Chapters 4, 15, and 18).

6. Neurophysiology

The study of the functions and activities of the nervous system (see Chapter 4).

1. Neuroanatomy

The study of the structure of the nervous system (see Chapter 3).

alleles

The two genes that control the same trait are called alleles

dependent variable

The variable measured by the experimenter to assess the effect of the independent variable is called the dependent variable.

independent variable.

This difference between the conditions is called the independent variable. Whats being manipulated in the experiment

Heterozygous

Those that possess two different genes for a trait are said to be heterozygous for that trait.

dominant trait

a genetic factor that blocks another genetic factor -continuously reappears -stronger

recessive trait

a genetic factor that is blocked by the presence of a dominant factor

within-subjects design

a research design that uses each participant as his or her own control; for example, the behavior of an experimental participant before receiving treatment might be compared to his or her behavior after receiving treatment

instinctive behavior

an innate, unlearned behavior pattern exhibited by all members of a species

case study

an observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles -useful when conditions are rare -single subject design -generalizability is limited

confounded variable

an unintended difference between the conditions of an experiment that could have affected the dependent variable

why are quasiexperimental studies not true experiments

because potential confounded variables have not been controlled for example, by the random assignment of subjects to conditions.

true-breeding lines

breeding lines in which interbred members always produce offspring with the same trait, generation after generation ex: brown seeds

Neurons

cells that receive and transmit electrochemical signals

Which of the following makes it difficult to make causal interpretations or experimental results

cofounded variables

Asomatognosia

failure to recognize parts of one's own body - involves the left side of the body - results from damage to the right parietal lobe

Nature is to nurture as

genetics is to experience

How was convergence operations used in Jimmie G.'s case?

in this case, from the convergence of neuropsychological case studies (case studies of Korsakoff patients), quasiexperiments with human participants (comparisons of alcoholics with people who do not drink alcohol), and controlled experiments on laboratory animals (comparison of thiamine-deficient and control rats).

applied research

is intended to bring about some direct benefit to humankind.

pure research

is motivated primarily by the curiosity of the researcher it is done solely for the purpose of acquiring knowledge.

Coolidge effect in females

males of most mammalian species become sexually fatigued more readily than the females. As a result, attempts to demonstrate the Coolidge effect in females are almost always confounded by the fatigue of the males.

clinical implications

pertaining to illness or treatment

physiological psychology

physiological psychology is the division of biopsychology that studies the neural mechanisms of behavior through the direct manipulation and recording of the brain in controlled experiments surgical and electrical methods are most common. Direct manipulation of nervous system using surgical/electrical methods Mostly lab animals Focus on pure research (not practical-applied outcomes)

psychopharmacology

psychopharmacology is similar to physiological psychology except that it focuses on the manipulation of neural activity and behavior with drugs. -manipulation of nervous system pharmacologically -focuses on how drugs affect behavior -study how drugs effects change neural activity -conduct both pure and applied questions

One important difference between pure and applied research

pure research is more vulnerable to the vaga- ries of political regulation because politicians and the voting public have difficulty understanding why research of no immediate practical benefit should be supported.

dichotomies

right-wrong, good-bad, attractive-unattractive, and so on.

analogous

structures that are similar but do not have a common evolutionary origin are termed analogous. ex: wings in flying animals like bats, birds, and insects, to fins in animals like penguins and fish.

quasiexperimental studies

studies of groups of subjects who have been exposed to the conditions of interest in the real world -used when controlled experiments are impossible -subjects already have condition of interest (dementia) -confounding variables are handled statisically

Neuroplasticity

the ability within the brain to constantly change both the structure and function of many cells in response to experience or trauma

Coolidge effect

the fact that a copulating male who becomes incapable of continuing to copulate with one sex partner can often recommence copulating with a new sex partner The purpose of this example in case you have forgotten is to illustrate the critical role played by good experimental design in eliminating confounded variables.

John B. Watson

the father of behaviorism proposed believed in nurture- what determines the intelligence, temperament, and other personality characteristics of a child, is the environment in which the child is raised.

convolutions

the folds in the cerebral cortex that increase the surface area of the brain

spandrels

the incidental nonadaptive evolutionary by-products are called spandrels. The human belly button is a spandrel; it serves no adaptive function and is merely the by-product of the umbilical cord.

cognitive neuroscience

the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language) -newest divison -neural basis of cognitive processes -learning/memory -attention -perceptual processes -uses noninvasive, functional brain imaging -often collaborative research

scientific inference

the logical process by which observable events are used to infer the properties of unobservable events -study ice ages, gravity, evaporation, electricity, and nuclear fission— none of which can be directly observed; their effects can be observed, but the processes themselves cannot.

nature-nurture issue

the longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors. Is it genes or experience? -many factors including genetics (nature) or learning (nurture) impact behavior -"nurture" encompasses learning and environment -genetic and experiential factors interact

Biopsychology

the scientific study of the biology of behavior

neuroscience

the scientific study of the nervous system

psychophysiology

the study of changes in the functioning of the body that result from psychological experiences -focuses on physiological and psychological processes -uses noninvasive recordings from humans -muscle tension -eye movement -heart rate -blood pressure

genotype

the traits that it can pass on to its offspring through its genetic material are referred to as its genotype.

converging operations

the use of several research approaches to solve a single problem

Thinking creatively

thinking in productive, unconventional ways

dichotomous traits

traits that occur in one form or the other, never in combination For example, seed color is a dichotomous pea plant trait: Every pea plant has either brown seeds or white seeds.

The evolutionary perspective: Comparative approach

trying to understand biological phenomena by comparing them in different species

Describe nine commonly misunderstood points about evolution

1. Evolution does not proceed in a single line. A far better metaphor for evolution is a dense bush. 2. We humans are the last surviving species of a family (i.e., hominins) that has existed for only a blip of evolutionary time. 3. Only the tips of the bushes of an evolutionary bush have survived. Fewer than 1% of all known species are still in existence. 4. Evolution does not always proceed slowly and gradually. Rapid evolutionary changes (i.e., in a few generations) can be triggered by sudden changes in the environment or by adaptive genetic mutations. 5. Evolution does not progress to preordained perfection 6. Not all existing behaviors or structures are adaptive. The incidental nonadaptive evolutionary by-products are called spandrels. 7. Not all existing adaptive characteristics evolved to perform their current function. Some characteristics, called exaptations, evolved to serve one function and were later co-opted to serve another. 8. Similarities among species do not necessarily mean that the species have common evolutionary origins. Structures that are similar because they have a common evolutionary origin are termed homologous; structures that are similar but do not have a common evolutionary origin are termed analogous. The similarities between analogous structures result from convergent evolution, the evolution in unrelated species of similar solutions to the same environmental demands 9. There is now considerable evidence that Homo sapiens (humans) mated with the other Homo species (e.g., Homo nean- derthalensis) they encountered both within Africa which means we are not the product of a single ancestral population originating in Africa; rather, we are the offspring of many Homo populations that once coexisted.

Two important areas of biopsychological research that often employ comparative analysis

1. Evolutionary psychology 2. Behavioral genetics

What were the two problems with early research on evolution of the human brain? (brain size & intellectual capacity)

1. It was shown that modern humans, whom modern humans believe to be the most intelligent of all creatures, do not have the biggest brains. With brains weighing about 1,350 grams, humans rank far behind whales and elephant. 2. The sizes of the brains of acclaimed intellectuals were found to be unremarkable, certainly no match for their gigantic intellects.

There are two aspects to clinical implications:

1. Much of what biopsychologists learn about the functioning of the normal brain comes from studying the diseased or damaged brain 2. Much of what biopsychologists discover has relevance for the treatment of brain disorders.

List six fields of neuroscience that are particularly relevant to biopsychological inquiry.

1. Neuroanatomy 2. Neurochemistry 3. Neuroendocrinology 4. Neuropathology 5. Neuropharmacology 6. Neurophysiology

Six Major Divisions of Biopsychology*

1. physiological psychology 2. psychopharmacology 3. neuropsychology 4. psychophysiology 5. cognitive neuroscience 6. comparative psychology

Compare the advantages and disadvantages of humans and nonhumans as subjects in biopsychological research.

Advantages of Humans: - They can follow instructions - They can report their subjective experiences - Humans are cheaper - Human brains Advantages of Animals: - The brains and behavior of nonhuman subjects are simpler than those of human subjects - Simpler nervous systems - Insights frequently arise from the comparative approach ex: Comparing the behavior of species that do not have a cerebral cortex with the behavior of species that do can provide valuable clues about cortical function. -It is possible to conduct research on laboratory animals that, for ethical reasons, is not possible with human participants -Fewer ethical restraints Disadvantages of Animals: -Only the highest standards of animal care are acceptable, the cost of maintaining an animal laboratory can be prohibitive for all but the most well-funded researchers.

Although the brains of related species differ, there are fundamental similarities:

All brains are constructed of neurons, and the neural structures in the brains of one species can usually be found in the same locations in the brains of related species

hominid (don't have to know)

An early ancestor of humans

phenotype

An organism's physical appearance, or visible traits. ex: blue eyes

Cartesian Dualism

Descartes's view that all of reality could ultimately be reduced to mind and matter.

Neuropsychologists

Neuropsychologists have shown that patients with alcohol-produced brain damage have particular difficulty in remembering recent events.

Is the adult brain a static network of neurons?

No, It is a plastic (changeable) organ that continuously grows and changes in response to the individual's genes and experiences.

exaptation

Not all existing adaptive characteristics evolved to perform their current function. Some characteristics, called exaptations, evolved to serve one function and were later co-opted to serve another. For example, bird wings are exaptations—they are limbs that initially evolved for the purpose of walking.

Human and Non human subjects

Of the nonhumans, mice and rats are the most common subjects; however, cats, dogs, and nonhuman primates are also commonly studied.

creative thinking

Often, the first step in creative thinking is spotting the weaknesses of existing ideas and the evidence on which they are based the process by which these weaknesses are recognized is called critical thinking

Homozygous

Organisms that possess two identical genes for a trait are said to be homozygous for that trait